SPE 155973

Intermediate Casing Collapse Induced by Casing Wear in High-Temperature

and High-Pressure Wells
Z. Shen, SPE, and F.E. Beck, SPE, Texas A&M University

Copyright 2012, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE International Production and Operations Conference and Exhibition held in Doha Qatar, 14–16 May 2012.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
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Abstract

Casing integrity is extremely important to downhole zonal isolation and preventing well instability. The reduction of casing
strength not only occurs in directional drilling, but is also observed in vertical drilling with a slight deviation angle.
Deteriorated casing in most hydrocarbon wells is reported from the onset of casing wear by the presence of friction force
during the rotation of drillpipe. The friction on the casing wall causes the reduction of casing strength. Furthermore, the
combination of corrosive drilling fluids with the rotation of drillpipe could dramatically degrade the casing strength.
Although casing burst and collapse strength have been emphasized by many researchers, little research has presented the
mechanical response of the worn casing. The studies that do exist on casing wear are not relevant for field applications
because they do not consider the effects of high temperature and the surrounding formation. Therefore, it is urgent to obtain a
proper stress profile of worn casing in order to reveal the true downhole information.

Based on the boundary superposition principle, we propose an analytical solution for the worn casing model that accounts for
the contribution of thermal stress. We focus on the stress evolution in worn casing from the effects of high temperature and
the confining formation. The predicted results show that the higher thermal loads largely increase the stress concentration of
the worn casing, subsequently weakening the casing strength. The finite element solutions indicate that the radial stress in
worn casing is not impacted as much as the hoop stress. The remaining part of the worn casing is subject to compression
failure, along with an increase of the burst pressure or the elevated temperature.

Introduction

There is a need for determining stress profiles in and around worn casing in cased hole in terms of casing integrity. Casing
wear is considered a serious well instability problem, and it causes casing wall reduction because the rotating of drillpipe
during the drilling process creates significant contact forces. Casing wall reduction can cause stress concentration at worn
locations and results in new burst and collapse resistance of the remaining casing. In the presence of corrosive fluids in the
well, the loss of casing thickness will be accelerated because of the chemical reaction destroying the surface of casing.

Casing wear is not only a problem related to directional or extended wells; it also occurs in vertical wells because the contact
pressure generated on the inner surface of the casing becomes much harder to control during the penetration into deeper
formation. Casing burst and collapse pressures depend upon the thickness of the casing wall; calculation of the burst and
collapse pressure is given in Appendix A.

To extract hydrocarbons from deeper formation, a growing interest is to understand the stress distribution after casing wear.
Worn casing is under the high risk of collapse in high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells due to large variations of
temperature and pressure. High temperature can bring significant pressure increase in sealed annuli, causing further failures
of the casing string or the production liner (Oudeman and Kerem 2004). As shown in the Fig. 1, the upper cased zone is
heated by the produced fluids from the lower zones since T2 is larger than T1.
2 SPE 155973

A thorough understanding of the true stress profile of worn casing allows for economic and safe casing design.
Unfortunately, the knowledge of casing’s mechanical behavior after casing wear is insufficient from previous studies. A
limited number of researchers have worked to investigate stress responses in worn casing (Song et al. 1992; Wu and Zhang
2005; Hall and Malloy 2005). Other studies concentrated more on the relation of wear depth and contact force through
experimental tests, with each wear depth recorded with a given contact force.

Fig. 1—A typical oil production in a deep well.

To our knowledge, none of the studies consider the mechanical behavior of worn casing in a cemented well. Through our
study, the predicted results show that the effect of the formation largely impacts the stress behavior of the worn casing.
Furthermore, without considering the temperature change in the worn casing, the stress concentration in the worn part is
apparently underestimated.

We describe the stress concentration of casing after wear in a cemented well. The traditional Lame equations for cylinder are
weakened by the lack of the temperature effect, and our direct solution considers that the effects of temperature variation on
worn casing are solved under the assumption of boundary superposition. The results show that the elevated temperature
intends to expand the worn casing and results in further compression hoop stress. However, the casing uncemented from
formation will suffer from tension when the burst pressure is applied in the wellbore. This reported study aims to establish
the proper understanding of the mechanical responses for worn casing in HPHT wells.

