Business Research Methods

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 Chapter I - Research Methods: An introduction

1.1. Meanings of Research

1.2. Types of Research
1.3. Motivation of doing Research
1.4. Research and Scientific Method
1.5. Research Process
1.6. Criteriaof Good Research

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Chapter II - Defining Research Problem and Hypothesis Formulation

2.1. What is Research Problem?

2.2. Techniques and Approaches to Problem Definition
2.3. Problem Formulation, Research Question and
Hypothesis
Chapter III - Research Proposal
3.1. What is a Research Proposal?
3.2. Functions of Research Proposal
3.3. General Format of research Proposal

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Chapter IV - Research Design (planning of research project)
4.1. Meaning of Research Design
4.2. Important Concepts Concerning Research Design
4.3. Features of Research Design
4.4. Forms of Research Design
4.4.1. Research Design for Non-experimental Research
4.4.2. Research Design for Experimental Research
4.4.3. Case study design

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• Chapter V - Sources and Methods of data collection
5.1. Primary data
5.1.1. Source
5.1.2. Data collection method
5.2. Secondary
5.2.1. Source
5.2.2. Data collection Method
Chapter VI - Sample Design and Procedure

6.1. Some Fundamental Definitions

6.2. Sampling Procedure
6.3. Sampling Techniques
6.4. Central limit Theorem and Sampling Theory

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Chapter VII - Data analysis (an overview)
7.1. Data Processing
7.2. Data Analysis
7.2.1. Descriptive Analysis
7.2.2. Inferential Analysis
7.3. Data analysis software
Chapter VIII -Interpretation & reporting the research result
8.1. Meaning & Techniques of Interpretation
8.2. Organization & Types of Reports

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• Textbook: Donald R. Cooper, Pamela S. Schindler (2014):
Business research methods,12th edn, McGraw Hill
publishing, New York, USA
References:
• Kothari C.R. (2004): Research Methodology, Methods &
Techniques, 2nd Revised edn, New Age International (P)
Ltd., Publishers, New Delhi
• Zikmund, W. (2005) Business Research Methods, 8th ed.,
Thomson Learning Inc., South Western, Bangalore.
• Dawson, Catherine. 2002. Practical Research Methods: A
user- friendly guide to mastering research techniques and
project.
• C. William Emory, Donald R. Cooper, Business Research
Methods, 4th Ed.
• Arthur Brookes & Peter Gundy, Writing for Study
Purposes.

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CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCH METHODS-AN INTRODUCTION

Introduction
Business research covers a wide range of phenomena.
For managers:
• the purpose of research is to provide knowledge regarding
the organization, the market, the economy, or another area of
uncertainty.
A financial manager:
• may ask, “Will the environment for long-term financing be
better two years from now?”
A personnel manager:
• may ask, “What kind of training is necessary for production
employees?” or “What is the reason for the company‟s high
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Introduction cont’d…
A marketing manager:
 may ask, “How can I monitor my retail sales and retail
trade activities?”
Each of these questions requires information about how
the environment, employees, customers, or the economy
will respond to executives‟ decisions.
Research is one of the principal tools for answering
these practical questions.
Within an organization, a business researcher may be
referred to as a marketing researcher, an organizational
researcher, a director of financial and economic
research, or one of many other titles.
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Introduction cont’d…

• The ultimate goal of research is to supply accurate

information that reduces the uncertainty in
managerial decision making.

• Business research helps decision makers shift from

intuitive information gathering to systematic and
objective investigation.

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Introduction…

• Managers in organizations constantly engage

themselves in studying and analyzing issues and
hence are involved in some form of research
activity as they make decisions at the workplace.

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• Sometimes managers make good decisions and the
problem gets solved.

• Sometimes managers make poor decisions and the

problem persists.

• The difference between making good decisions and

poor decisions, lies in how managers go about the
decision-making process.

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Good decision making fetches a “yes” answer to the
following questions:
1. Do managers identify where exactly the problem
lies?
2. Do they correctly recognize the relevant factors in
the situation needing investigation?
3. Do they know what types of information are to be
gathered and how?
4. Do they know how to make use of the information
so collected and draw appropriate conclusions to
make the right decisions.
5. Do they know how to implement the results of
this process to solve the problem?

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• This is the essence of research and to be successful
manager it is important for you to know how to go
about making the right decisions by being
knowledgeable about the various steps involved
in finding solutions to problematic issues.

• This is what our course is all about.

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 Meaning of Research

Research is:
a search for knowledge.
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic.
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
a movement from the known to the unknown. It is a
voyage of discovery.

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 Meaning Cont’d…
Research:
comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis
or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.

Is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making

for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment.

Is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method
of finding solution to a problem is research.

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Meaning…

Research:
• Is “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.”
• In a nutshell, „research‟ refers to the systematic method
consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts
and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

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 What is Business Research?

• A process of determining, acquiring,

analyzing, synthesizing, and
disseminating relevant business data,
information, and insights to decision
makers in ways that mobilize the
organization to take appropriate
business actions that, in turn,
maximize business performance
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• Business research is defined as the systematic and
objective process of generating information for aid in
making business decisions.
Or
• is the systematic approach to obtaining and
confirming new and reliable knowledge”
– Systematic and orderly (following a series of
steps)

– Purpose is new knowledge, which must be

reliable

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Business Research
Research information is neither intuitive nor
haphazardly gathered.
Literally, research (re-search) -“search again”
Business research must be objective
Detached and impersonal rather than biased
It facilitates the managerial decision process for all
aspects of a business.

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 I don’t know
if we
should
offer on-site
Information child care?

Reduces

Uncertainty

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 Why Study
Business Research?

