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Design Guide Raised Floor Ac PDF
Design Guide Raised Floor Ac PDF
Underfloor
Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
convection the air rises toward the ceiling. comfortable, and provides better ventilation
Since people only breath air in a zone from and improved indoor air quality.
approximately the floor to 6 feet, the space
above this zone can be treated as a stratified The application of an underfloor air
air layer and the load components in this distribution system requires the system
zone treated differently. The result is that air designer to view the design very differently.
provided underfloor can be supplied at low It requires special consideration throughout
pressure and the energy for space the design process from design schematic
conditioning can be reduced. The ventilation stage, to load estimate, to commissioning.
air can be provided in the zone where it is This document is intended to provide the
needed most with pollutants moved gently designer with some of the guidelines to
toward the return. Additionally, adjustable follow in systems design of underfloor air
diffusers, which discharge air to small areas distribution, UFAD. Further in depth
in the space, may be adjustable by the analysis of all aspects of UFAD design can
occupant and can result in an improvement be found in the ASHRAE UFAD Design
in personal thermal comfort. This results in Guide.
a system that can be more energy efficient,
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
75°F 75°F
62°F
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
Product Overview
A second type of diffuser is used with
underfloor mixing boxes and perimeter fan
Floor plenum - The space between the
coil units. This rectangular grille is used to
access floor and the structural floor is the
provide an air curtain washing exterior
floor plenum. Using this space as an air
surfaces with warm or cold air. These grilles
distribution plenum requires some special
depend on much higher velocities and can
considerations. First the floor panel seams
be used in various lengths to match the
must provide a tight seal to prevent air
airflow requirements of the mixing box or
leakage from the plenum into the space. In
fan coil unit. Either a 0° or 15° deflection
some cases ductwork is run through the
blade can be used to provide the required
space to special variable load areas and the
throw pattern. A version of the rectangular
space may need partitioning for life safety or
grilles can also be installed in a plenum that
thermal zoning. A typical underfloor
has a control damper to provide variable
plenum is between 12 and 18 inches in
volume control to selected spaces. The
height.
rectangular grilles can also be used to allow
return air from above the floor back down to
Diffusers – Room air distribution is the underfloor mixing boxes if desired. If
accomplished through one of two types of
used directly in the pressurized plenum, a
floor diffusers. Interior spaces are controlled
standard balancing damper can be added to
through a system of adjustable passive floor
adjust airflow.
mounted diffusers. Each diffuser consists of
an adjustable swirl plate located in a
mounting basket and mounts through a hole
cut in the concrete floor panel. The basket
catches any dirt or spilled liquids and
prevents contamination of the space below
the floor. The adjustable swirl plate allows
the occupants to adjust their diffusers to a
comfortable level in their space. The
diffusers are design to achieve mixing of the
approximately 65 F degree supply air within
a very tight radius of the diffuser and at very
low velocity. Typical diffuser airflow is
about 60 to 100 CFM per diffuser.
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
Central equipment – Since this system high perimeter to interior ratios or buildings
uses a zone mixing concept and air is with many spaces, which have highly
supplied at normal unit design conditions, variable loads. Normally, the best
special air-handling equipment is not applications in new construction spaces are
required. Mixing boxes may be used with offices with open plan construction. UFAD
air-handlers in chilled water or DX type may also be used successfully in other types
systems or with many types of packaged of space with mostly internal loads and open
VAV equipment as well. Careful plan construction, as is done in some schools
psychrometric analysis should be made of spaces.
coil entering conditions to be sure the coil
will meet the required leaving air conditions The second application is in retrofit
particular to what may be higher than situations where the building characteristics
normal entering sensible heat factors. Part make overhead air distribution systems
load operating conditions in terms of coil difficult to apply. Recent trends to
control or staging should be evaluated to be rehabilitate old warehouse space into offices
sure room humidity levels can be maintained and downtown revitalization of existing
below 60% RH. Economizers should be structures may fall into this category. The
used with all system types where local issues with elevator and plumbing fixture
climate permits and should use an integrated connections must be addressed. However,
differential enthalpy type control. Because the savings and ease of providing the
of low static pressure requirements, fan sizes cabling services and air distribution under
may be lower than conventional overhead the floor may well pay for the cost of access
systems. Due to varying air volumes to the flooring. The benefits of improved thermal
zones, the use of VFD’s is recommended, comfort and indoor air quality may make the
which will also improve system efficiency. space even more attractive to tenants.
