It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my

Chemistry teacher Dr.Poonam Gupta under whose guidance &

supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is her who has been my
primary sourceof inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged
me at different stages to make this project.
I am also thankful for the help rendered by the lab assistant who
made available the variousapparatus andchemicals needed for the
experiments,elseitwouldhavebeen a difficult task to perform this
project successfully.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (i)

 A NT A CI D S 1

 A CT I O N M E C H A NI S M 1

 INDICATIONS 1

 SIDE EFFECTS 1 -2

 SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS 2 -3

 HYPERACIDITY 3 -4

 SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS 4 -5

 DRUG NAMES 5

 SOME COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS 6

 AL U M I N I U M H Y D R O X I DE 6 -7

 MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE 8–9

10 – 13
 CALCIUM CARBONATE
14 – 16
 S O DI U M B I C A R B O N A T E
17 –18
 BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE
 INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT 19 – 21

 BIBLOGRAPHY (i i )
An Antacid is any substance, generally a base or basic salt, which
neutralizes stomach acidity. They are used to relieve acid
indigestion, upset stomach, sour stomach, and heartburn.

A C T I O N M E C H A N IS M
Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising
the pH to reduce acidity in the stomach. When gastric hydrochloric acid reaches the
nerves in the gastrointestinal mucosa, t hey signal pain to the central nervous syste m.
This happens whe n these nerves are exposed, as in peptic ulcers. The gastric acid may
also reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum.

Other mechanisms may contribute, such as the effect of aluminium ions inhibiting
smooth muscle cell contraction and delaying gastric emptying.

I N DI C A T I O N S
Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major symptom of gastro
esopha geal reflux disease, or acid indigestion. Treatme nt with antacids alone is
symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Pe ptic ulcers ma y require H2-
re c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t s o r p r o t o n p u m p i n h i b i t o r s .

The utility of many combinations of antacids is not clear, although the

combination of magnesium and alumini um salts may prevent alteration of bowel
ha bi t s .

SIDE EFFECTS
Excess calcium from suppleme nts, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause
the milk-alkali syndrome, w hich has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915,
Bertram Sippy introduced the "Sippy regime n" of hourly ingestion of milk and
cream, the gradual addition of eggs and cooke d cereal, for 10 days, combined with
alkaline powders, which provide d symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease.
Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure,
alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in me n with peptic ulcer disease. These
adverse effects were reversed when the regime n stopped, but it was fatal in some
patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after
effective treat ments were developed for peptic ulcer disease. But during the past
15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supple ments above the
recommended range of 1200 to 1500 mg daily, for prevention and treatment of
osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by dehydration. Calcium has been added t o over-
the-counter products, which contribut es to inadvertent excessive intake.

The New England Journal of Medicine reported a typical case of a woman who
arrived in the emergency department vomiting and altered mental
status, writhing in pain. She had c onsumed large quantities of chewable antacid
tablets containing calcium carbonate (Tums). She gradually recovered.[1]

Compounds containing calcium may also increase calcium output in the urine,
which mi ght be associated with kidne y stones.[2] Calcium salts may cause
c ons t i pa t i on.

Other adverse effects from antacids include:

1. Carbonate : Regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn ma y result in
altered excretion of other drugs, and kidney stones. A che mical reaction
between the carbonate and hydrochl oric acid may produce carbon dioxide
gas. This causes gastric distension which may not be well tolerated. Carbon
dioxide formation can also lead to headaches and decreased muscle
flexibility.
2. Aluminum hydroxide : May lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium-
phosphate-complexes, with a risk for hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia.
Although aluminium has a low gastrointestinal absorption, accumulation may
occur in the presence of renal insufficiency. Aluminium- containing drugs may
cause constipation.
3. Magnesium hy droxide : Has laxative properties. Magnesium may
accumulate in patients with renal failure leading to hypermagnesemia, with
cardiovascular and neurological complications. See Milk of magnesia.
4. Sodium : Increased intake of sodium may be deleterious for arterial
hypertension, heart failure and many renal diseases.

SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS

Fortunately, because acid reflux is such a common problem, antacids are among the
medicines available and free of side effects for most people. Side effects from a ntacids
vary depending on individual and other medications they may be taking at the time.
Those w ho experience side effects most commonly suffer from changes in bowel
functions, such as diarrhea, constipation, or flatulence.

Although reactions t o any drug may vary from person to person, generally those
medications that contain aluminum or calcium are the likeliest to cause constipation,
those that contain magnesium are the likeliest to cause diarrhea. Some products
combine these ingredients, which essentially cancels the m out, to forestall
unpleasant side effects.