Business research
provides information
to guide business
decisions

1-22
 Research is not
Accidental discovery :

• Accidental discovery may occur in structured

research process

• Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not

previously noticed

• May lead to a structured research process to verify

or understand the observation

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Data Collection
• an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge
• collecting reliable data is part of the research
process
Searching out published research results in libraries
(or the internet)
• This is an important early step of research
• The research process always includes synthesis and
analysis
• But, just reviewing of literature is not research

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Research is…
1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena,
relationships and causes
– What, how and why things occur
– Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the
information generated credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions

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 Objectives of Research

• The general purpose of research is to discover

answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures and to find out the truth which
is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.

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 Specifically,
Research objectives fall into a broad groupings:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights

into it (exploratory or formulative research studies);

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,

situation or a group (descriptive research studies);

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

which it is associated with something else (diagnostic research
studies);

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

( hypothesis-testing research studies).
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 Motivation in Research

What makes people to undertake research?

The possible motives for doing research may be either one
or more of the following:
Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research;
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
Desire to be of service to society;
Desire to get respectability.

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 Research is not
Accidental discovery :

• Accidental discovery may occur in structured

research process

• Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not

previously noticed

• May lead to a structured research process to verify

or understand the observation

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Data Collection
• an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge
• collecting reliable data is part of the research
process
Searching out published research results in libraries
(or the internet)
• This is an important early step of research
• The research process always includes synthesis and
analysis
• But, just reviewing of literature is not research

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Research is…
1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena,
relationships and causes
– What, how and why things occur
– Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the
information generated credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions

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 Types of Research

• Research can be classified in terms of the

 Goal of research ( basic and applied research)
 Specific objectives of research( descriptive , exploratory, and casual or
explanatory research)
 Approaches of research ( qualitative and quantitative research )
 Research designs ( experimental, quasi – experimental , and non –experimental
research)
 the type of data used in research( primary or field research , and secondary or
desk research)
 Fields of study ( Natural science, social science research, educational
research, behavioural science research, health science research, etc.

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 Descriptive vs. Analytical research

Descriptive research:
• describes characteristics of objects, people, groups,
organizations, or environments.
• tries to “paint a picture” of a given situation by addressing
who, what, when, where, and how questions.
• Sometimes known as Ex post facto research because the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only
report what has happened or what is happening.

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Analytical Research:
• the researcher uses facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.

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Applied(action) Vs. Fundamental(basic)
Research

Applied research
• aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business
organization,
• Conducted when a decision must be made about a
specific real-life problem
the central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem

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Applied Research Examples

Should McDonalds add Italian pasta dinners to its

menu?
Should Procter & Gamble add a high-priced home
teeth bleaching kit to its product line?
Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institution
research to find out whether certain communications will be
read and understood or

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 Basic/Fundamental research:

• concerned with generalizations and with the

formulation of a theory.
• “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
• Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge.
• Not directly involved in the solution to a pragmatic
problem.
oBasic research is directed towards finding information
that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to
the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

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Basic Research Example
• Is executive success correlated with high need for
achievement?
• Are members of highly cohesive work groups
more satisfied than members of less cohesive
work groups?
• Do consumers experience cognitive dissonance in
low-involvement situations?
• research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a
view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also
examples of fundamental research, but

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Quantitative research:
• is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research:
is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind.
For instance,
• when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e.,
why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation
Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel
or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research.
• Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such
research we can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in
a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.

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 Some Other Types of Research

One time or longitudinal research

• one-time research-the research is confined to a single time-period
or
• longitudinal research-the research is carried on over several time-
periods
Field-setting research or laboratory research vs Simulation
research
• depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
exploratory or formalized
• The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with substantial structure and
with specific hypotheses to be tested.

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 Exploratory research

• is conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover potential

business opportunities.

• is not intended to provide conclusive evidence from which to determine

a particular course of action.

• is not an end unto itself.

• Usually exploratory research is a first step, conducted with the

expectation that additional research will be needed to provide more
conclusive evidence.

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 Causal Research:

• Causal research seeks to identify cause and-effect

relationships. When something causes an effect, it means
it brings it about or makes it happen. The effect is the
outcome.
Example: Rain causes grass to get wet. Rain is the cause
and wet grass is the effect.

• The different types of research discussed here are often

building blocks—exploratory research builds the
foundation for descriptive research, which usually
establishes the basis for causal research.

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 Research Approaches

Quantitative approach
• involves the generation of data in quantitative form which
can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
formal and rigid fashion.
• This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential,
experimental and simulation approaches to research.
• The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form
a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population.

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Qualitative approach

• is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,

opinions and behavior.
• Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s
insights and impressions.
• Such an approach to research generates results either in
non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
• Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used.

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 Research Methods Versus Methodology

Research methods
• all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research or the methods the researchers use in performing
research operations.
• all those methods which are used by the researcher during the
course of studying his/her research problem are termed as
research methods.
• Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
• methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
• statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships
between the data and the unknowns;
• methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.

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 Research methodology
• is a way to systematically solve the research problem or a
science of studying how research is done scientifically.
• Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain
indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the
median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which
are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.
• Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques and they need to know the
criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and
procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others
will not.

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• In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously
evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on
what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors,
windows and ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and
the like.

• Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research

decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has
to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects
and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by
others also.

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The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research
methods, research methodology has many dimensions and research
methods do constitute a part of the research methodology.

o Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the

research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in
the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others so that research
results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or
by others.

Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research

problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has
been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular
method has been adopted, why particular technique of analyzing
data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually
answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a
research problem or study.

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 When is Business Research Needed?

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 The Research Process

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1) Formulating the research problem

Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the

research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
analytical point of view.

The best way of understanding the problem is to

discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter.

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The researcher must at the same time examine all
available literature to get himself acquainted with the
selected problem.
 Two types of literature:
the conceptual literature concerning the concepts
and theories, and
the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed.

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2) Extensive literature survey

• A literature review is an essential part of academic research.

• it is an acknowledgement of what has already been written on your
chosen subject.

• It helps to identify ‘gaps’ in the existing literature that may assist you
in forming the basis of your study as well as helping to avoid
repetition.
• For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc.,
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

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3). Development of working hypotheses

• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order

to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.

• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece

of research in hand because it has to be tested.
• The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the
right track.

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• How to develop working hypotheses?
 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
 Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
 Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
 Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a
limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure
greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.

• Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking

about the subject, examination of the available data and material
including related studies and the counsel of experts and
interested parties.

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4) Preparing the research design
• The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling
objectives and answering questions.
Selecting a design may be complicated by the
availability of a large variety of methods,
techniques, procedures, protocols, and sampling
plans.
For example, you may decide on a secondary
data study, case study, survey, experiment, or
simulation.

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  If a survey is selected,
 should it be administered by mail, computer, telephone, the Internet, or
personal interview?
 Should all relevant data be collected at one time or at regular intervals?
 What kind of structure will the questionnaire or interview guide possess?
 What question wording should be employed?
 Should the responses be scaled or open-ended?
 How will reliability and validity be achieved?
 Will characteristics of the interviewer influence responses to the
measurement questions?
 What kind of training should the data collectors receive?
 Is a sample or a census to be taken?
 What types of sampling should be considered?

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5)Determining sample design
• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
• this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and
energy.
• Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under
many circumstances.
• Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes. The items so selected
constitute what is technically called a sample.

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6. Collecting the data

• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which

differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other
resources at the disposal of the researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or
through survey.
• In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more
of the following ways:
 By observation
 Through personal interview:
 Through telephone interviews
 By mailing of questionnaires

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7) Execution of the project

• Putting the project in to action.

• Example:
• Collecting data

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 8) Analysis of data
classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories as
follows:
• Coding :categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted.
• Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for
coding.
• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified
data are put in the form of tables.
Two methods for analysis
• Inferential Statistics
• Regression
• Correlation
• Hypothesis testing
• Descriptive Statistics
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
• Standard deviation
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9) Hypothesis-testing

 Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be

contrary?
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have
been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it.

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10. Generalizations and interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times,

it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory.

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• Preparation of the report or the thesis:
• Writing of report must be done with great care
keeping in view the following:
• The layout of the report should be
(i) the preliminary pages;
(ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter.

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• The main text of the report should have the following parts:
• Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the
research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing
the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as
well be stated in this part.
• Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language
• Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
• Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely.

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 What is a good research?

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Chapter Two: Defining and Formulation of
the Research Problem and
Hypothesis

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 What is a Research problem?

A research problem refers to some difficulty, which a

researcher faces (experiences) in the context of both a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.

 It is a dilemma or difficulty that a researcher faces within a

theoretical or practical context and thus wants a solution for.

a problem occurs when there is a difference between the current

conditions and a more preferable set of conditions.

In other words, a gap exists between the way things are now and
a way that things could be better.

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Components Research Problem
For a research problem to exist, there should
exist the following conditions:

 an individual or a group with difficulty.

 a context in which the difficulty prevails.
 an objective intended to be attained.
alternative ways of achieving the objective.
 a doubt about which alternative to take.

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 Selecting the Problem
Selecting a research problem is not an easy task.
However, the following points should be borne in mind in
doing so.
• Topics already exhausted should be avoided.
New findings may not be expected in such
situations.
• Controversial issues should not be a choice
particularly for novice researchers.
• Too narrow or too broad topics should be
avoided.

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It is advisable to make sure relevant sources of
information or materials are available.
The researcher’s training, importance of the
issue to be studied and the logistics available
(time, money, equipment, cooperation from
others, etc.) needed should be taken into
consideration.
 Base-line or feasibility studies might be
necessary if the area of study is relatively new
and has no developed techniques.

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A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to find answers to question such as:
What kind of data and information are relevant and
needed to be studied?
What relationship is to be explored among variables?
What technique has to be used to collect and analyze
data?
etc

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 Defining the problem
Defining the problem involves stating the problem clearly
along with the boundaries within which the problem is to
be studied and with the pre-determined objectives in
mind. The following steps are to be given thorough
attention in defining the problem.
• Stating the problem( understanding the syptom)
The researcher should state the problem clearly by
consulting experts in the area or reading some research
guides.

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• Understanding the nature of the problem
It is good to seriously consider what induced the
researcher to think of the issue or state the problem
or consult others particularly those with experiences
on how the problem first originated and with what
objective to be achieved.
• Surveying available literature
Existing literature including research reports should be
surveyed to have a clear idea about existing theories
in the field.

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Familiarizing oneself with relevant research problems
undertaken and findings obtained would help
significantly. This helps to identify existing gaps and
focus on them.

•Developing the ideas through discussion

Discussing the problem with colleagues, friends,

professors and others with rich experience would
contribute to defining the problem.

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• Rephrasing the research problem
Once the problem is understood through such
mechanisms, the researcher is expected to put the
research problem in as clear and specific terms as
possible.

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 Example,

• Does a relationship exist between income of

university students and score on their exams?

• Is there a relationship between employees' age and

their productivity?

• Does a relationship exist between the men

circumcision and sensitivity to HIV virus?

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 Example

Organization Symptoms Problem Definition True Problem

based on Symptom

Brewery Consumers prefer taste Taste of brewery’s Old-fashioned packaging

of competitor’s product product needs to be is influencing taste
formulated perception

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 Determine the Unit of Analysis
• The unit of analysis for a study indicates what or who should provide the data
and at what level of aggregation.

• It is about specifying whether an investigation will collect data about:

individuals (such as customers, employees, and owners),

• households (families, extended families, and so forth),

• organizations (businesses and business units),

• departments (sales, finance, and so forth),

• geographical areas, or objects (products, advertisements, and so forth).

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Determine Relevant Variables
What is a Variable?
• What things should be studied to address a decision
statement?
• A variable is anything that varies or changes from
one instance to another.
• The converse of a variable is a constant. A constant is
something that does not change. Constants are not
useful in addressing research questions.