The use of high-quality filtration is
recommend since a prime consideration of A third area where underfloor distribution
the UFAD system is good indoor air quality. may make sense is in buildings with very
high ceilings and no place to run overhead
Types of Buildings air distribution. Some places of assembly
Underfloor air systems are not the answer to (meeting rooms, churches, auditoriums) fit
every building but may represent significant into this category. Again, open plan and
life cycle cost savings when applied to the internal load concentration are the keys to
appropriate buildings. successful applications.
The solution is most often related to three System benefits and cautions
different types of applications. First, UFAD (+) Thermal comfort – Since UFAD
can be applied in new construction office systems allow the occupant a degree of
space where frequent office changes are control over ones own individual climate
anticipated. Owners can benefit from the through adjustment of the diffuser; there
reduced costs of moving offices particularly is a higher degree of perceived comfort.
as related to the cost of communications Air distribution diffusers have also been
cable and wiring. In general small spaces shown to provide good head to toe
within a building are not well suited to temperature variations without
underfloor air systems. Nor does UFAD disrupting the benefits of a stratification
make good sense in a building with very zone.
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
detectors may be required on certain This standard sets green building objectives
projects. in 5 categories that offer a total of 32 credits,
from which a design can accumulate up to
(-) Condensation – Even though the 69 points. The rating system is based on the
thermal mass effects of the plenum floor number of points awarded and goes from a
slabs can have a positive effect on certified level at 29 to platinum level at 52.
sensible load swings, care needs to be Some prerequisite requirements are
exercised with control schemes that pre- required, but other than that, the points may
cool the slab and then are allowed to come from any of the 5 categories. HVAC
bring in large quantities of potentially related systems account for 40% of the
moist outdoor air. Air supplied to the possible points. The points are based on the
underfloor plenum must be kept above entire building as a system. No particular
the dewpoint temperature of the floor product or system is certified by the
slab. program but rather the building in which
they are used. Underfloor air systems have
(-) Humidity control – The impact of potential in at least seven areas, primarily
local climate and part load control within the environmental and indoor air
methodologies must be carefully quality areas.
evaluated. The impact of higher supply
air temperatures has the potential to The largest points area in the program is
negate some of the central system’s optimizing energy performance. This credit
natural latent heat removal capability. varies from 1 point for exceeding ASHRAE
Design analysis should evaluate the 90.1 energy cost budget (ECB) model by
effects of part load latent control and 15%, up to 10 points for a 60% reduction. In
control methodology to make sure room most UFAD projects the analysis would
relative humidity is kept below 60%. involve using the ASHRAE energy cost
budget to compare the underfloor system to
Sustainability (LEED™ points) the energy costs of a VAV reheat system.
There is a nationwide trend toward
constructing buildings that are more UFAD systems may have a distinct
environmentally friendly to meet green advantage in this area since they incorporate
building or sustainable design construction many potential energy saving features.
standards. The best known green building Lower fan static requirements as the result
standard is the LEED-NC™ standard issued of low plenum pressure distribution will
by the U.S. Green Building council, but reduce required fan energy. Mechanical
additional standards like the LEED-CI for cooling requirements and hence equipment
interior systems is also being prototyped. size and part load efficiency may be
The LEED (Leadership in Energy and improved due to the use of higher discharge
Environmental Design) standards are a temperatures. Economizer usage may be
voluntary rating system that rates the extended to get more free cooling hours and
building design on its environmental impact help reduce part load energy requirements.
on the community, the site, the water In general, UFAD systems have the
efficiency, the energy efficiency and the potential to show significant energy savings
indoor environmental quality for the over the required base system used in the
occupants. energy budget model.
