EXPERIMENT: 1

OBJECTIVE

To determine the cloud point and pour point of given oil sample

CHEMICAL

Coconut oil

APPARATUS

Thermo meter, cooling bath , testing jar , beaker

THEORY

1. Cloud point :-

● It is a temp. at which oil becomes cloudy or hazy when oil is cooled at specific rate.

2. Pour point

● It is a temp. at which oil just ceases to flow.

OBSERVATION:

1. Initial Temp. of Oil: 43°C

2. Temp. at which Oil became Hazy cloudy point: 22°C

3. Temp. at which oil became solid: 16°C

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. No. Temperature (ºC) Remark

1. 43 Non-Hazy

2. 40 Non-Hazy

3. 37 Non-Hazy

4. 34 Non-Hazy

5. 31 Non-Hazy

6. 28 Non-Hazy

7. 25 Non-Hazy

8. 22 Hazy

9. 19 Non-Hazy

10. 16 Non-Hazy

11. 13 Solid

12. 10 -
CALCULATIONS:

Pour Point = 20°C

GROUP-1 OBSERVATION
Cloud Point = 28°C

Pour Point = 20°C

GROUP-2 OBSERVATION
Cloud Point = 23°C

Pour Point = 16°C

GROUP-3 OBSERVATION
Cloud Point = 22°C

Pour Point = 21°C

GROUP-4 OBSERVATION
Cloud Point = 24°C

AVERAGE CLOUD POINT = (28+23+22+24)/4 = 24.25 ≈ 24°C

AVERAGE POUR POINT= (20+20+16+21)/4=19.25 ≈ 19 °C

CONCLUSION:-

Ideal cloud and pour point of coconut oil is 30°c & 17°c, the variation in a
reading is due to improper isolation and some measuring error.
QUESTIONS:

1. Write a note on the importance of cloud point & pour point for a
given oil.

Cloud point is the temperature above which an aqueous solution of a

water-soluble surfactant becomes turbid. Knowing the cloud point is important
for determining storage stability. Storing formulations at temperatures
significantly higher than the cloud point may result in phase separation and
instability. Wetting, cleaning and foaming characteristics can be different above
and below the cloud point. Generally, nonionic surfactants show optimal
effectiveness when used near or below their cloud point. Low-foam surfactants
should be used at temperatures slightly above their cloud point. Cloud points are
typically measured using 1% aqueous surfactant solutions. Cloud points range
from 0° to 100°C (32 to 212°F), limited by the freezing and boiling points of
water.

The pour point of a liquid is the temperature below which the liquid loses
its flow characteristics. The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it
becomes semi solid and loses its flow characteristics. In crude oil a high pour
point is generally associated with a high paraffin content, typically found in crude
deriving from a larger proportion of plant material. Two pour points can be
derived which can give an approximate temperature window depending on its
thermal history. Within this temperature range, the sample may appear liquid or
solid.
2. Industrial application of cloud point & pour point.

♦ Cloud Point:

➢ The cloud point of petroleum products and biodiesel fuels is an index of the
lowest temperature of their utility for certain applications. Wax crystals of
sufficient quantity can plug filters used in some fuel systems.

♦ Pour Point:

➢ Pour point is the temperature above which a lubricant or fluid will

move freely under normal conditions

➢ Oil and gas companies pay close attention to pour point because it has
an impact on drilling and transport. If a petroleum deposit has a high pour point,
usually reflecting a high paraffin content, it may be ifficult to extract. Drilling teams
need the oil to flow so they can pull it up with drilling rigs. Transport can also
become a problem; in some cases, oil pipelines need to be heated to keep the oil at
pour point and ensure it moves smoothly from oil fields to shipping terminals and
other destinations

➢ Manufacturers of lubricants also have concerns in this area. For

products like motor oil, the lubricant may need to operate at a range of temperatures.
Technicians don’ t want oil that flows too readily at low temperatures because it
might thin too much at high temperatures and cause problems with the engine. They
also need to consider issues like handling engines in extreme cold, where it is
sometimes necessary to heat lubricants or entire engine blocks to keep the equipment
operational
3. Give cloud point and pour point for five different oil samples (write
the source of your information.)