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Types of variables
• A continuous variable is one that can take on a range of
values that correspond to some quantitative amount.
• Consumer attitude toward different airlines is a variable that
would generally be captured by numbers, with higher numbers
indicating a more positive attitude than lower numbers.
• Sales volume, profits, and margin are common business metrics
that represent continuous variables.
• A categorical variable(classificatory variable) is one that
indicates membership in some group.
• represent quantities that take on only a small number of values
(one, two, or three).
• more often simply identify membership.
• For example, people can be categorized as either male or
female. The variable values can be an “M” for membership in
the male category and an “F” for membership in the female
category. Alternatively, the researcher could assign a “0” for
men and a “1” for women.

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Dependent vs Independent variables

oCommon in descriptive and causal research.

oA dependent variable is a process outcome or a
variable that is predicted and/or explained by other
variables.
oAn independent variable is a variable that is
expected to influence the dependent variable in
some way.
o For example, average customer loyalty may be a
dependent variable that is influenced or predicted by an
independent variable such as perceptions of restaurant
food quality, service quality, and customer satisfaction.

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Write Research Objectives and Questions

• Research questions express the research objectives in terms of questions

that can be addressed by research.
• For example, one of the key research questions can be “Are wages and
long-haul distance related to driver loyalty and retention?”
• One key distinction between research questions and hypotheses is that
hypotheses can generally specify the direction of a relationship.

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 Example, :

Problem/Questions Research questions Research objectives

 What are the benefits  To identify perceived

Should security and disadvantages of in– benefits and perceived
services be provided house and outsourced disadvantages of in –house
in –house or be security services? and outsourced security
outsourced?  Would the top services.
management prefer in-  To measure managers’
house or outsourced preference for these
security services? alternative
 How much will each  To identify the costs
alternative costs? associated with each
alternative.

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 Evaluation of the problem
The research problem should be evaluated in terms of
the following criteria:
• Is the problem researchable?
• Is the problem new?
• Is the problem significant?
• Is the problem feasible?
• Researcher Competence
• Interest and enthusiasm
• Financial consideration
• Time requirement
• Administrative consideration

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 Hypothesis

• The word hypothesis is a compound of two words,

“hypo” and “thesis”.

• Hypo means, under or below and thesis means a

reasoned theory or rational viewpoint.

• Thus, hypothesis would mean a theory, which is not

fully reasoned.

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Hypotheses are statements that can be empirically
tested.
Importance of Hypothesis
Represents specific objective, which
determine the nature of the data needed to
test the proposition
Offer basis for selecting the sample, the
research procedure, and the statistical
analysis needed.
Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby
preventing it from becoming too broad
Sets a framework for reporting the
conclusion of the study.
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 Notice how the following hypotheses express
expected relationships between variables
There is a positive relationship between buying on the
Internet and the presence of younger children in the
home.
Sales are lower for salespeople in regions that receive
less advertising support.
Consumers will experience cognitive dissonance after the
decision to adopt a personal video recorder.
Opinion leaders are more affected by mass media
communication sources than are non-leaders.
Among non-exporters, the degree of perceived
importance of overcoming barriers to exporting is related
positively to general interest in exporting (export
intentions).
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SOME EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS

• Political participation(DV) increases(R/S)

with education(IV).

• Alienation increases with Poverty

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AN ILLUSTRATION
The technique of defining a problem outlined above can be illustrated for better
understanding by taking an example as under:
Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad general way is as follows:
“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”?
In this form the question has a number of ambiguities such as: What sort of productivity is
being referred to? With what industries the same is related? With what period of time the
productivity is being talked about? In view of all such ambiguities the given statement or
the question is much too general to be amenable to analysis. Rethinking and discussions
about the problem may result in narrowing down the question to:
“What factors were responsible for the higher labor productivity of Japan’s manufacturing
industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries?”
This latter version of the problem is definitely an improvement over its earlier version for
the various ambiguities have been removed to the extent possible. Further rethinking and
rephrasing might place the problem on a still better operational basis as shown below:
“To what extent did labor productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in
respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible for the
productivity differentials between the two countries by industries?”

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 Chapter Three:

RESEARCH DESIGN
(PLANNING THE RESEARCH
PROJECT)

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Meaning of research design
A research design is a plan involving conditions
required for collection and analysis of relevant
data to obtain intended objectives. It includes
the issues of what data to gather, where,
when, how, and how much of them to gather.

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It is a blueprint of what the researcher does from the
beginning to the end of the research activity. It
considers what the study is about, why and where it is
conducted, what type of data is needed, where and
when the data can be collected, what sampling design
to use, how to gather and analyse the data, and how to
write the report.

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Features of a Good Research Design

The quality of a research design always depends on the

purpose or objective of a particular research and the
nature of the problem to be studied. Thus a design
suitable for a particular research may not be suitable
for another study.

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However, a good research design should take the
following issues into consideration.
Appropriateness of means of obtaining data
Adequacy of the researcher’s skills
Objectives intended to be achieved
Nature of the problem to be researched
Availability of resources (time, fund, etc.)

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 Types of Research Design
Before discussing the different types of research designs, it
would be appropriate to see some concepts necessary for
the understanding of the issue. These are:

Variables – a concept that can take quantitative values is

referred to as a variable. (e.g. age, height)

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There are different kinds of variables.
1. Independent variable – a variable that the
researcher can manipulate (eg. income, age, sex).
The researcher can see the effect of age on
something else by varying the age of the subjects -
5-10, 11-15, 16-20, etc.
2. Dependent variable – a variable that depends on or
is the consequence of another variable
(independent variable).

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For instance if we say someone’s weight depends on
age, age is an independent variable and weight is a
dependent variable. Related concepts to this is how
these variables are numerically expressed. Seen from
this perspective, there are:
•Continuous variables – variables that can take
quantitatively different values even in decimal points
(e.g. age, scores).