In general, people with kidne y proble ms should probably not take antacids as this
can sometimes cause a condition know n as alkalosis. In other people, side effects
may occur if substances such as salt, sugar, or aspirin, are added to a particular
medication. As with all me dications, always carefully read the product label on the
pa c ka ge a n d c he c k w i t h y o ur doc t or or
pharmacist if you have any question about potential drug interactions or side effects.

Some side effects, such as constipation and diarrhea, are fairly obvious. Ot her
more serious side effects, such as stoma ch or intestinal; bleeding, can be more
difficult to recognize. In general, any si gn of blood in the stool or the presence of
vomiting is a danger sign and should be brought to the immediate attention of a
physician.

If your symptoms persist for more than 10 da ys to two weeks while you are usi ng the
medication, you should stop taking it and consult your doctor.
Persistent symptoms may indicate that you ha ve more a serious problem than
occasional acid reflux. Pregna nt or nursing baby should always consult your doctor
before taking this medication. Generally, you should not give these me dications
t o c hi l dre n u nde r t he a ge of 12 u nl e s s unde r t he a dvi c e a nd s u pe r v i s i on of y o u r
doctor or the package label has indicated that the product is safe for young
children. Constant use of antacids leads to a condition called acid rebound where
the stomach be gins to over secrete acid in order to make up for the qua ntity that is
being neutralized.

HYPERACIDITY, CAUSE FOR INTAKE OF ANTACIDS

Hyperacidity or acid dyspe psia simpl y mea ns increase of acidity in the stomach.
The human stomach secretes hydroc hloric acid which is necessary for the digestion of
food. When the stomach contains an exc essive amount of hydroc hloric acid, then the
condition is called as hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia.

S o m e ti m e s , h y p e r a c i d i t y i s c o n fu s e d f o r a s i m p l e b e l l y a c h e . T h i s i s b e c a u s e
p e o p l e w i t h h y p e r a c i d i t y u s u a l l y g e n e r a l l y g e t p a i n s i n th e i r s to m a c h s w i th
s i m i l a r s y m p to m s a s b e l l y a c h e s . T h i s c o n f u s i o n i s m o r e r a m p a n t i n c h i l d r e n
w h o c a n n o t d i ff e r e n ti a te b e t w e e n d i ffe r e n t k i n d s o f s to m a c h a i l m e n t s .
H o w e v e r , h y p e r a c i d i ty c a n b e fo u n d o u t w i th th e s o u r b e l c h i n g a n d a f te r ta s t e
o f t h e a l r e a d y e a te n f o o d i n th e m o u th .

The prime medical factors of hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia are as follows :

(i) Stomach Ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach are one of the prime causes of

hyperacidity. Once this is diagnose d, the treatme nt will be done by the surgical
removal of the stomach ulcers.

(ii) Acid Reflux Disease: Some people have a gastric disorder called as the acid
reflux disease. In this condition, the acids of the stomach, i.e. gastric acids or
hydrochloric acid, get refluxe d up to t he food pipe, which is biologically
called as the esophagus. When this happens, it builds up the level of acidity in the
stomach.
(iii) Stomach Cancers: Stomach cancers can also cause hyperacidity as one of their
symptoms. This is a very rare case, but the mortality rate is quite high. He nce, a
hyperacidity that lasts more than two weeks must be imme diately shown to t he
doctor and got checked for any cancer. A timely diagnosis can enable complete
treatme nt of the disease.

SYMPTOMS OF HYPERACIDITY
Hyperacidity symptoms are observed a couple of hours after eating, when the food
has been digested and still excess acids are left within the stomach. At this stage, the
following symptoms are seen:-

1. A typical feeling of restlessness

2. Feeling of nausea (wanting to throw up) and actual vomiting
3. Sour belching with an aftertaste of the already-eaten food
4. Stiffness in the stomach, which is called as atonic dyspepsia
5. Lack of desire for any other type of food
6. I nd i ge s t i on
7. Co ns t i pa t i o n

IN T E R A C T I O N S
Altered pH or complex formation may alter the bioavailability of other drugs, such as
tetracycline. Urinary excretion of certain drugs may also be affected.

PROBLEMS WITH REDUCED STOMACH ACIDITY

Reduced stomach acidity may result in an impaired ability to digest and absorb
certain nutrients, such as iron and t he B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach
nor mally kills ingested bacteria, antacids increase the vulnerability to infection. It
could also result in reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For example, the
bioavailability of ketoconazole (antifungal) is reduced at high intragastric pH (low
acid content).

SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS

1. Alka-Seltzer – NaHCO3 and/or KHCO3
2. Equate – Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2
3. Gaviscon – Al(OH)3
4. Maalox (liquid) – Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2
5. Maalox (tablet) – CaCO3
6. Milk of Magnesia – Mg(OH)2
7. Pepto-Bismol – HOC6H4COO
8. Pepto-Bismol Children’s – CaCO3
9. Rolaids – CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2
10. Tums – CaCO3
11. Mylanta
DRUG NAMES
S o m e d r u g s u s e d a s a n t a c i d s a re :

1. A l u m i n i u m h y d ro x i d e
2. Ma gn esium hy droxide
3. C alciu m c arb ona te
4. So dium bic arbo n ate
5. Bis mu th sub sali cyla te
6. Hi sta mine
7. Ci me tidin e
8. R aniti dine
9. Om e prazo le
10. La ns op raz ole

SOME IMPORTANT COMMONLY USED

AN TACIDS
1. ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE
Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, Alum, is the most stable form of aluminium in
nor mal conditions. It is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as
hydrargillite) and its three, much more rare, polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite and
nordstrandite. Closely related are alumi nium oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH), and
aluminium oxi de, Al2O3, differing onl y by loss of water. These compounds toge ther
are the major compone nts of the aluminium ore bauxite. Freshly precipitated
aluminium hydroxide forms gels, which is the basis for application of aluminium
salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel crystallizes with time.
Aluminium hydroxide gels can be de hydrated (e.g., with the utility of water-
miscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to for m an amorphous aluminium
hydroxide powder, which is readily soluble in acids. Heat-dried aluminium
hydroxide powder is known as activated alumina and is used in gas purification,
as a catalyst support and an abrasive.

P R O D U CT I O N
Bauxites are heated in pressure vessels with sodium hydroxide solution at 150–200
°C through which alumi nium is dissol ved as aluminate (Bayer process). After
separation of ferruginous residue (red mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated
when the liquid is cooled and seeded with fine grained aluminium hydroxide. The
aluminium hydroxide is further calcine d to give alumina, which may be smelted in the
Hall-Héroult process in order to produce aluminium.

CHEMISTRY
Gibbsite has a typical metal hydroxide structure with hydrogen bonds. It is built
up of double layers of hydroxyl groups with aluminium ions occupyi ng two-
thirds of the octahedral holes between the two layers.
Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric. It dissolves in acid, forming Al(H2O) 3+
6 2 6
(hexaaquaaluminate) or its hydrolysis products. It also dissolves in strong alkali,
forming Al(OH) - (tetra4 hydroxoalumi nate).

PHARMACOLOGY
Pharmacologically, this compound is used as an antacid under names such as Alu-
Cap, Aludrox or Pepsamar. The hydroxide reacts with excess acid in the stoma ch,
reducing its acidity. This decrease of acidity of the contents of the stomach ma y in
turn help to relieve the sympt oms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. It can also cause
constipation and is therefore often used with magnesium hydroxide or magnesium
carbonate, which ha ve counterbalancing laxative effects. This compound is also
used to control phosphate (phosphorus) levels in the blood of people suffering from
kidney failure.
Aluminium hydroxide, alum, is include d as an adjuvant in some vaccinesc(e.g.,
Alhydrogel, Anthrax Vaccine), since it appears to contribute to induction of a
good antibody (Th2) response. Its pharmacological action is not known. However, it
has little capacity to stimulate cellular (Th1) immune responses, i mportant for
protection against many pathogens.

Because the brain lesions found in Alzhei mer's disease sometimes contain
traces of aluminium, there is co cernn that consumption of excess alumini um
compounds may cause or contribute to the developme nt of this and otd he r
neurodege nerative diseases. H weover, multiple epidemi ological studies
have found no connection betwee en exposure to alumini um and neurological
di s or de r s .

In addition, elevated aluminium levels in blood, resulting from kidne y dialysis with
well water containing high allumin aium, may result in de mentia that is similar to but
probably different from that of Alzheimer's disease. However, this hypot hesis is
controversial.

In 2007, tests with mice of the a tnhrax vaccine using alumi nium hydroxide
adjuvant were reported as resulting in adverse neuropathy symptoms.

USE AS A FIRE RETARD A NT

Aluminium hydroxide also finds use as a fire retardant filler for polymer
applications in a similar way to m agnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite. It
decomposes at about 180 °C giving off water vapour.

2. MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE

Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2.

As a suspension in water, it is often called milk of magnesia
because of its milk-like appearance. The solid mineral form of mag esiumnhydroxide
is known as brucite.