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
The UFAD system may also qualify for comfort envelope, the system can qualify for
points under the material and resources this credit as well.
category. Within this category 3 points can
be earned for building reuse. If the project UFAD has shown itself to be an excellent
involves an existing building, the percentage system to consider on projects seeking
of building shell reuse would help obtain LEED certification. Remember, however,
these credits. UFAD systems lend that certification is based on the total
themselves very well to certain retrofit building system and the points and overall
situations where the building is being rating for a specific project are dependent on
renovated to meet the requirements of new the design of that project.
technology without destroying the current
building structure. UFAD gives the architect
a range of options to achieve these goals.
Then, depending on the location, it is
possible that the floor system used would
qualify for the regional credit if the project
were within 200 or 500 miles of the
equipment manufacturing location.
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
84°F
RETU RETURN
84°F
75°F
75°F
62°F
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
84 ° F
RETUR RETUR
84 ° F
75°F
75°F
62°F
Zone Parallel Fan Powered Passive Floor Diffusers Underfloor Fan Coil or Series
mixing Box
Fan Powered Mixing Box
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
carry a substantial portion of the load T AHU Supply is the assumed primary
into the stratification zone. air temperature into the zone-mixing
• Infiltration loads always remain box.
within the occupied zone, and
outdoor air ventilation loads always 3. Finally, solve for TReturn from the
remain a part of the central stratified zone. This is the return air
equipment coil loading. temperature to the zone mixing box,
and the air handler before outdoor air
When the load estimates have been run with mixing occurs.
appropriate UFAD adjustments made, two
loads should be compiled by the designer,
TReturn = (Qunoccupied /1.10 * CFMroom)+ Troom
QOCCUPIED for the lower mixed zone, and
QUNOCCUPIED for the stratified zone above the Equation 3
stratification height. With these loads the Where:
designer can then calculate the following TRoom is the thermostat set point for the
system design parameters: space, and
1. First, solve for airflow in the occupied CFMRoom is the airflow required in the
zone. This is the supply air delivered occupied zone.
by the underfloor diffusers (the zone
mixing box total airflow). DON’T OVER AIR THE ZONE - When
working with Equation 1, the space set point
CFM room = Qoccupied / (1.10 * (Troom – T plenum supply)) temperature, TRoom, can be raised up closer
to the temperature at the stratification height
Equation 1 (approximately 75 F) to more accurately
determine the actual minimum airflow
Where: required to meet the occupied zone load.
TRoom is the thermostat set point for Similarly, in Equation 3, TRoom should use
the space, and the same higher value, remembering that
with UFAD systems and the partial
TPlenum Supply is assumed discharge displacement ventilation effect, return air
air temperature in the plenum temperatures are quite a bit higher than the
space set point temperature.
2. Solve for CFM primary air required. Other load-related concerns come from air
(This is the air supply from the air leakage out of the plenum through
handler and used in zone box construction gaps, leaks between the floor
selection) tiles directly cooling the occupied zone, and
radiant and convection cooling by the cooler
Equation 2 floor panels and structural sub-floor. The
last two lower the room CFM, and if not
CFMZone-Box = Qoccupied / (1.10 * (Troom – T AHU supply))
accounted for, will lead to undesirable zone
over airing and increased “too cold”
T Room is the thermostat set point for complaints from the occupants in the space.
the space, and
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
quantity of air supplied to the zone. These ventilation effectiveness might cause a
concepts are not as clear-cut as with designer to lower overall outdoor air
overhead systems because UFAD allows the quantities, it is recommended to retain the
occupants to easily adjust the diffusers of values derived using the assumed 100
either system to affect airflow volume and percent ventilation effectiveness found in
even pattern or direction in some instances. ASHRAE Standard 62, Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Working
Since the supply air is introduced into the with either the multiple space equation or
occupied mixing zone it has to be warmer the new ventilation rate formulas in
than traditional systems, around 61-65º F, or Standard 62-2004, you will find minimal
only 8-13º F below the usual space cooling CFM reductions for the increased ventilation
set point. To avoid comfort complaints the effectiveness (not addressed yet in
air must mix quickly into the room and not ASHRAE 62, but believed to be above 1.0
project outside the occupied zone so that the and below 1.2).