Sr. No Oil Temperature(°C)

Pour Point Cloud Point

1 Peanut 12.8 -6.7

2 Corn -1.1 -40.0

3 Rapeseed -3.9 -31.7

4 Soya bean -3.9 -12.2

5 Cotton Seed 1.7 -15.0

4. How can the pour point of an oil be lowered? Explain the action of pour
point depressants.

• The pour point of a lubricant is the lowest temperature that fluid will flow
under standard conditions. A pour point depressant lowers that temperature. Pour
point depressants (also known as PPDs) are polymers that are designed to control
wax crystal formation in lubricants resulting in lower pour point and improved low
temperature flow performance.

• Pour point depressants do not lower the temperature at which wax crystals
begin to form, called the cloud point, or the amount of wax that is formed—pour
point depressants work by altering the crystal shape and size, which inhibits lateral
crystal growth. There are two known methods by which this may be achieved:
surface adsorption and co-crystallization.
 EXPERIMENT: 2

AIM:
To figure out Flash point and Fire point of oil sample.

APPARATUS:

● Pensky marten flash point apparatus(close cup assembly)

OBSERVATION:

Temperature(ºC) Remark
60 No flame
61 No flame
62 No flame
63 No flame
64 No flame
65 Flash point
66 No flame
67 No flame
68 No flame
69 Fire point

PRECAUSION:
● Rate of heat transfer should be control.
● Moisture removed from sample.
● Vapour of sample is harmful.
● Stay away from device during experiment.

RESULT:
● Flash point of given oil sample = 65ºC
● Fire point of given oil sample = 69ºC

CONCLUSION:
Ideal flash point and fire point of diesel is 65ºC and 78ºC respectively, the
variation in reading is due to improper isolation and some measuring error.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS:
1) WRITE A NOTE ON THE IMPORTANCE OF FLASH AND FIRE POINT FOR A
GIVEN OIL.
➢ FLASH POINT
- FUEL OIL FLASH POINT IS TO BE HIGH BECAUSE IF IT IS LOW,
THERE WOULD BE A POSSIBILITY OF FIRE IN STORAGE.
- ENGINE CRANKCASE LUBRICATING OIL FLASH POINT SHOULD BE AS HIGH
AS POSSIBLE TO PREVENT CRANKCASE EXPLOSION.
- FOR SAFE STORAGE, OIL STORAGE TANK HEATING TEMPERATURE TO BE
LIMITED TO AT LEAST 14°C LOWER THAN FLASH POINT TO PREVENT FIRE.
➢ FIRE POINT
- THE FIRE POINT IS USED TO ASSESS THE RISK OF THE MATERIALS ABILITY
TO SUPPORT COMBUSTION.
- THESE VALUES CAN ALSO AFFECT HOW THE FLUID MAY BE SHIPPED,
STORED, AND DISCARDED.

2) WHAT FACTORS AFFECT FLASH AND FIRE POINT AND WHAT IS THE
EFFECT THEY GIVE ON THE READING?
➢ FREQUENCY OF APPLICATION OF TEST FRAME
➢ RATE OF HEATING
➢ RATE OF STIRRING
➢ SIZE OF TEST FLAME
➢ TIME
➢ PRESSUREZ
3. WHAT IS MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN CUP AND CLOSED CUP
FLASH POINT APPARATUS?

➢ OPEN CUP FLASH POINT

IN THESE TYPES OF TESTS THE VESSEL IS OPEN TO THE AIR. THE TEMPERATURE
IS RAISED SLOWLY AND A SOURCE OF IGNITION PASSED OVER THE TOP,
UNTIL IT “FLASHES” OR IGNITES.

A KEY VARIABLE IN THIS TEST IS THE HEIGHT OF THE IGNITION SOURCE OVER
THE CUP.

➢ CLOSED CUP FLASH POINT

IN CLOSED CUP TESTS THE SAMPLE IS TESTED INSIDE A CLOSED VESSEL – THE LID
IS SEALED AND THE IGNITION SOURCE IS BROUGHT INTO THE VESSEL, SO
IT IS COMPLETELY SEPARATE FROM THE OUTSIDE ATMOSPHERE. THIS TYPE
OF TEST GIVES A GOOD SIMULATION OF THE CONDITIONS INSIDE A FUEL
TANK.