Previous studies

In the past decade, casing wall reduction has been addressed in terms of casing corrosion and casing wear. It was determined
that drilling in sand formations causes casing erosion randomly along the pipe, and casing corrosion was categorized into
several types. Decarburization is a hydrogen-carbon attack of a component of any alloy under high temperature. Galvanic
corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact during fluid movement. This corrosion is typical when cement
sheath does not exist between the two surface casings as a result of the active macro-corrosion cells. Biological corrosion
happens as a result of activities in living organisms. This type of corrosion takes place in temperature ranges of 30 to 180˚F,
pH measurements of 0 to 11, and pressures up to 15,000 psi (Talabani et al. 2000).

The rotation process could uniformly reduce the casing string wall or form a crescent-shaped pattern wear. Some researchers
focus on the wear volume of casing through laboratory measurements (Bradley and Fontenot 1975). Casing is categorized
into wear by tool joint, tripping wear by drillpipe, and wear by wireline. Tripping wear and wireline wear are not predicted to
be as significant as tool joint wear. Casing wear by tool joints is emphasized is determined by many factors, including
rotating time and speed, mud properties, casing strength, and dogleg severity.

The stress concentration around the worn part has been explored by some researchers. Song et al. (1992) focus on the rupture
capacity of casing after casing wear. A solution to hoop stress at the surfaces of worn casing was built by dividing the worn
casing into three superimposable shapes. The induced hoop stress of worn casing was solved using the superposition
principle in a bipolar coordinate. Others argued that the casing wear model should be built assuming the existence of slotted
ring in the casing wall (Wu and Zhang 2005). To this point, the resistance of tangential stress is decreased because of the loss
of some casing thickness, as well as extra pressure acting on the surface of the slotted ring. The stress under the worn surface
was also investigated by some researchers (Rainforth1999). These experimental results indicate that the area below the wear
surface experiences usual strain under stress concentration. However, all of these solutions are weakened by a lack of
accounting for the effect of cement as well as thermal stress.
SPE 155973 3

Other researchers investigate maximum wear groove depth based on the contact pressure applied on the inner wall of casing
(Hall and Malloy 2005). Various-size drillstrings were used to predict the groove depth of crescent-shaped casing wear as a
function of time. The casing wear was tested in single, sharp, and the blunt groove forms. Another study emphasized the
alleviation and control of casing wear through well operations, such as dogleg severity control and sealant application in the
worn sections (Calhoun et al. 2010).

For a casing without wear, its radial stress and hoop stress can be evaluated using Eqs. 1 and 2. The casing is predicted to
experience large tension when the burst pressure is applied on the inner wall of casing.

pw rw  ro  po ro  rw 
2 2 2 2
r   1    1   . ..................................................................................................... (1)
ro  rw  r  ro  rw  r 2 
2 2 2 2 2

pw rw
2
 ro 2  pr
2
 rw 2 
  1  2   2 o o 2 1  2  . ................................................................................................. (2)
ro  rw
2 2  r  ro  rw  r 
 

Analytical model

Casing wear has become a critical problem in directional and extended drilling. It causes significant casing strength
reduction, thereby possibly resulting in a tangential collapse and radial crack of the wellbore system. A casing wear model is
insufficient without considering the temperature change in the development of deep wells. In fact, the typical Lame equation
does not consider the temperature effect. First, we propose a casing model without wear by considering the thermal stress.
Then, we use the boundary superposition for analyzing the casing wear model.

The force equilibrium of a wellbore consists of normal forces, shear forces, and body forces. In the cylindrical coordinate
system, these are expressed as follows (Fjaer et al. 2008).

 r 1  r  r   
   f r  0 . ..................................................................................................................... (3)
r r  r

After neglecting the effect of shear force and body force, Eq. 4 is obtained from Eq. 3.

 r  r   
  0 ............................................................................................................................................................. (4)
r r
Eqs. 5to7 present the stress-strain relations for homogenous, isotropic materials.

 r  T 
1
 r   z    . ................................................................................................................................... (5)
E
   T      z   r  . .................................................................................................................................... (6)
1
E
 z  T   z      r  . .................................................................................................................................... (7)
1
E
Plain strain is applied in the cased hole because the dimension of the well in the axial direction is very large compared with
the dimensions of the well in the other two directions. Therefore, the strain of a normal x-y plain and the shear strains  xz
and  yz are assumed to be zero. The relations are expressed in Eq. 8.
 z   xz   yz  0 . .............................................................................................................................................................. (8)