stratification zone remains intact. Tests
have shown an ideal airflow of 0.6 CFM/sqft CORE vs. PERIMETER
for good mixing, while maintaining the UFAD systems work best with spaces like
stratification height at 6 feet, and keeping core areas and open perimeters with limited
the room temperature gradient below 5º F. glass that have low load variations. These
zones tend to be larger and constant volume
designs will provide the most cost effective
installations with superior IAQ. When load
concentrations increase and/or high load
variability is present, CFM delivery to the
space can increase significantly due to the
low delta temperature of UFAD systems,
and adding VAV equipment will increase
system cost. Perimeter offices with high
glazing areas, conference rooms, and areas
with large equipment loads are examples of
zones where use of dedicated traditional
systems make the most sense. The resulting
Figure 12 – UFAD Room hybrid design makes the most of both
Temperature Gradient traditional mixing ventilation systems with
lower cooling supply air temperatures for
IAQ BENEFITS limited zones, while retaining UFAD
Real benefits from the stratification zone benefits for the base design.
and partial displacement ventilation effect
include eliminating short-circuiting to the
return registers and better heat removal, Diffuser Selection and Layout
especially of localized loading when returns
are located near the load. The overall NOT LIKE OVERHEAD
upward movement of the air within the room Since the occupant is much closer to the
has shown reduced total particulate counts diffuser in a UFAD system it must be a high
and improved local air change indexes in induction design to quickly even out the
recent studies. While such improvements in space temperature in the surrounding area
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
Swirl
Not Not interior zones can be handled with the same
recommended recommended equipment down to 500 CFM primary
Active Linear Bar Spaces with Conference
(fan-forced) or tighter Rooms
airflow.
Floor temperature Perimeter,
grilles tolerances Htg & Clg
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
100cfm/person at a 10° FΔT from room to The temperature/velocity profiles are shown
discharge air temperature. System analysis on figure 14.
proves that with many projects, the cfm was
too great causing over cooling, and with the At the perimeter, or in conference rooms,
10° FΔT, difficult to control humidity. As a where higher cooling demand requires
result of this analysis, many current project considerably more air than in normal interior
designs have elected to reduce the supply zones, there are other considerations to
temperature in the underfloor plenum from review. With the typical supply air
66° F to 62° F and the supply airflow rate temperature of 65° F, the quantity of air may
from 1cfm/ft2 to 0.8 cfm/ft2 or less. be such that the diffuser throw may create
unwanted mixing in the upper part of the
The optimal airflow/delivery rate of the room.
35BF-R, swirl diffuser is 15° FΔT and 80
cfm per diffuser. This tested performance Figure 13 shows the performance of a
ensures the ideal throw of 6’ within the typical rectangular floor grille in a perimeter
occupied zone. Temperature and velocity zone. By lowering the diffuser discharge
profiles for the 35BF-R, swirl diffuser, have temperature, we can reduce the throw and
been measured with an anemometer avoid affecting the stratification in the
/temperature “tree” in accordance with interior zones.
ASHRAE Standard 113-90.
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
• Floor slab mass can allow for content during humid summer conditions,
unoccupied thermal storage to be off-coil temperatures must be lower than the
used later for occupied period load supply air temperatures used with UFAD
leveling benefit. diffusers. To warm these temperatures back
up, return air is routed back into the supply
air stream, either at the zone air terminal or
at the supply fan housing, bypassing the
cooling coil. For the zone terminal design to
work, warm air is usually ducted back from
a ceiling return plenum. Placing ceiling
return registers along the exterior walls
brings an added benefit of pulling in any
thermal plumes that develop under high
solar loading conditions, reducing zone
cooling load in the summer and increasing
the first stage heating effectiveness in the
Figure 15 – Carpet used to winter. If active diffusers are used,
prevent plenum leakage additional floor registers are provided to
allow room air to reenter the plenum,
maintaining supply diffuser CAV feature
Return Air Design
when reduced loads lower the supply airflow
entering the plenum. Remember, if room air
MAINTAINING DISPLACEMENT is returned back into the zone without
BENEFITS flowing through the main cooling coil,
The key design elements for the return side cooling load credits indicated in the loads
of the air distribution system are to help section discussed above need to be lowered
create the partial displacement ventilation or eliminated all together.