Magnesium hydroxide is common component of antacids and laxatives; it interferes

w i t h t he a bs or pt i o n of f ol i c a c i d a nd i r on. M a gne s i u m hy dr oxi d e ha s l o w
solubility in water, with a Ksp of 1.5×10−11; all of magnesium hydroxide
that does dissolve does dissociate. Since the dissociation of this s amountmall
of dissolved magnesium hydroxide is complete, magnesiu hydroxide ism
considered a strong base. g
HISTORY
In 1829, Sir James Murray used a fluid magnesia preparation of his own design to
treat the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of Anglesey. This was so successful
(advertised in Australia and approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838)
that he was appointed resident physician to Anglesey and two subse que nt Lords
Lieutenants, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was patented two years after
hi s de a t h i n 187 3.

The term milk of magnesia was first use d for a white-colored, aqueous, mildly
alkaline suspension of magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8%w/v by Charles
Henry Phillips in 1880 a nd sold under the brand na me Phillips' Milk of Magnesi a for
medicinal usage.

Although the name may at some point have been owned by GlaxoSmithKline, USPTO
registrations show "Milk of Magnesia" to be registered to Bayer, and "Phillips' Milk of
Magnesia" to Sterling Drug. In the UK, the non-brand (generic) name of "Milk of
Magnesia" and "Phillips' Milk of Magnesia" is "Cream of Magnesia" (Magnesium
Hydroxide Mixture, BP).

PREPARATION
Magnesium hydroxide can be precipitated by the metathesis reaction between
magnesium salts and sodium, potassium, or ammonium hydroxide:

Mg2+ (aq.) + 2 OH− (aq.) → Mg(OH)2 (s)

USES
Suspe nsions of magnesium hydroxide in water (milk of magnesia) are used as an
antacid to neutralize stomach acid, and a laxative. The diarrhea caused by
magnesium hydroxide carries away much of the body's supply of potassium, and
failure to take extra potassium may lead to muscle cramps.
Magnesium hydroxide is also used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant. Milk of
magnesia is useful against canker sores (aphthous ulcer) when used topically.

Milk of ma gnesia is sold for medical use as chewable tablets, capsules, and as liquids
having various added flavors. It is used as an antacid, though more modern
formulations combine the antimotility effects of equal concentrations of aluminum
hydroxide to avoid unwanted laxative effects.

Magnesium hydroxide pow der is used industrially as a non-hazardous alkali t o

neutralise acidic wastewaters. It also takes part in the Bioroc k method of building
artificial reefs.
Solid magn esiu m h ydroxid e has also sm oke sup pre ssin g and fire reetta rd ing
p r o p e r t i e s . T h i s i s d u e to th e e n d o th e r m i c d e c o m p o s i ti o n i t u n d e r g o e s a t 3 3 2
°C (630 °F) :

Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H2O

BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM
W h e n t h e p a t ie n t d r i n k s t h e m ilk o f m a g n e s i a , t h e s u s p e n s io n e n t e r s t h e
stom ach. Depending on how muc h was taken, one of tw o poss ible outcomes
w ill o c c u r .

A s a n a n ta c i d , m i l k o f m a g n e s i a i s d o s e d a t a p p r o x i m a te l y 0 . 5 – 1 .5 g i n a d u l t s
a n d w o r k s b y s i m p l e n e u t r a l i z a ti o n , w h e r e t h e h y d r o x i d e i o n s fr o m t h e
M g ( O H ) 2 c o m b i n e w i th a c i d i c H + i o n s p r o d u c e d i n t h e fo r m o f h y d r o c h l o r i c
a c i d b y p a r i e t a l c e l l s i n th e s t o m a c h to p r o d u c e w a t e r .

Only a s mall amount of the m agnne esium from m ilk of magnesia is uusua a l ly
a b s o r b e d f r o m a p e r s o n 's i n t e s t i n e ( u n l e s s t h e p e r s o n i s d e f i c i e n t i n
m a g n e s i u m ) . H o w e v e r , m a g n e s i u m is m a i n ly e x c r e t e d b y t h e k id n e y s s o
longterm, daily c ons um ption of milk of magnes ia by someone s ufferriing from
r e n a l f a il u r e c o u l d l e a d i n t h e o r y t o h y p e r m a g n e s e m ia .