To express the axial stress using radial stress and hoop stress, Eq. 9 is obtained after substituting Eq. 8 into Eq. 7.
4 SPE 155973

 z  ET    r    . ................................................................................................................................................ (9)

Thus, the relation of strain-stress in Eqs. 5 and 6 can be rearranged as shown in Eqs. 10 and 11.

r 
1
E
   
 r 1  2  1     1  ET . ......................................................................................................... (10)

 
     1  2   1   r  1  ET . ........................................................................................................ (11)
1
E

Solving Eqs.10 and 11 for  r ,   yields the following.

E (1  v) r  Ev   1   ET

r  . .................................................................................................................... (12)
(1  v)(1  2v)
E (1  v)   Ev r  1   ET
  . .................................................................................................................... (13)
(1  v)(1  2v)

The relations between displacements and strains are expressed in Eqs. 13 and 14.

u
r  . ............................................................................................................................................................................. (14)
r
u
   . ................................................................................................................................................................................ (15)
r
For simplicity, the minimum horizontal stress is equal to maximum stress, and both temperature and pressure are applied in
the system. The boundary conditions in the wellbore are presented in Eqs. 16 to 19.

r  rw ,  pw . ................................................................................................................................................................... (16)
r  ro ,  po . .................................................................................................................................................................... (17)
r  rw , T  Tw . ................................................................................................................................................................... (18)
r  ro , T  To . .................................................................................................................................................................... (19)

To solve for the stress profile in the cylinder system, the relations of stress-strain and strain-displacement, as well as the
boundary conditions, are applied into Eq. 4. This application results in the general expressions of stresses as presented in Eqs.
20 to 22.

2( po ro  p w rw )(1  v)  ET (ro  rw ) 2( po  p w )(1  v)ro rw  ETrw (ro  rw )

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
r  
2(ro  rw )(1  v)(1  2v) 2(1  v)(ro  rw )r 2
2 2 2 2

ET
2
rw
 (1  )
2(1  v) r2 . ……. (20)

2( po ro  p w rw )(1  v)  ET (ro  rw ) 2( po  p w )(1  v)ro rw  ETrw (ro  rw )

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
  
2(ro  rw )(1  v)(1  2v) 2(1  v)(ro  rw )r 2
2 2 2 2

ET
2
r
 (1  w2 )
2(1  v) r . ……. (21)
SPE 155973 5

4v( po ro  pw rw )(1  v)  ET (ro  rw ) ET (1  2v)

2 2 2 2
z   . ………………………………………….. (22)
2(ro  rw )(1  v)(1  2v)
2 2
(1  v)

Casing wear and boundary superposition

Because the concept of stress profile for a crescent-shaped body is limited, it would be difficult to determine the stress profile
around the worn portion using a direct principle. The superposition theory is widely acceptable in the analysis of stress
concentration resulting from small particles in contact zones. Boundary conditions are discretized into several virtual parts
(Mudumba 2005). Instead of solving for this problem directly, the hoop stress at the worn area will be analyzed in two virtual
parts.

In these virtual regions, the burst pressure acting in the worn part is considered as the superposition of two parts, as shown in
Figs. 2 to 4. The thickness variation after wear is defined using Eqs. 22 and 23.

h1  ro  rw . ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… (22)
h2  ro  rnew . ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. (23)

Fig. 2—The intermediate casing is worn by a tooljoint with a radius of r 2, and the worn area is indicated by a red line around Point A. The hoop
stress concentration is induced by the geometry change resulting from casing wall reduction. P1 and P2 represent the burst pressure in the worn
surfaces and the integrity surfaces separately. Because the burst pressure is always perpendicular to the tangential line of its arc, they apparently
have an identical value within a different radial direction.
6 SPE 155973

Fig. 3—Induced hoop stress in Virtual Part 1. Fig. 4—Induced hoop stress in Virtual Part 2.

Before casing wear: Point A is in the first virtual structure of Part 1,which is located inside the casing wall. Therefore, the
hoop stress of   1 at Point A with respect to r  (rw , ro ) can be calculated using Eq. 21.