➢ CLOSED CUP TESTS ARE IN A DEFINED AND SEPARATED VESSEL, SO THE

RESULTS ARE LESS SUBJECT TO INTERFERENCE BY OUTSIDE SOURCES. THEY
ALSO GIVE LOWER FLASH POINTS AS THE HEAT IS CONTAINED MORE THAN IN AN
OPEN VESSEL.
4) HOW CAN SUBSTANCES BE CLASSIFIED ON BASIS OF FIRE AND FLASH
POINT?
➢ MATERIALS WITH HIGHER FLASH POINTS ARE LESS FLAMMABLE OR
HAZARDOUS THAN CHEMICALS WITH LOWER FLASH POINTS.

HAZARD FLASH POINT

VERY LOW HAZARD > 200OF

(93OC)

MODERATE LOW HAZARD 150OF TO 200OF

(66OC TO 93OC)

HIGH TO MODERATE 100OF TO 150OF

HAZARD (38OC TO 66OC)

EXTREME TO HIGH HAZARD 0OF TO 100OF

(-18OC TO 38OC)

EXTREME HAZARD < 0OF

(-18OC)
 EXPRIMENT- 3

AIM:

To find N2% from ammonia sulphate sample

CHEMICAL:

● N/2 NaOH
● formaldehyde (1:1)
● 1 g ammonia sulphate
● phenolphthalein (Indicator)

APPARATUS:

● Flask
● Burette
● weight measuring device

PROCEDURE:

• Take 1 g of ammonia sulphate into flask.

• Add 50 ml DM water.

• Add 30 ml Formaldehyde.

• Wait for 15-20 min & then titrate against N/2 NaOH using Phenolphthalein
as indicator.
OBSERVATION:

• Burette Reading: 30 ml

CALCULATION:

% N2 = (Burette reading * Factor of NaOH * 0.7004) / sample weight

= (29.9 * 0.9953 * 0.7004) / 1.0008

= 20.84 %

RESULT:

20.84 % N2 in sample of ammonium sulphate.

THEORY QUESTIONS

1.) REACTIONS:
(NH4)2SO4 + HCHO  (NH2)4(CH2)6 + H+

2.) EXPLAIN FCO LIMITS AND THEORITICAL MAXIMUM?

ANS: 20.6%
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
1.) WHAT IS OTHER METHOD FOR DETERMINATION FOR AMONICAL
NITROGEN ?
ANS:
1.) Kjeldahl Method(1): Ammonia by distillation followed by titration of
distillate with sulphuric acid
● Organic nitrogen, on the residue from the above, by conversion to
ammonia followed by determination as above

2.) Kjeldahl Method (2) :

● Ammonia - conversion to gaseous from

NH4+ + OH- NH3 + H2O, pH = 9.5

● distillation and absorption

NH3 + H3BO3 NH4+ + H2BO3-

● titration
H2BO3- + H+ H3BO3

3.) Kjeldahl Method (3)

● Organic nitrogen
Acid digestion
Organic nitrogen + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
K2SO4 & CuSO4 added to raise digestion temperature to 370ºC.
Digestion is completed when digesting liquor clarifies with release of
fumes.
2) Importance of neutralization of formaldehyde?

Formaldehyde is the most commonly used fixative chemical for the

preservation of human cadavers used for educational purposes in the United
States. Formaldehyde is also a known carcinogenic agent whose exposure
level is regulated by guidelines of the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration. Various methods for formaldehyde neutralization exist, yet
many donations programs do not take any steps to neutralize the formaldehyde
in embalmed donor bodies. The effectiveness of monoethanolamine (MEA)
in neutralizing formaldehyde is well documented when used as a final
injection during embalming. The purpose of this study is to report the
effectiveness of several post-embalming techniques of formaldehyde
neutralization. Twenty-four donor bodies were assigned to four experimental
groups of six. For the three experimental groups, the techniques tested involve
delivery of a 20:1 dilution of deionized water:MEA via recannulization and
gravity flow infusion, compartment injection, and alternate wetting solution
containing four percent MEA. Our results indicated that spray bottle delivery
was not effective in neutralization of formaldehyde compared to the control
group, but that formaldehyde levels decreased when recannulization or
compartment injection were used. The most effective method of
formaldehyde neutralization was compartment injection of MEA solution
(P < 0.01). The results of this study indicate that, in situations where MEA is
not used as a final infusion during embalming, compartment injection of MEA
solution is an effective method of formaldehyde neutralization.