3. CALCIUM CARBON
NATE

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula

CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rock in all parts of the w rld, aond
is the main compone nt of shells of marine organisms, snails, pearls, and eggshells.
Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime, and is usually the
principal cause of hard water. It is commonl y used medicinally as a calcium
supplement or as an antacid, but exce ssive consumption can be hazardous.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
picyal properties of other carbonat s. Notaebly:
Calcium carbonate shares the typ

 it reacts with strong acids, releasing carbon dioxide:

 CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

 i t r e l e a s e s c a r b o n d i o x i d e o n h e a ti n g ( to a b o v e 8 4 0 ° C i n th e c a s e o f
C a C O 3 ) , t o fo r m c a l c i u m o x i d e , c o m m o n l y c a l l e d q u i c k l i m e , w i th
r e a c ti o n e n t h a l p y 1 7 8 k J / m o l e :

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

C a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e w i l l r e a c t w i th w a te r th a t i s s a tu r a te d w i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e
to fo r m th e s o l u b l e c a l c i u m b i c a r b o n a te .

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2

T h i s r e a c ti o n i s i m p o r ta n t i n th e e r o s i o n o f c a r b o n a te r o c k s , fo r m i n g
c a v e r n s , a n d l e a d s t o h a r d w a te r i n m a n y r e g i o n s .

PREPARATION
T h e v a s t m a j o r i ty o f c a l c i u m c a r b o n a te u s e d i n i n d u s tr y i s e x tr a c t e d b y
m i n i n g o r q u a r r y i n g . P u r e c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e ( e . g . f o r fo o d o r p h a r m a c e u ti c a l
u s e ) , c a n b e p ro d u c e d f ro m a p u r e q u a rri e d s o u rc e (u s u a l l y m a rb l e ) .

A l t e r n a ti v e l y , c a l c i u m o x i d e i s p r e p a r e d b y c a l c i n i n g c r u d e c a l c i u m
c a r b o n a te . W a t e r i s a d d e d t o g i v e c a l c i u m h y d r o x i d e , a n d c a r b o n d i o x i d e i s
p a s s e d th r o u g h th i s s o l u ti o n to p r e c i p i ta te th e d e s i r e d c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e ,
r e f e r r e d to i n th e i n d u s t r y a s p r e c i p i ta te d c a l c i u m c a r b o n a te ( P C C ) :

CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO 3 + H2O

GEOLOGY
C a r b o n a t e i s f o u n d fr e q u e n tl y i n g e o l o g i c s e t ti n g s . I t i s fo u n d a s a
p o l y m o r p h . A p o l y m o r p h i s a m i n e r a l w i th t h e s a m e c h e m i c a l f o r m u l a b u t
d i ff e r e n t c h e m i c a l s t r u c tu r e . A r a g o n i te , c a l c i te , l i m e s t o n e , c h a l k , m a r b l e ,
tr a v e r ti n e , tu fa , a n d o th e r s a l l h a v e C a C O 3 a s th e i r fo r m u l a b u t e a c h h a s a
s l i g h tl y d i f fe r e n t c h e m i c a l s tr u c t u r e . C a l c i te , a s c a l c i u m c a r b o n a te i s
c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d to i n g e o l o g y i s c o m m o n l y ta l k e d a b o u t i n m a r i n e
s e t ti n g s . C a l c i t e i s t y p i c a l l y fo u n d a r o u n d t h e w a r m tr o p i c e n v i r o n m e n t s .
T h i s i s d u e t o i ts c h e m i s t r y a n d p r o p e r ti e s . C a l c i te i s a b l e to p r e c i p i ta te i n
w a r m e r s h a l l o w e n v i r o n m e n t s th a n i t d o e s u n d e r c o l d e r e n v i r o n m e n ts
b e c a u s e w a r m e r e n v i r o n m e n ts d o n o t fa v o u r th e d i s s o l u ti o n o f C O 2 . T h i s i s
a n a l o g o u s to C O 2 b e i n g d i s s o l v e d i n s o d a . W h e n y o u t a k e t h e c a p o f f o f a
soda bottle, the CO2 rushes out. As the soda warms up, carbon dioxide is
released. This sa me principle can be applied to calcite in the ocean. Cold wa ter
carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a very slow growth rate.

In tropic settings, the waters are warm a nd clear. Consequently, you will see many
more coral in this environment than you would towards the poles where the waters
are cold. Calcium carbonate contributors such as corals, algae, and microorganisms
are typically found in shallow water environments because as filter feeders they
require sunlight to produce calcium c arbonate.

USES
Industrial applications

The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building
material in its ow n right (e.g. marble) or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or
as an ingredient of cement or as the starting material for the preparation of builder's
lime by burning in a kiln.

Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron from iron ore in a blast
furnace. Calcium carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a
slag with various impurities present, and separates from the purified iron.

Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints, in particular matte

emulsion paint where typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or
marble.