After casing wear: The wall behind Point A, as shown in Fig. 2, is the thinnest part in the entire casing. The radius of r new at
Point A implies that the thickness of casing decreased from h1 to h2. Point A in the second virtual structure of Part 2 is on the
boundary of the new arc. The effect of the crescent-worn shape will generate an additional stress of   using Eq. 24.

2( po (r2  h2 ) 2  p w r2 )(1  v)  ET ((r2  h2 ) 2  r2 ) ET

2 2 2
rw
   (1  )
2((r2  h2 ) 2  r2 )(1  v)(1  2v)
2
2(1  v) r2
2( po  p w )(1  v)(r2  h2 ) 2 r2  ETr2 ((r2  h2 ) 2  r2 )
2 2 2 2 2

2(1  v)((r2  h2 ) 2  r2 )r 2
2
. …………………………. (24)

Thus, the hoop stress in the wear part can be obtained from Eq. 25.
  ,wear    1    . ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. (25)

Finite element analysis

Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computer-based numerical technique for describing the behavior of engineering structures.
It is available to the oil and gas industry to perform pre job designs for primary jobs or post-modified jobs for remedial
actions. In the finite element method, a structure, such as a casing, is broken down into small elements composed of a series
of nodes. All the deflections and stresses on nodes are first obtained on their local coordinates after a set of governing
equations assigned to each element of the casing string are solved. These solutions are then placed into a larger set of
equations that describe the behavior of the entire structure. Normally, the larger system and finer elements will involve much
more computation time and iteration steps; an additional optimization approach should be used to minimize these factors.

Casing wall reduction decreases the tangential resistance of casing strength. To evaluate the casing stress evolution under its
worn shape, the thermal stress of casing is simulated as a time-dependent process. The material properties in the model are
listed in Tables 1and2. The dimension of this wellbore includes a casing diameter of 7 in. To be consistent with the reality of
oil fields, cohesion force and friction angle of cement and rock are used in the simulations. The cohesion force is the force of
attraction between the molecules of the same substance, and the friction angle measures the ability of rock or cement to resist
the shear stresses.
SPE 155973 7

TABLE 1—GEOMETRIC AND GEOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES

ID, in. OD, in. Elastic modulus, psi Poisson ratio Cohesion force, psi Friction angle, ˚
Casing 6 7 2.80E+07 0.3 Not applicable Not applicable
Cement 7 9 3.00E+06 0.24 8.00E+03 30
sheath
Rock 9 60 6.00E+06 0.2 6.00E+03 30

TABLE 2—THERMALPROERTIES
Density, Conductivity,btu/ft- Heat capacity, Thermal expansion,
3 –1
kg/m hr-F Btu/lb-F F
Casing 7.0E3 7.2 0.12 1.8E–05
Cement 1.8E3 0.6 0.5 1.2E–05
sheath
Rock 2.0E3 0.48 0.4 1.4E–05

The reduction factor of worn casing is calculated using Eq. 26. The wear shape is assumed with a crescent shape, and the
original casing thickness is 0.5 in. It has a 0.1-in. reduction after casing wear.

hinitial  hreduction
RF  .......................................................................................................................................... (26)
hinitial

Table 3 lists the profile of fluid temperature and pressure under different scenarios. To evaluate the stress concentration in
worn casing, five base models are built with either different temperatures or pressures of fluid in the model. For simplicity,
the maximum horizontal stress of rock is equivalent to the minimum horizontal stress.

Discussion of the following results will be confined to one well with different temperature and pressure profiles, and the well
is circulated with fluids each hour in all cases. A series of simulations are performed to evaluate the stress concentration of
the worn casing. The burst pressure and temperature of the fluids are chosen to provide the needed input data for a sensitivity
analysis of the model. The plotted results in all cases are only shown in the casing and cement part.

TABLE 3—PROFILEOFFLUIDTEMPERATUREAND BURST PRESSURE

Fluid T,F Rock T,F Initial T,F Burst pressure, psi Rock in-situ stress, psi

Case 1 350 350 350 12,500 11,000

Case 2 450 350 350 12,500 11,000
Case 3 450 350 350 13,500 11,000
Case 4 450 350 350 14,500 11,000
Case 5 450 350 350 13,500 0

Case 1: The identical temperature profile of fluid and rock implies that no heat transfer occurs in the cased well because of
the energy balance. The maximum radial stress is obtained around the interface of casing and cement. The predicted radial
stresses indicate little difference in the worn part compared with those in the unworn part, as shown in Fig. 5.