3) What kind of titration is taking place in this experiment? Why?

Acid-Base titration is taking place in experiment because In acid-base

titrations the end point is detected by a pH sensitive indicator. In the EDTA
titration metal ion indicator is used to detect changes of pH. ... Control of pH
is important since the H+ ion plays an important role in chelation. Most
ligands are basic and bind to H+ ions throughout a wide range of pH.
 EXPRIMENT-4

AIM:

To measure CO2 % from sample gas.

CHEMICAL:

● NaCl(Saturated)
● KOH(30-35% Concentrated)
● Methyl Red
● Sample gas (H, N, CO2)

APPARATUS:

● ORSAT INSTRUMENT

DIAGRAM:

100

0
 PURGE OUTLET

SMALL
AMOU
NT OF

GLYCE
ROL

KOH

NaCl

NEW SAMPLE
ABSORBER BURETTE
GAS
PROCEDURE:

• First open all the nobs & then increase the level of NaCl in burette. So,
previously trapped air is removed from system. Now close all nobs except sample
gas and burette.

• Now Insert sample gas so that it directly goes to burette. And the close
sample gas nob.

• nob of absorber is opened and then Saturated NaCl added in to burette up

to 100 ml. and then NaCl removed from burette.

• Do the same for 3-4 times.

• To increase the surface area tubes are added in to the Absorber.

• Very small amount of glycerol is added to reduce direct contact of air.

• Level in the absorber is set to 0 and then the increase in the level of Nacl
in the burette shows the % of CO2 absorbed in KOH.

OBSERVATION:

• Max. Burette Reading: 100 ml

• Final Burette Reading: 9 ml

CALCULATION:
 % of CO2 absorbed
= (Final Burette reading × 100) / Max. Burette Reading
= (9 ml * 100) / 100
= 9%

RESULT:

9% OF CO2 IS ABSORBED.

THEORY QUESTIONS :
1. EXPLAIN LIMITIATIONS OF USING ORSAT APPARATUS?

The apparatus consists essentially of a calibrated water-jacketed gas burette connected by

glass capillary tubing to two or three absorption pipettes containing chemical solutions that
absorb the gasses it is required to measure. For safety and portability, the apparatus is usually
encased in a wooden box.
 2. EXPLAIN OTHER AIR SUBSTANCES THAT CAN BE
QUANTIFIED?

A.) Carbon dioxide

The most common reagent is 25-33% aqueous solution of AR KOH. For use in the ORSAT
apparatus 40 - 50% solution is recommended in order to reduce no of times necessary refill
the apparatus.

NAOH solution is not recommended owing to the tendensive of the bicarbonate to

crystallize out, the potasium salt is much more soluble.

B.) Oxygen
The four liquid absorbents which are commanly employed for the absorption of oxygen.
Are strongly alkaline solution of pyrogallol, acid solution of chromous cloride , alkaline
solution of sodium dithionate and ammoniacal cuprous chloride.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS :

1. WHAT ARE THE PRECAUTIONS THAT SHOULD BE TAKEN ?

I.The reagents in the absorption bulb are brought to the etched mark levels one by one by operating
the receiver bottle and the value of each bulb then their respective valves are closed.
II.All the air in receiver bottle is expelled to atmosphere by lifting the receiver bottle and opening
the three way to atmosphere.
III. It is quite necessary to follow the order of absorbing gases: CO2 first O2 second and CO last .
this is because the absorbent used for O2 can absorb only some CO2 and the % CO2 left would be
less ; while the % of O2 thus detected would be more. The absorbent used for CO2 , however,
doesn’ t absorb O2 or CO2.
IV.The percentage of CO in the flue gas is very small and this should be measured carefully.

2. WHY IS KOH USED ? WHY NOT ANY OTHER BASE ?

NAOH solution is not recommended owing to the tendensive of the bicarbonate to

crystallize out, the potasium salt is much more soluble.
3. WHAT ARE THE CONTENT OF LEVELING BOTTLE AND
EXPLAIN THE REASON OF THEIR USES?