Calcium carbonate is also widely used as a filler in plastics. Some typical examples
include around 15 to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride
(uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC
window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr
(parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength
and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene
compounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a
requirement that becomes important at high use temperatures. It also routinely used
as a filler in thermosetting resins (Sheet and Bulk moulding compounds) and has
also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of
compression molded "clay" Poker chips.

Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in the microporous film used
in babies' diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the
calcium carbonate particles during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching.
Calcium carbonate is know n as whiting in ceramics/glazing applications, w here it is
u s e d a s a c o m m o n i n g r e d i e n t f o r ma n y g l a z e s i n i t s w h i t e p o w d e r e d f o r m . W h e n a
glaze containing this material is fired in a kiln, the whiting acts as a flux material in
the glaze.

It is used in swimming pools as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity "buffer" to

offset the acidic properties of the disinfectant agent.

It is commonly called chalk as it has traditionally been a major compone nt of

blackboard chalk. Modern manufactured chalk is now mostly gypsum, hydrated
calcium sulfate CaSO4·2H2O.

HEALTH AND DIETARY APPLICATIONS

Calcium carbonate is widely used me dicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium
supplement or antacid. It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of
hyperphosphate mia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also
used in the phar maceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other
pharmaceuticals.

Calcium carbonate is used in the produc tion of toothpaste and is also used in
homeopathy as one of the constitutional reme dies. Also, it has seen a resurgence
as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as
or ga ni c a ppl e s or f oo d.

Excess calcium from suppleme nts, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause
the "milk alkali syndrome," which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915,
Bertram Sippy introduced the "Sippy regime n" of hourly ingestion of milk and
cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combi ned
with alkaline powders, which provide d symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease.
Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure,
alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in me n with peptic ulcer disease. These
adverse effects were reversed when the regime n stopped, but it was fatal in some
patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after
effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease.

A for m of food additive is designated as E170. It is used in some soy mi lk

products as a source of dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium
carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in cow's milk.
 4. SODIUM BICARBONATE

Sodium bicarbonate or sodium h ydrogen carbonate is the chemical

compound with the for mula NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a whit e s ol i d t ha t
is crystalline but often appears a s a fi n e p o w d e r . I t c a n b e u s e d t o
experiment and is not very da ngerous. It has a slight alkaline taste resembling that
of washing soda (sodium carbonatea). It is a compone ent of the mineral natro nn a nd is
found dissolve d in many mi neral springs. The natural mi neral form is know n as
nahcolite. It is found in its dissolve d form in bile,
where it serves to neutralize the acidity of the hydrochloric acid pr ducedo by
the stomach, a nd is excreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the bile duct.
It is also produced artificially.

Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such
as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, bicarbonate of soda. Colloquially, its name is
shortened to sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, or simply
bicarb. The word saleratus, fro m Latin sal æratus meaning "aerated salt",
w a s w i d e l y u s e d i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y f o r b o t h s o d i u m b i c ar b o n a t e a nd
potassium bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of common us a g e.

HISTORY
The ancient Egyptians used natural deposits of natron, a mixt ure consisting mostly of
sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate. The natron was used as a
cleansing age nt like soap.

In 1791, a French che mist, Nicolas Leblanc, produced sodium bicarbonate as we

know it toda y. In 1846 two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church,
established the first factory to develop baking soda from sodium carbonate and
carbon dioxide.

P R O D U CT I O N
NaHCO3 is mainly prepared by the Solvay process, which is the reaction of calcium
carbonate, sodium c hloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in water. It is produced
on the scale of about 100,000 ton/year (as of 2001).[2]

NaHCO3 may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous

solution of sodium hydroxide. The initial reaction produces sodium carbona te:

CO2 + 2 NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O

F u r th e r a d d i ti o n o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e p r o d u c e s s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a te , w h i c h a t
s u f fi c i e n tl y h i g h c o n c e n t r a ti o n w i l l p r e c i p i t a te o u t o f s o l u ti o n :

Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 NaHCO3

C o m m e r c i a l q u a n ti ti e s o f b a k i n g s o d a a r e a l s o p r o d u c e d b y a s i m i l a r
m e th o d : s o d a a s h , m i n e d i n th e fo r m o f th e o r e t r o n a , i s d i s s o l v e d i n w a te r
a n d tr e a te d w i th c a r b o n d i o x i d e . S o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e p r e c i p i t a t e s a s a s o l i d
fr o m t h i s m e th o d :

Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 NaHCO3

CHEMISTRY
S o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e i s a n a m p h o te r i c c o m p o u n d . A q u e o u s s o l u ti o n s a r e
m i l d l y a l k a l i n e d u e t o th e f o r m a ti o n o f c a r b o n i c a c i d a n d h y d r o x i d e i o n :