The burst strength in worn casing has been reported by some researchers. The maximum hoop stress occurs at the inner
diameter of the worn section (Wu and Zhang 2005). Without considering the confining effect of cement and rock, the casing
burst stress in the worn part will be overestimated. This occurs because the burst pressure in uncemented hole causes the
tension effect when the casing stands along. Fig. 6 indicates that higher compression hoop stress occurs around the worn
area. It likely causes the yield of worn casing or its compression failure.
8 SPE 155973

Fig. 5—Radial stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 1. Fig. 6—Hoop stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 1.

Case 2: The fluid temperature is set to 450˚F, which is much higher than the rock temperature of 350˚F. The thermal stress
will take place until the heat transfer achieves its balance. The predicted results in this case are also recorded at 1 hour. Fig. 7
indicates that radial stress is increased by one-third by the temperature effect; although, it is unlikely to cause the yield by this
amount.

The elevated casing temperature induced by hotter fluid and high operating pressure acting on the casing wall results in the
expansion of the worn casing while constrained by the rock. The predicted results indicate that the constraint expansion
causes a further compression effect to casing-cement. The maximum hoop stress, as shown inFig. 8, is three times larger than
in Case 1; this value is beyond the strength limit of some casing types, such as J55 and K55. It is concluded that the worn
casing in HPHT wells suffers from a high risk of compression failure in a tangential direction.

Fig. 7—Radial stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 2. Fig. 8—Hoop stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 2.

Case 3: This case is simulated in a same temperature profile used in Case 2, but it has an inner pipe operating pressure of
13,500 psi. The higher burst pressure, as expected, causes larger compression in the radial direction of casing to rock, as
shown in Fig. 9.

The result obtained from Fig. 10 indicates that the larger burst pressure leads to a reduction of maximum hoop stress. This
hoop stress is decreased from –73,791 to –68,671 psi. This is because the combination of the high temperature and constraint
expansion effects causes an extremely large compression tangential load on the remaining part of the worn casing, whereas
the increased burst pressure intends to expand the worn casing. Although the casing operating with a higher burst pressure
can significantly reduce the maximum hoop stress in the worn part, it still risks failure under the large absolute value of the
compression hoop stress.
SPE 155973 9

Fig. 9—Radial stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 3. Fig. 10—Hoop stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 3.

Case 4: The temperature profile in this case is identical those in Cases 2 and 3, but the burst pressure increases up to 14,500
psi. The predicted results from Fig.11 clearly show the maximum radial stress slightly increasing along with the rising burst
pressure. As expected, the maximum hoop occurs in the remaining portion of the worn part, and it decreases by 5,000 psi, as
indicated in Fig.12.

Cases 2 to 4 present stress profiles in the worn casing under different burst pressures. A higher stress concentration is
predicted in all cases, but the risk of compression casing cracking in the worn part declines because of the face of the burst
pressure decreasing the compression hoop stress.

Fig. 11—Radial stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 4. Fig. 12—Hoop stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 4.

Case 5: To evaluate stress behavior in the worn casing-cement by the effect of rock, the in-situ stress at the boundary of rock
is assumed to be zero in this run. Fig.13 depicts the radial stress profile of the worn casing, and the maximum value occurs on
the inner wall of the casing, which is different from Cases 1 to 4.

Tension failure on the worn casing is observed when the burst pressure is higher than its confined pressure. Although the
maximum hoop stress in this case, as shown in Fig. 14, is still predicted in the location of the worn area, it reveals that the
worn part will suffer from extreme tension. The predicted results from Fig.14 are consistent with this reported analysis
without considering the constraint expansion induced by rock.
10 SPE 155973

Fig. 13—Radial stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 5. Fig. 14—Hoop stress inside the worn casing-cement in Case 5.

Discussion

The induced stress of worn casing without considering the effect of rock is usually evaluated as unconstrained tension. The
reality of casing in a well is that it is most likely surrounded by the adjacent rocks. Not only does the burst pressure act on the
casing wall, but the in-situ stress generated by rock also constrains the expansion of casing. Subsequently, hoop stress in the
portion of worn casing could be under compression by the effect of the rocks, which is dependent on horizontal in-situ
stresses.