When you drop a solid object such as a bead or a stone into a liquid, the object
either floats on top of the liquid or sinks to the bottom. In this bead bottle, the
beads neither float nor sink completely. The beads are suspended in the middle
of the liquid.
The beads appear suspended in the middle of the liquid because the bottle
contains not one, but two liquids. One of the liquids floats on top of the other
liquid. The beads sink in the top liquid, but float on the bottom one. This gives
the appearance that the beads are suspended in the middle of the liquid, but in
fact the beads rest where the two liquids meet.
Furthermore, when this bottle is shaken and set to rest, some of the beads float to
the top, while others sink to the bottom. As the bottle rests, the beads that sank to
the bottom begin to rise, while those that rose to the top begin to sink. After a
short while, the beads return to rest at the middle
 EXPERMENT -5
AIM:
To determine COD of water sample.

CHEMICAL:
● Potassium dichromate Solution(K2Cr2O7)
● Sulfuric Acid
● DM water
● Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate
● Ferroin (Indicator)
● Mercuric Sulphate (HgSo4)
● Silver Sulphate (AgSo4)
● Water Sample

APPARATUS:
Digestion apparatus, Air condenser

THEORY:
● Chemical oxygen demand determination provide measure of oxygen
equipment of that portion organic matter in sample that is suspectable to oxidation
by strong chemical oxidant.

● It is important to rapidly measured parameters of stream and industrial waste.

● Use of exactly same technology each time is important cause only part of
organic matter in included the portion depending on chemical use in structure of
organic compound and manipulative procedure.
● The dichromate reflux method has been selected for COD determination cause
it has advantage over oxidant in oxidability.

● Applicability in wide variety of sample is refluxed with known amount of

dichromate and H2SO4 and excess of dichromate is titrated with ferrous ammonium
sulphate oxygen equivalent is proportional to potassium dichromate.

● Straight chain aliphatic compound aromatic hydrocarbon and pyridine are not
oxidised to any applicable,the straight chain compond are more effectively oxidised
when silver sulphate is added catalyst.

● Oxidation and other difficulties causes by presence of chlorides in sample,by

adding Hgso4 to sample before refluxing thus ties up to chloride ion is soluble with
Hgso4 which greatly reduces it ability to react further.

Solution & reagent for effluent section:

1) ferrous ammonium sulphate (0.1N FAS) 39grms. FAS+20ml conc. H2SO4

which make up to 1000 ml with DM water.

2) Pottasium dichromate(0.25N K2Cr2O7 ) 12.47 grms K2Cr2O7 + 35 grms.

HgSO4+170 ml conc. H2SO4 which make up 1000 ml with DM Water.

3) sulphuric acid for COD:

25 grams sulphur(1 Bottle) carefully mixed into 2.5 L conc. H2SO4.

4) ferroin indicator:

14.85 grmas of 1-10 phenanthrolein monohydrate + 6.95 grams

FeSO4.7H2O which make upto 1000 ml with DM Water.

PROCEDURE:
• Take 20 ml of sample in flask with fitted reflux condenser.
• Add 10 ml of 0.25N K2Cr2O7 solution and 0.1N H2SO4.
• Acid should be added in small amount carefully mixing after each addition.
• Add 0.4 gm AgSo4 and few glass beads.
• Attach flask to air condenser for 2 hours and 150º C.
• After 2 hours, cool and washdown with DM water.
• After cooldown sample, titrate against FAS using 2-3 drops of Ferroin
indicator.
• Colour change from bluish green to reddish brown.