HCO−3 + H2O → H2CO3 + OH−

S o d i u m b i c a r b o n a te c a n b e u s e d a s a w a s h to r e m o v e a n y a c i d i c i m p u r i t i e s
fr o m a " c r u d e " l i q u i d , p r o d u c i n g a p u r e r s a m p l e . R e a c ti o n o f s o d i u m
b i c a r b o n a te a n d a n a c i d to g i v e a s a l t a n d c a r b o n i c a c i d , w h i c h r e a d i l y
d e c o m p o s e s to c a r b o n d i o x i d e a n d w a te r :
 NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2CO3
H2CO 3 → H2O + CO2 (g)

S o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e r e a c ts w i th a c e ti c a c i d ( C H 3 C O O H ) to fo r m s o d i u m
a c e ta te :

NaHCO3 + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 (g)

S o d i u m b i c a r b o n a te r e a c t s w i th b a s e s s u c h a s s o d i u m h y d r o x i d e to f o r m
c a r b o n a te s :

NaHCO3 + NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with carboxyl groups in proteins to give a brisk

effervescence from the formation of CO2. This reaction is use d to test for the presence
of carboxylic groups in protein.

APPLICATIONS
Sodium bicarbonate is primarily use d in cooking (baking) where it reacts with
other components to release carbon dioxide, that helps dough "rise". The acidic
compounds that induce this reaction include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon
juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, vine gar, etc. Sodium bicarbonate can be
substituted for baking powder provide d sufficient acid reagent is also added to the
recipe.[3] Many forms of baking powde r contain sodium bicarbonate combine d
with one or more acidic phosphates (especially good) or crea m of tartar. It can also
be used for softening peas (⅛ tsp. per pint of water and bring to boil for one hour)

Many laboratories keep a bottle of sodi um bicarbonate powder within easy reach,
because sodium bicarbonate is amphoteric, reacting with acids and bases.
Further more, as it is relatively innocuous in most situations, there is no harm in
using excess sodium bicarbonate. Lastly, sodi um bicarbonate powder may be
used to smother a small fire.

Sodium bicarbonate is used in an aqueous solution as an antacid taken orally to t reat

acid indigestion and heartburn. It ma y also be used in an oral form to treat chronic
forms of metabolic acidosis such as c hronic renal failure and renal tubular acidosis.
Sodium bicarbonate may also be useful in urinary alkalinization for the treat ment
of aspirin overdose and uric acid renal stones.

Sodium bicarbonate can be used to exti nguish small grease or electrical fires by
being poured or dumped over the fire. Howe ver, it should not be poured or dumped
onto fires in deep fryers as it may cause the grease to splatter.
Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an
alternative to the more corrosive ammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The
alkali nature of sodium bicarbonate makes it the onl y dry
c h e m i c a l a g e n t, b e s i d e s P u r p l e - K , t h a t w a s u s e d i n l a r g e s c a l e fi r e
supp res sion syste m s ins talle d in co mm ercial kitch ens. Be cau se it can act as
a n a l k a l i , t h e a g e n t h a s a m i l d s a p o n i fi c a ti o n e f fe c t o n h o t g r e a s e , w h i c h
fo r m s a s m o th e r i n g s o a p y fo a m . D r y c h e m i c a l s h a v e s i n c e f a l l e n o u t o f f a v o r
for kitche n fire s a s th ey have n o coo ling e ffe ct co mp are d to the extrre e m e ly
effectiv e we t che mical ag ents sppe e c i fi c a l l y d e s i g n e d fo r s u c h h a z a r d s .

5. BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE

Bism uth subsalicylate, with a chemical formula C7H5BiO4, is a drug used to treat
nausea, heartburn, indigestion, upset stomach, diarrhea, and other temporary
discomforts of the stom mach and gaso trointestinal tract. Commonly known as pin k
bism uth, it is the active ingredient in popular medications suc h as Pepto-Bismol
and modern (since 2003) Kaopectate.

PHARMACOLOGY
As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismut h salicylate displays anti-inflammatory action
and also acts as an antacid.

ADVERSE EFFECTS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS

There are some adverse effects. It ca. n ca use a black tongue a nd black stools in some
users of the drug, whe n it combines wit h trace a mounts of sulfur in saliva and the
gastrointestinal tract. This discoloration is temporary and harmless.

Some of the risks of salicylism can appl y to the use of bismuth subsalicylate. Children

should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while

recovering from i nfluenza or chicken pox, as epide miologic eviden e poicnts
to an association between the use ofssalicylate-containing medications during
certain viral infections and
d the onsent of Reye's syndrome. Forr the same reaoson, it is
typically recomme nde d that nursing mothers not use
medication containing bismuth subsalicylate (such as Pepto-Bismol) because small
amounts of the me dication are excreted in breast milk and pose a theoretical risk
of Reye's syndrome to nursing children.