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•Non-continuous/discrete variables - variables that can
be expressed only in integer values (eg. no. of children
or family members).
3.Extraneous variable – Independent variable not
considered for the study but which may affect the
dependent variable. For instance, you might want to
see the effect of time spent on learning a skill on the
learners achievement.

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• In this case, although time spent on leaning a skill
would have an effect on learning the skill, the
learner’s intelligence or talent may also affect the
result of the training, but in fact, it has not been
considered for the study . The effect noticed on
dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable
is known as experimental error.

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A research design should, as much as possible, control
the effects of extraneous variables and the result
should be attributable to the independent variable
only.
4. Confounded relationship – When the effect of an
extraneous variable cannot be controlled in a study, the
relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded.

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5. Experimental and control groups -
In an experimental hypothesis testing research, a group
exposed to the usual or conventional conditions is known
as the control group while that exposed to a special or novel
conditions is referred to as the experimental group.

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 Kinds of Research Design
1. Research design for exploratory studies
Exploratory researches are sometimes referred to as
formulative research. The main purpose of such a study
is to discover ideas, insights and working hypothesis or
theory. So, design for this kind of study should be
flexible enough so as to enable the researcher to see
the problem from various perspectives.

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• Method applied in exploratory study include:
a) surveying relevant literature
This involves reviewing and developing possible
hypotheses or theories stated by earlier researchers
and evaluating their influences as a basis for future
research.

b) Surveying others’ experiences

This is survey of practical experiences of

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• researchers who have studied related problems.
This helps to get insight into the relationship between
variables and new ideas relating to the is sue under
study. The survey may help us to carefully select people
with requisite experiences as respondents . Such
people may be thoroughly interviewed even to raise
points that the researcher hasn’t thought about.

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2. Research Design for Descriptive Study
Descriptive study has the purpose of portraying the
characteristics of a particular individual, group or
event. The following are steps followed in descriptive
research.

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 Formulate objectives/hypothesis

Design methods of Data Collection

Develop Instruments

Select Sample

Conduct Pilot Test

Revise Instruments

Collect Data

Analyze Data

Prepare Report
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3. Experimental /Hypothesis Testing Research Design
The purpose is to test causal relationships between variables.
Such a design will reduce bias, increase reliability and
permits drawing inferences about causality.
Basic Principles
a) The principle of replication – The experiment should be
repeated more than once to increase the staatistical accuracy
of results. Example: growing teff in line and with no line in
one plot of land and another plot and measuring the yield
may not be accurate for various reasons like fertility of land
in different corners.

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b) The principle of randomization – helps to safeguard
results against the effects of extraneous factors.
Example: in which plot of land the teff is to be grown
should be decided randomly.
c) The principle of local control – varying deliberately
the source of variability (extraneous factor) over as
wide range as necessary so as to measure the
variability it causes and eventually eliminate it from the
experimental error.

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• Experimental designs can be informal or formal.
a) Informal experimental designs:
1.Before and after without control – A single test group
is selected and dependent variable is measured
before and after the introduction of treatment. The
effect of the treatment would equal to result after
treatment minus result before treatment.

Level of phenomena Level of phenomena

Before treatment (X) Treatment after treatment (Y)

Treatment effect = (Y) – (X)

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 2. After-only with control design – Two groups
(control and experimental) are selected and
treatment is introduced to the experimental group.
The dependent variable is then measured for both
groups at the same time. The dependent variable
value for the control groups is subtracted from the
value for the experimental group to see treatment
impact.

Experimental group Treatment Level of phenomenon

after treatment (Y)
Control group Level of phenomenon
Without treatment (Z)
Treatment effect = (Y) – (Z)

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• 3. Before and after with control group
• The dependent variable is measured for both groups
before treatment, then treatment is introduced, and
finally the dependent variable is measured again after
treatment.
Exp. Group Level before Treatment Level after
treatment (X) treatment (Y)
Cont. Group Level without Level without
treatment (W) treatment (Z)

Treatment Effect = (Y-X) - (Z-W)

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Formal Experimental Designs

1.Completely randomized design – This uses the

principles of randomization and those of replication.
Two designs belong to this one.

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a) Two-group Simple Randomization Design – In such a
design, we:
• first define our population
• select samples randomly
• assign randomly to control and experimental
groups. (This is a principle of randomization.)

Exp. Grp. Trtmnt. B

Population random Sample Random Indep.
selection assignment Variable

Cont. Grp. Trtmnt. A

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The experimental group and the control group are
given different treatments of the independent variable.
This is advantageous as it is simple and randomizes the
difference among the samples but its limitation is that
differences among those giving the treatments is
difficult to eliminate. This affects the result of the
study.

b) Random Replication Design

This eliminates the limitation of the two-group simple
randomization design.

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 Study Random Study Random
Population Selection Sample Assignment Grp.1
Grp.2 Trtmnt B
Grp.3

Ind.
vari

Grp.4
Grp.5 Trtment A
Grp.6
Treatment Random Treatment Random
Population Selection Sample Assignment

N.B. Groups 1-3 are Experimental while 4-6 are control ones.

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 Chapter Four:
Writing a Research Proposal
Objective in writing a research proposal
is to describe:
• what you will do
• why you should do it
• how you will do it, and
•what the expected outcome is

If you have a clear idea of what you

should do, then your journey through
the venture will be easy leading to
timely completion of your
research/thesis.
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Otherwise, unclear, weak or fuzzy
proposal can lead to a long, painful,
and often unsuccessful thesis writing
exercise.

A proposal shouldn’t be too long, an

average of ten pages.

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 Structure of a Research Proposal
T

1. The Title Page

Includes data such as:
• Name of your university/educational
institution, college/faculty, department
•Proposed title of your work/title of planned
dissertation
•Your name
•Date of submission of the proposal (This may
vary according to institutions).

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Words in the title should be chosen with great
care and they should be brief, clear, accurate,
focused, descriptive and comprehensive. For
example, phrases like, "An investigation of …,
A study of …, An exploration into" …, etc could
be omitted because they do not add anything
as such. Titles, on average, should not be more
than ten words or 60 characters.