effect and more directly remove local high
cooling loading conditions. Placing return
registers on the ceiling or high sidewall, Ductwork Design
coupled with the stratification layer created
by the short throw supply diffusers in the
One of the main benefits of UFAD is
floor, creates the desired overall upward
deleting ductwork associated with air
vertical flow of the air within the room.
distribution downstream of the zone
When a space has high cooling loads like a
terminals and using an airflow plenum
copier or a cluster of data terminals, place
underneath a raised access flooring system
the return directly above the area to
for low-pressure distribution to the room
effectively capture a large portion of the
diffusers. All the ductwork from the air-
heat. How much will depend on the height
handling unit to the zone terminals is laid
of the ceiling and nature of the supply
out and sized using the same methods used
airflow in the immediate area.
on traditional mixing ventilation systems.
This applies to both supply and return ducts,
RECIRCULATING RETURN AIR
as well as the outdoor air ductwork. There
Variations in return airflow occur when
is little which is special about UFAD
space humidity control is critical or a CAV
systems for duct mains and branches.
plenum design is used, either pressurized or
neutral. To control the supply air moisture
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
sleeve with the appropriate smoke and/or HEATING INTERIORS WITH CENTRAL
fire damper installed per code. EQUIPMENT
Smaller single-story buildings are often able
Heating System Design to switchover during the peak heating times
to full heating from the central HVAC
CENTRAL SYSTEM OR HYBRID equipment. When this happens, normal
How we choose to heat the perimeter zones control strategies for the zone terminals will
depends primarily on the magnitude of the control mixing of the warmer SAT with
load and whether or not simultaneous recirculated plenum air and adjust terminal
heating and cooling is required. The need fan speed to control plenum pressure so that
for continuous cooling in too many interior the “cooling” diffusers will now operate
zones makes it hard to switch over the properly as heating diffusers.
central equipment to heating. If the
wintertime temperatures drop below 40ºF
and the building perimeter has more than 1/4 Control Systems
glass area, increased SAT’s will be required
to counteract the high heating loads and UFAD systems rely on proper design and
downdrafts along the outside walls. In operation of the controls like any other
either of these cases it is recommended that system. Listed below are concepts and
a separate heating system be designed for concerns that, if incorporated into the
the perimeter zones, creating a hybrid design, will result in maintaining the
system with UFAD heating being reserved stratification layer and its many benefits:
for the interior. • Most UFAD systems use pressurized
plenums and CAV passive diffusers,
PERIMETER FAN-COILS WITH LINEAR requiring some type of pressurization
BAR GRILLES control on either the zone mixing
High heating loads along the outside walls box or central equipment.
often require higher SAT’s than interior • Zone control with CAV diffusers
spaces need for morning warm-up or requires adjustment of the supply air
offsetting roof loads, so selecting zone fan- temperature at the air terminal. This
coils and locating them in the perimeter is best accomplished using Parallel
plenums is an ideal solution. Using either Fan Powered Mixing Boxes
hot water or electric heating coils allows (PFPMB) connected to the zone
local boosting of the zone SAT above those ceiling plenum return air that mixes
obtained by recirculating ceiling plenum air with the primary air.
that is traditionally stage one heating for • Resetting Supply Air Temperature
light load conditions. Use of a linear bar up under light loads allows
grille style diffuser is recommended to additional hours of outdoor air
spread the air out along the perimeter wall economizer cooling, especially in
and offset the downdrafts that develop. drier climates.