An analytical solution evaluates the casing wear model in an HPHT well using boundary superposition. The worn casing
suffers from the expected stress concentration around the worn part, and the radial stress shows the compression behavior in
all cases. The burst pressure results in tension inside worn casing without considering the effect of formation, whereas the
existence of the formation will confine the expansion of worn casing. The hoop stress of the worn areas depends upon the
effect of the formation and it will increase sharply with the increase of burst pressure and elevation of temperature.

Nomenclature

r radial stress
 hoop stress
z axial stress
 i r , , z strain
rw inner radius
ro outer radius
pw burst pressure
po collapse pressure
Ym yield stress of material
t casing thickness
D casing outer diameter
F1 , F2 , F3 American Petroleum Institute (API) coefficient for casing collapse criteria
fr body force
T temperature difference
E Young’s modulus
 Poisson’s ratio
u displacement
SPE 155973 11

References
Bradley, W. B. and J. E. Fontenot (1975). "The Prediction and Control of Casing Wear (includes associated papers 6398 and
6399 )." SPE Journal of Petroleum Technology(02).
Calhoun, W. M., S. P. Langdon, et al. (2010). Casing Wear Prediction and Management in Deepwater Wells. SPE Deepwater
Drilling and Completions Conference. Galveston, Texas, USA, Society of Petroleum Engineers.
E.Fjaer, R. M. H. (2004). petroleum related rock mechanics. Oxford Ox5,UK, Elsevier.
Hall, R. W. and K. P. Malloy (2005). Contact Pressure Threshold: An Important New Aspect of Casing Wear. SPE
Production Operations Symposium. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Society of Petroleum Engineers.
mudumba (2005). Stress concentration resulting from small particles in a contact zone, University of Kentucky. Master.
Oudeman, P. and M. Kerem (2004). Transient Behavior of Annular Pressure Build-up in HP/HT Wells. Abu Dhabi
International Conference and Exhibition. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Rainforth, W. M. (1999). "Microstructual evolution at the worn surface: a comparison of metals and ceramics." Wear.
Song, J. S., J. Bowen, et al. (1992). The Internal Pressure Capacity of Crescent-Shaped Wear Casing. SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference. New Orleans, Louisiana, 1992 Copyright 1992, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference.
Talabani, S., B. Atlas, et al. (2000). "An alternate approach to downhole corrosion mitigation." Journal of Petroleum Science
and Engineering26(1–4): 41-48.
Wu, J. and M. Zhang (2005). Casing Burst Strength After Casing Wear. SPE Production Operations Symposium. Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma.

Appendix A
Burst pressure
The burst criteria for casing design are designed to guarantee the integrity of casing burst resistance. Besides the API
standard shown in Eq. A1, other researchers propose the initial yield burst standard, the full yield burst standard, and the
rupture burst standard (Wu and Zhang 2005). The initial stress criteria in Eq. A2 emphasize the casing initial yield at the
inner wall of casing. Eq. A3 describes the casing yield across the entire casing wall under the full yield criteria. The rupture
criterion is based on casing ductile and tensile failure, as shown in Eq. A4.

1.75Ym t
p API  . ................................................................................................................................................... (A1)
D
1.75Ym 2t t
pIY  (1  ) . .................................................................................................................................... (A2)
3 D D
1.75Ym 2t t
p FY  (1  ) . ................................................................................................................................... (A3)
3 D D
1.75Ym t
p DR  . .................................................................................................................................................... (A4)
D t
Collapse pressure
API presents four types of collapse criteria for casing collapse design, which are indicated in Eqs. A5 to A8. They comprise
yield, plastic, transition, and elastic. The proper selection of each standard depends on the casing wall thickness and diameter.
To overcome the limitation of the elastic-plastic boundary under the API yield criteria, Tamano(2005) proposes a general
yield pressure equation, shown in Eq. A9.
D / t 1
pY  2Ym . ............................................................................................................................................... (A5)
(D / t)2
F
p p  Ym ( 1  F2 )  F 3 . .................................................................................................................................... (A6)
d /t
E 1
pE  2 . ............................................................................................................................. (A7)
1  v 2 D / t ( D / t  1) 2
F
pT  Ym ( 4  F5 ) . ............................................................................................................................................. (A8)
d /t
D / t 1 1.47
pTa  2Ym ( )(1  ) . ...................................................................................................................... (A9)
(D / t) 2
D / t 1