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2. The Introduction
The main purpose is to provide the necessary
background or context for your research
problem.
A good title by itself cannot tell the whole
story. That warrants the need for a strong
introduction that gives a good background to
the study and what the proposal is about.
An introduction might be as short as a single
page, but should be very clear and be able to
capture the reader's interest.

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Issues to be focused on:
• State the research problem, often referred
to as the purpose of the study.
•Provide context and set stage for your
research questions, show its necessity and
importance.
•Present the rationale of your study and
clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
•Briefly describe the major issues and sub-
problems to be addressed

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•If needed, identify the key independent and
dependent variables, otherwise, specify the
phenomenon you want to study.
•State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For
exploratory or descriptive research, you may
not have any hypotheses.
•Set the delimitation or boundaries of your
proposed research in order to provide a clear
focus.
•Provide definitions of key terms if any.
Remember this is optional.

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 •Research Questions/Objectives
Important issues to be addressed are:
What you are doing?
What specific issues or questions will your work address?

Very briefly say how you will approach the work and what is
to be learnt from your work.

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•Rationale
In this section, address the following:
Why it is important to answer the research
questions?
What are the implications of doing the
research?
How does it link to existing knowledge?
What are the expected contributions?
Would it inform present knowledge or policy
making?
This should show how the project is
significant to our body of knowledge.

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 Why is it important to our understanding of the world? If
the project is to be submitted for funding, it should
convince the organization as to why investing money into
it is worthwhile.

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3. Literature Review
Purpose - to situate the research in the context
of what is already known about a topic.
It need not be exhaustive, but it should
provide the theoretical basis for your work. You
will need to show what has been done in the
area by others, and set the stage for your work.
Relevance is a key issue in literature review.
In this section, give the reader enough ties to
the literature so that they feel confident that
you have found, read, and assimilated the
literature in the field.

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Include a paragraph that summarizes each
article's contribution. The flow should
probably move from the more general to the
more focused studies.
Literature reviews should be free from the
following:
•Lacking organization and structure
•Lacking focus, unity and coherence
•Being repetitive and verbose
•Failing to cite landmark studies
•Not keeping up with recent developments
•Failing to critically evaluate cited papers

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 • Citing irrelevant or trivial references
• Over citing limited sources
•Depending too much on secondary sources
Proposals with such shortcomings negatively reflect on the
competence of the writer and quality of the work.

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4. Methodology
In this section, you need to demonstrate your knowledge of
alternative methods and make the case that your approach
is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your
research questions.
The method section typically consists of the following
sections:

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 Design - Is it a questionnaire study or a
laboratory experiment? What kind of
design do you choose? What is your
approach? Qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods?
Subjects or participants - Who will take part
in your study ? What kind of sampling
procedure do you use?
Instruments - What kind of data gathering
instruments would you use? Why do you
choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
Procedure - How do you plan to carry out
your study? What activities are involved?
How long does it take?

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 Data Analysis - Explains in some detail how
you compile and organize the data that you
gathered in order to answer your research
questions. It will include statistical or other
techniques and the tools that you will use in
processing the data.
Interpretation - In this section you are
expected to indicate how the outcomes will
be interpreted to answer the research
questions. It is extremely beneficial to
anticipate the range of outcomes from your
analysis and know what it will mean in terms
of answering your questions.

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Expected Results - Obviously you do not have results at the
proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea
about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what
statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your
research question or test you hypothesis. This section
should thus give a good indication of what you expect to
get out of the research. It should join the data analysis and
possible outcomes to the theory and questions that you
have raised. It will be a good place to summarize the
significance of the work.

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 5. Cost of the Project - This is a section that gives a
description of fund that you need to conduct the
research. You are expected to give details of cost of the
project in terms of human and material resources and
how much money is needed for each.

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 6. Timetable – You will need to develop a time table (if
possible in table form) for your activities. Indicate the
sequence of research phases and the time that you
will probably need for each phase. Take into account
that at this stage, it can only be estimated, but make
clear that you have an idea about the time span that
will be needed for each step.

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7. Reference
This is the list of the relevant works you have referred to.
Some institutions/advisors like an exhaustive list and that is
called "Bibliography". Others like to see only the literature
which you actually cited in the work which is “Reference”.
List of references should be ordered alphabetically using
last names of authors.

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Chapter Five: Methods of Data Collection
The following factors need to be taken into
consideration when selecting methods of data
collection.

1. The nature of the study – The method of data

collection selected for a study should suit the nature
of the study to be conducted. It is also important to
determine whether the required data are primary or
secondary.

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2. Availability of funds – When adequate fund is not
available, the researcher may be forced to choose
relatively inexpensive methods of data collection, but
these may not be as effective as some costly ones.
Although it is understandable that this may have an
impact on the quality of the research, the investigator
has to choose methods that can be practical from the
point of view of finance available to her/him.

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3. Availability of Time – Choice of methods should also
consider time available for the study as some
methods take relatively much longer time than
others. Thus it is important to know how much time is
available to complete the research before selection of
methods is made.
However, it is important to bear in mind that all
methods of data collection have their own advantages
and disadvantages and none is inferior or superior to
the other.

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There are two kinds of data:

Primary data – Data collected afresh and for the first time.
Such data can be said to be original in character.

Secondary data – Data collected and already processed by

other researchers. Such data are usually found in a form of
document in both published and unpublished materials.

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Methods of data collection for primary and secondary
data differ. The latter is usually secured from libraries or
are readily available in publications, so there is no need
of going out to field to gather them.

Collection of Primary Data

In experimental researches, data are mostly collected in
the course of conducting the experiment but in surveys
and descriptive researches of social sciences, different
methods are applied to gather primary data. Survey
research is used to assess opinion, thought & feelings.