During summer cooling this style of grill is • Nighttime pre-cooling, done
also beneficial in treating the higher cooling correctly to avoid potential
loads that are typical along the perimeter of condensation on the plenum
most buildings. surfaces, can offset or delay thermal
decay of the zone SAT.
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
but not below the user defined control may be configured to provide
minimum ventilation set point at constant volume heating for a
point 5 (may be set to zero), while constant supply of heated air to the
the fan provides recirculated air to zone.
maintain the plenum pressure set
point. Morning Warm-up
• Upon receiving a morning warm-up
Heating Operation signal generated by the air source
• Upon receiving a signal for heating controller, the primary air damper
and heated air is being provided from will modulate to maintain the
the air source, the system heating- maximum heating plenum pressure
mode is automatically in effect. set point if the zone temperature is
• If the zone temperature is above the below the occupied heating set point.
occupied heating setpoint, the This allows a maximum quantity of
primary air damper modulates to warm primary air to be delivered to
maintain the minimum heating the zone. As the zone’s temperature
plenum pressure set point. The fan rises, the plenum pressure is reduced
operates at minimum speed. to the minimum heating plenum
• Should the zone temperature fall, the pressure. The terminal fan operates
plenum pressure will increase up to at minimum speed.
the user-defined maximum heating
plenum pressure set point. The
Plenum Pressure
(Maximum Cooling)
2 1
Maximum Fan Airflow Primary Airflow
5
Warmer 4
Plenum Pressure
(Minimum Cooling)
Cool Plenum Temperature
Minimum Ventilation 4
5 Min. Fan Airflow
LEGEND
NTFC – Nighttime Free Cooling
--------- Air Source Supplying Heated Air
Air Source Supplying Cool Air
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
Warmer 4 3 2 1
Maximum Primary Airflow
5
Maximum Fan Airflow
Occupied Control
Setpoint
(Configured Heating)
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
32
complaints will be reduced when they are Tests have shown an ideal airflow of
given some individual control of their local 0.6 cfm/sqft for good mixing while
environment. maintaining the stratification height
at 6 feet and keeping the room
RECOMMENDATIONS temperature gradient below 5º F.
6. Carefully run loads for both Qoccupied
and Qunoccupied, and determine if load
1. Do not eliminate the suspended
credits can be taken; equipment size
ceiling. Shallow up the ceiling
reduction will benefit the job costs.
plenum and use it as a return air
7. Select diffusers so that T50 throws
plenum, gaining additional airflow
are around 4-5 feet so as not to
benefits from assigning greater
disturb the stratification zone. Use
amounts of cooling load directly to
CAV passive swirls in the interior
the return air.
and uniformly loaded large perimeter
2. Keep plenum depths below 18 inches
spaces.
to avoid potential requirement for
8. Hybrid designs, using conventional
underfloor sprinklers.
VAV in high load/variable load
3. Do not use too many zoning barriers
situations, maximizes the benefits of
in the plenum or you will restrict the
the lower AHU supply air
ease of future rezoning and running
temperatures and keeps summertime
of service utilities to various points
humidity concerns under control.
of use.
9. Placing returns over heat producing
4. Using multiple vertical drops avoids
equipment and/or at the outside wall
air highways, while meeting the 50-
when high solar loads exist will
60 foot guideline for maximum
maximize benefit of the partial
travel to the farthest diffuser.
displacement ventilation effect.
5. Do not include excess safety factors;
10. DDC controls should be considered
airflows need to closely match load
as a basis of design for realizing true
requirements within the occupied
UFAD benefits.
zone so as not to over air the system.
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Design Guide to Underfloor Air Distribution
References
Bauman, Fred S., 2003. “Underfloor Air Distribution (UFAD) Design Guide. American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) International and ULI, the Urban Land
Institute. 1999. “What do office tenants want”.
IFMA. 1997. Benchmark III International Facility Management Association, Houston Tex.
ASHRAE. 1990. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 113-1990, Method of testing for room air
distribution. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2001b. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-2001, Ventilation for acceptable indoor air
quality. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc.
ASHRAE. 2001c. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2001, Energy standard for buildings except
low-rise residential buildings. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
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