REACTION:

K2Cr2O7 + 4 H2SO4 K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 3[O] + 4H2O

6FeSO4(NH4)2SO4 + 3[O] + H2SO4 3Fe(SO4)3 + 6(NH4)SO4 + 3H2O

OBSERVATION:

• Volume of blank solution = 25.6ml

• Volume of sample at NPH = 17.2ml
• Volume of sample at OPH = 24.7ml
• Volume of sample at mixed discharge outlet = 20ml
CALCULATION:

COD (in ppm) = (A-B) * M * 8000 / Volume of original sample

Where,
A =Volume of FAS used for blank solution (in ml)
B =Volume of FAS used for sample (in ml)
M =Multiplication factor
= 2.5 / Volume of FAS used for blank solution
Here,
M= 2.5 / 25.6 = 0.0977

For NPH,
COD = (25.6-17.2) * 8000 * 0.0977 / (20)
= 328.272 ppm

For OPH,
COD = (25.6-24.7) * 8000 * 0.0977 / (20)
= 35.172 ppm

For Mix discharge,

COD = (25.6-20) * 8000 * 0.0977 / (20)
= 218.84 ppm
RESULT:
1) COD of NPH sample = 328.272 ppm
2) COD of OPH sample = 35.172 ppm
3) COD of MIX sample = 218.84 ppm

CONCLUSION:
COD of Mixed discharge is less than 250 ppm as per GPCB & CPCB norms.

Theory Questions:
1) What is COD and how it affects environment?

In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an

indicative measure of the amount of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions
in a measured solution. It is commonly expressed in mass of oxygen
consumed over volume of solution which in SI units is milligrams per litre
(mg/L). A COD test can be used to easily quantify the amount of organics in
water. The most common application of COD is in quantifying the amount of
oxidizable pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or
wastewater. COD is useful in terms of water quality by providing a metric to
determine the effect an effluent will have on the receiving body, much like
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

2) What is the limit of COD set by GPCB and CPCB?

Many governments impose strict regulations regarding the maximum

chemical oxygen demand allowed in waste water before they can be returned
to the environment .limits of COD is 250 ppm set by GPCB and CPCB.

3) What is BOD and difference between BOD and COD?

 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD, also called Biological Oxygen Demand)
is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed (i.e. demanded) by aerobic
biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water
sample at certain temperature over a specific time period.

BOD (Biologocal Oxygen Demand) means the amount of oxygen (in mg/l)
microorganisms like bacteria need to 'eat' the organic polution (sugars, fat,
proteins, ...). Note that not all polution can be removed (eaten) by bacteria.
BOD value in polluted water is normally higher than the fresh water.
Increased BOD can be resulted due to domestic sewage, petroleum residues
and wastes of animals and crops.

COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is the amount of oxygen required to

degenerate all poution in a chemical way (by adding oxidising agents and
heating). In general with chemical destruction you can remove more polution
than with the biological way.

As BOD is only a measurement of consumed oxygen by aquatic

microorganisms to decompose or oxidize organic matter and COD refers the
requirement of dissolved oxygen for the oxidation of organic and inorganic
constituents both. Hence COD must be greater than BOD.

4) Write the reaction and how it’ s a redox process and explain it briefly.

K2Cr2O7 + 4 H2SO4 K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 3[O] + 4H2O

6FeSO4(NH4)2SO4 + 3[O] + H2SO4 3Fe(SO4)3 + 6(NH4)SO4 + 3H2O

5) Explain the formula and reason for the terms used it in.
COD (in ppm) = (A-B) * M * 8000 / Volume of original sample
Where,
A =Volume of FAS used for blank solution (in ml)
 B =Volume of FAS used for sample (in ml)
M =Multiplication factor
= 2.5 / Volume of FAS used for blank solution

Additional Questions:
1) Importance of each reagent in the experiment
● Potassium dichromate Solution(K2Cr2O7)
Potassium dichromate is a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions.
Acidity is usually achieved by the addition of sulfuric acid.
In the process of oxidizing the organic substances found in the water sample,
potassium dichromate is reduced (since in all redox reactions, one reagent is
oxidized and the other is reduced), forming Cr3+. The amount of Cr3+ is
determined after oxidization is complete, and is used as an indirect measure
of the organic contents of the water sample.

● DM water
For decreasing the temperature upto room temperature, After reaction at a
150ºC temperature.
● Ferroin (Indicator)
For detect to completion the reaction
● Mercuric Sulphate (HgSo4)
To reduce the halogen attack
● Silver Sulphate (AgSo4)
For increasing rate of reaction as a catalyst

2) What are the precautions that need to be addressed during this

experiment

● Safety Precautions
 Make sure you are wearing a lab coat, latex gloves, and eye protection since
you are working with very hazardous chemicals.