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Primary data are collected using the methods of:
1. OBSERVATION
The researcher collects data by directly watching
what is currently happening in the situation under
study. This is appropriate in contexts where the
samples are limited. The observer usually has a
checklist of measures of the behaviour sought.

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Types of observation
From the point of view of design of instruments to be
used in the process, observation can be structured or
unstructured.
Structured observation – When a researcher uses a
detailed checklist containing units to be observed, the
style of observation and the standardized conditions of
observation, it is called structured observation.

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Unstructured observation – This is when the
observation is to take place without such a checklist
and the observer records what simply crops up in the
process of observation.
Observation can also be participant or non-participant
when seen from the perspective of the observer’s role.
Participant observation – If the observer conducts the
observation by making himself appear like a member of
the group he is observing or experiencing what they
experience, this is participant observation.

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Through this method, it is possible to collect data on
genuine or natural behavior of the group.
In participant observation, the researcher’s presence as
a researcher is not known to the subjects observed
(disguised observation) and this is considered unethical
by many.
In addition, one major disadvantage of this is that it
would not be possible for the researcher to take field
notes at the time of observation.

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Non-participant observation – This is
when the researcher observes what is
going on as a detached outsider. S/he
would not attempt to share in what the
subjects do and identifies her/himself as a
researcher. A major disadvantage is that
the subjects may exhibit artificial
behaviors.

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Observation method has its advantages
and disadvantages.
Advantages:
 No subjective bias if observation is
done accurately
 Relates to what is going on at
present and is not complicated by
past or future intentions.
 Is relatively independent of
respondent’s willingness or active
cooperation as compared to the
use of questionnaire or interview.
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Accurate recording of data may be difficult as various
behaviours might be exhibited simultaneously or at
close distance.

Unforeseen circumstances might sometimes interfere

with the process of observation. It is possible that
subjects of observation may not be accessible.

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Disadvantages:
 Relatively expensive as each situation or episode
has to be observed.
 Information secured is limited as you cannot probe
further.

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2. INTERVIEW
This is a method of data collection that involves oral
stimuli or questions from the researcher known as
interviewer to initiate oral responses from the
individual/group known as interviewee. This usually
takes place in a form of face-to-face personal
interview or, if not possible, through telephone
interview.

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When seen from the point of view of form of questions
to be used, an interview can be structured, semi-
structured or unstructured.
Structured interview – This is an interview in which the
interviewer uses a set of predetermined questions to
be used in a highly standardized and inflexible
procedure laid down. Questions are presented in the
form and order prescribed and any departure
compromises the standardization of the interview
process. Structured interview maximizes the reliability
and validity of measurement of concepts.

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Semi-structured interview – This is a type of interview
that employs a list of questions or fairly specific topics
to be put to interviewees using similar wordings from
interviewee to interviewee. However, questions may
not follow exactly the same order as outlined in the
guide and the researcher has a great deal of flexibility.
Sometimes questions not included in the guide may be
used.

Unstructured interview – This kind of interview does

not follow a system of predetermined questions and
standardised techniques of recording data.

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The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can change
the sequence of questions, add some supplementary
questions or, if need be, omit certain questions.
Problem: Lack of comparability of one interview with
another and difficulty in analysis. It is also time
consuming.

Advantages of Interview Method

• Indepth information can be secured.
• Flexibility allows restructuring questions in case of
unclarity.

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Gestures and facial expressions can be
exploited.
Samples can be controlled and there would
not be any missing responses.
Gives the possibility of controlling who
answers the questions – This is not possible in
questionnaires.
The language of interview can be adjusted
according to the level of interviewee.

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Disadvantages of Interview Method
• Very expensive if large and widely spread
geographical samples are taken.
• Possibility of bias on the part of interviewer or
interviewee.
• May not be easy to find important officials or
people in high income groups
• More time-consuming than others.
• The interviewer’s presence might over-stimulate
the interviewee generating imaginary responses.

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3. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a method of data collection that uses

a set of questions printed in some order to be
distributed face-to-face or by mail to respondents who
are expected to read the items, understand them and
write responses on their own. In terms of medium of
dispatch, a questionnaire can be internet-mediated,
postal, and delivery and collection.

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 Structures of Questionnaire

A questionnaire, in its form, can be structured or

unstructured.
While the structured one has limited responses
determined by the researcher, the unstructured one has
free responses mainly left to the respondent to
determine responses and give them in own words.

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Structured questionnaire is:
 difficult to construct to ensure a spread of
responses.
 Easy to code
A structured questionnaire can be:
 Binary - yes/no only
 Rating - asks respondents to rank views,
characteristics, strength of opinions, etc.
 Likert scale – asks extent of agreement or
disagreement to a set of statements.

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Unstructured questionnaire:
• is difficult when it comes to establishing a coding
frame.
• has problems of reliability of coding due to
differences among scorers or across time.

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Advantages of Questionnaire
• very cost effective when compared to face-to-face
interviews.
• easy to analyze.
• reduces bias.
• less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys.
• gives respondents as much time as they want.
• possibilities of reaching a large sample which makes
the result more reliable.

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Disadvantages of Questionnaire
• the possibility of low return rates.
• the inability to probe responses.
• gestures and other visual cues are not available with
written questionnaires.
• for a variety of reasons, the respondent may not be
who you think it is.
• simply are not suited for some people.
• possible omission of replies making interpretations
difficult

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General Considerations in Designing a
Questionnaire
• Have well-defined goals – how you intend to
use information.
• Keep your questionnaire short .
• Know how every question will be analyzed.
• Be prepared to handle missing data.
• Make the envelope unique.
• Provide a well-written cover letter.
• Give your questionnaire a title.
• Include clear and concise instructions on
how to complete the questionnaire.
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General Considerations (cont’d)
 Group questions into logically coherent sections.
 Begin with a few non-threatening and interesting
items.
 Use simple and direct language.
 Leave adequate space for respondents to make
comments.
 Place the most important items in the first half of
the questionnaire.
 Try it on a few representatives of the target
audience (Pilot it).