R AD I O A CT I VI T Y
While bismut h is technically radioactive, its half life is so long, on the order of
hundreds of billions of years, that its radioactivity presents absolutely no threat
under all medical and other ordinary purposes.

DE C O M P O S I T I O N
Bismuth subsalicyclate is the only active ingredient in an over the counter medi cation
that will actually leave a shiny metal slag behind.
 INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT
OBJECTIVE :
To analyse the give n sa mples of comme rcial antacids by deter mining the amount of
hydrochloric acid they can ne utralize.

REQUIREMENTS :
Burettes, pipettes, titration flasks, measuring flasks, bea kers, weight box, fractional
weights, sodium hydroxide, sodi um carbonate, hydrochl oric acid, phenolpht halein.

PROCEDURE :
1. Prepare 1 litre of approxi mately HCl solution by diluting 10 ml of the
concentrated acid for one litre.
2. Similarly, make 1 litre of approxi mately NaOH solution by
dissolving4.0g of NaOH to prepare one litre of solution.
3. Prepare Na2CO3 solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous
sodium carbonate and the n dissolving it in water to prepare exactly
0.25 litres (250 ml) of solution.
4. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard Na2CO3
solution using methyl orange as indicator.
5. Similarly, standardize NaOH solution by titrating it against standardized HCl
solution usi ng phe nolphthalein as indi cator.
6. Powder the various samples of antacid tablets and weigh 1.0 g of each.
7. Add a specific volume of standardised HCl to each of the weighed sa mple
is taken in conical flasks. The acid shoul d be in slight excess, so that it can
neutralize all the alkaline component of the tablet.
8. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and wa rm the flask till most of powder
dissolves. Filter off the insoluble mate rial.
9. Titrate this solution against the standardised NaOH solution, till a
permanent pi nkish tinge is obtained. Repeat this experime nt with
different antacids.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :

Standardisation of HCl solution :

Volume of Na2CO3 solution taken = 20.0 ml

S No. Burette readings Volume of
of acid used
obs. Initial Final
1. 0 ml 15.0 ml 15.0 ml
2. 0 ml 15.1 ml 15.1 ml
3. 0 ml 15.0 ml 15.0 ml
4. 0 ml 15.0 ml 15.0 ml
5. 0 ml 15.0ml 15.0 ml

Concordant volume = 15.0 ml

Appl ying normality equation,
N1 V1 = N2 V2

N1 * 15.0 = * 20

Normality of HCl, N1 = .
= 0.133N

Standardisation of NaOH solution :

Volume of the given NaOH solution taken = 20.0 ml

S No. Burette readings Volume of

of acid used
obs. Initial Final
1. 0 ml 26.5 ml 26.5 ml
2. 0 ml 26.8 ml 26.8 ml
3. 0 ml 26.6 ml 26.6 ml
4. 0 ml 26.6 ml 26.6 ml
5. 0 ml 26.6ml 26.6 ml

C o n c o r d a n t v o l u me = 2 6 . 6 m l

Applying normality equation,

′1 ′
= ′22 ′2
1 1

0.133 * 26.6 = ′ *
2
20

′ .
Normality of NaOH, 2 = = 0.176 N
Analysis of antacid tablet :

Weight of antacid tablet powder = 1.0 g Volume of

H C l s o l u t i o n a d d e d = 2 0 . 0 ml

Antacid Vol. Of NaOH Vol. Of HCl soln.

soln. Used to Used to neutralise
neutralise 1.0 g of
unused HCl antacid matter
1. Gelusil 12.1 ml 12.0 ml
2. Digene 16.0 ml 16.2 ml
3. Aludrox 19.3 ml 18.9 ml
4. Logas 24.3 ml 24.4 ml
5. Ranitidine 21.4 ml 21.7 ml
6. Oc i d 2 0 22.7 ml 21.9 ml

CONCLUSION :
The antacid which has maxi mum vol ume of HCl is used for neutralizing i.e. OCID 20
is more effective.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
THIS PROJECT IS MADE WITH THE HELP
OF FOLLOWING LINKS :
1. WEBSITES :

 www.wikipedia.org
 www.google.com
 www.yahoo.com
 www.pharmaceutical-drugmanufacturers.com
 www.icbse.com

2. BOOKS :

 Comprehensive Practical Manual for class XII

 Pradeep’s New CourseChemistry
 NCERT Class XII Part II