● Apparatus

Digestion vessels: Preferably use borosilicate culture tubes, 20×150mm, with

TFE-lined screw caps.

● Oven: Use an oven for culture-tube digestion only when it has been
determined that 2 hours of exposure at 150°C will not damage the caps. Whenever
you digest sample with potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), make sure you turn on
the hood to prevent hazardous chemicals from leaking.

3) GSFC maintains COD compliance by diluting high COD effluent stream with
low COD effluent stream. Similarly ,What are the other methods to reduce COD
content in effluent sample?

1. COD Reducement using Precipitation Process (Coagulation)

in the previous article, we will find that most of the COD is sourced from the
TSS or no dissolved solids commonly called sludge. The most important way
to get rid of the sludge is to use coagulants and flocculants.

The principle is to bind the sludge to one another so that a larger clumps of
sludge and then be deposited in a sedimentation tank.

Some chemicals commonly used as a coagulant, among others; PAC, FeCl3

(Ferric Chloride) and Alum.

This deposition process, will greatly affect the value of COD. Especially in
wastewater with a high enough amount of TSS. For additional information for
the 1 mg / L TSS you can get a drop of up to 10 mg / L COD.

COD reduction process in order to become more perfect, it is advisable to give

more concern to the process of mixing and sedimentation. Due without proper
mixing process, the precipitation reaction that occurs will be less than perfect.

2. Microbiology Process for COD Reducement

COD reduction process by the method of using bacteria or microorganisms,
devoted to COD derived from organic matter with a high content of
biodegradable. This process is done in two main ways, namely aeration and
anaerobic.

In the aeration process, COD reduceed by making the bacteria can break down
organic compounds in water. These bacteria are called heterotrophic bacteria
break down organic compounds due to the use of oxygen. This process is
usually used in waste water with a COD of less than 3000 mg / L.

In the process of anaerobic bacteria work in a room with minimal oxygen

content. This process is also called fermentation, in which bacteria break
down autotrop working with organic compounds from wastewater with three
stages of one of them is by taking oxygen from organic compounds.

The anaerobic process is suitable for waste water with BOD levels over 2000
mg / L.

Before deciding whether to take this method, it is important for you to

understand what types of wastewater that you face. Because microbiological
process is only suitable for wastewater with organic contents. You can
determine this by looking at the comparison between COD and BOD.

Some processes similar to this is the process of using MBR, SBR or SMBR

3. Reduce COD with Oxidiser

Some chemicals, can help you to reduce the COD of waste water. Chlorine,
Hydrogen peroxide and Ozone will mengoksdiasikan chemicals in the water
so that the automatic COD value will go down. But of course you should limit
dose usage of Oxidiser, because oxidiser possess sufficient betray especially
for living organisms.

COD reduction technique is suitable for waste have COD values derived from
non-biodegradable waste such as Phenol, surfactants, etc.

Recomended to Read : Is there any Correlation between COD and BOD?

4. COD Reducing process by Fenton Reaction

Fenton reaction is a reaction that has been widely known is able to reduce the
COD value. The principle is the formation of free radicals that are created
from the reaction between Fenton reagent is FeSO4 with Hydrogen peroxide.

Fenton reaction is what will be the forerunner of the birth of AOP system.

5. Advanced Oxidation Process, The latest COD Reducing Method

AOP is the latest technology that is able to reduce the COD value of the
wastewater. Even of COD with a value above 100 thousand though.

AOP was created from the added refinement of Fenton reaction in the
presence of ozone injection so adding reproduce free hydroxyl finally able to
oxidize chemicals in water.

Excess AOP process is very fast reaction speed. If the processing by

microbiological reduction in COD can take days. Then the AOP process only
takes a matter of hours or even minutes.

Another plus is also located in the area used for this system is very small is
compared with other systems.

Moreover, this process does not require a lot of chemicals to be added in the
wastewater.

6. Process Filtration and Adsorption with Activated Carbon

The latter method is widely used in the finishing process or post treatment
after primary treatment process. Usually used as an activated carbon filter.
Activated carbon will absorb organic substances, ozone or chlorine substances
remaining on the processing results. So safe effluent to be discharged into the
environment.

Filtration using activated carbon is also commonly used in water treatment

processes to remove odors, and reduce the chemicals in the water.