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Cover Letter
1. Briefly describe why the study is being done.
2. Mention inclusion of a stamped, self- addressed
return envelope.
4. Encourage prompt response (without using
deadlines).
5. Let your respondents know your "confidentiality
and anonymity" policy.
6. Provide the name and phone number of someone
they can call with questions.

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 Questionnaire design
• A questionnaire is only as good as the questions it
asks
• A good questionnaire is usually the result of long,
painstaking work
• The Major Decisions in Questionnaire Design
• What should be asked? (Questionnaire relevance and
accuracy)
• How should each question be phrased? (Open-ended Vs
fixed-alternative questions)
• In what sequence should the questions be arranged?
(Order bias ,Funnel technique , Filter bias )
• What questionnaire layout will best serve the research
objectives?
• How should the questionnaire be pretested? Does the
questionnaire need to be revised?
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In a questionnaire , Avoid
• Complexity: use simple, conversational language-
don’t write long statements

• ambiguity: be as specific as possible

• double-barreled items-don’t ask two questions at a

time

• making assumptions

• burdensome questions
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 Survey Research
• Surveys ( rather sample surveys ) are methods of collecting
primary data by asking ask respondents (representative sample
of people) for information using verbal or written questioning.
• The type of information gathered in a survey varies considerably
depending on its objectives such as
• Identifying characteristics of target markets,
• measuring customer attitudes, and describing
• Consumer purchase patterns , and the like.
• Surveys provide a quick, inexpensive, efficient, and accurate
means of assessing information about a population.

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 Errors in Survey Research
• There are two major sources of errors in conducting
survey that arises from poor design and improper
implementation. These are
• Random sampling error, and
• Systematic ( bias ) errors Random sampling
Error

Total Survey Error

Systematic
(bias) Errors

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Random sampling Error

• Random sampling error is a statistical fluctuation that occurs

because of chance variation in the elements selected for a
sample.
• These statistical problems are unavoidable without very large
samples (larger than 400). However, the extent of random
sampling error can be estimated.
• The following diagram shows the categories of survey errors.

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 Categories of survey errors

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Systematic Errors

• Systematic errors include all sources of error other than

those introduced by the random sampling procedure.
Sometimes these errors or biases are also called non
sampling errors.
• Systematic errors are error resulting from some imperfect
aspect of the research design that causes respondent
error or from a mistake in the execution of the research.
• A sample bias is a persistent tendency for the results of a
sample to deviate in one direction from the true value of
the population parameter.

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• If respondents cooperate and give truthful answers, a
survey will likely accomplish its goal. If not the two
major categories of respondent error , non response
error or response bias cause sample bias or
systematic errors.
• A non-response error is defined as the statistical
differences between a survey that includes only
those who responded and a perfect survey that
would also include those who failed to respond.
• Non-respondents are people who are not contacted
or who refuse to cooperate in the research.

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 Response bias
• A response bias occurs when respondents either consciously or
unconsciously tend to answer questions with a certain slant that
misrepresents the truth.
• Response bias could be classified into two groups deliberate
falsification, and unconscious misrepresentation
• Deliberate falsification : Occasionally people deliberately give
false answers. It is difficult to assess why people knowingly
misrepresent answers.
• A response bias may occur when people misrepresent answers
to appear intelligent, conceal personal information, avoid
embarrassment, and so on.
• Unconscious Misrepresentation : response bias arising from the
question format, the question content, or some other stimulus.
For example, bias can be introduced by the situation in which
the survey is administered.

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 5.3 Types of Response Bias
• Response bias falls into five specific
categories: acquiescence bias, extremity
bias, interviewer bias, auspices bias , and
social desirability bias. These categories
overlap and are not mutually exclusive.

• Acquiescence bias : A tendency for

respondents to agree (or disagree) with all
or most questions asked of them in a survey.
This bias is particularly prominent in new-
product research. Questions about a new-
product idea generally elicit some
acquiescence bias because respondents give
positive connotations to most new ideas.

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 • Extremity bias: A category of response bias that
results because some individuals tend to use
extremes when responding to questions.

• Interviewer bias: A response bias that occurs

because the presence of the interviewer
influences respondents’ to give untrue or
modified answers. The interviewer’s age, sex,
style of dress, tone of voice, facial expressions,
or other nonverbal characteristics may have
some influence on a respondent’s answers.

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 • Auspices bias : Agreement or disagreement
can also be influenced by a respondents
feelings toward the organization identified as
conducting or sponsoring the research.
Auspices bias occurs when answers reflect the
person’s liking or disliking of the sponsor
organization rather than simply the relevant
opinions.

• Social desirability bias : Bias in responses

caused by respondents’ desire, either
conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or
appear in a different social role. Some
respondents wish to create a favourable
impression or save face in the presence of an
interviewer

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 5.4 Administrative Error
• The result of improper
administration or execution of the
research task is called an
administrative error.
• Administrative errors are caused by
carelessness, confusion, neglect,
omission, or some other blunder.
• Four types of administrative error are
data-processing error, sample
selection error, interviewer error, and
interviewer cheating.

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 • Data-processing error : A category of
administrative error that occurs because of
incorrect data entry, incorrect computer
programming, or other procedural errors
during data analysis.
• Sample selection error : An administrative
error caused by improper sample design or
sampling procedure execution.
• Interviewer error: Mistakes made by
interviewers failing to record survey responses
correctly. Also, selective perception may cause
interviewers to misrecord data that do not
support their own attitudes and opinions.
• Interviewer cheating: The practice of filling in
fake answers or falsifying questionnaires while
working as an interviewer.

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Method of Secondary Data Collection

• Secondary information is information, which has

already been collected by someone and which,
have already been passed through statistical
process.

• The researcher does not obtain them directly

rather he gathered them from published and
unpublished material.

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Secondary data to be useful, it must be:

•Available
•Relevant to the information
needed
•Accurate and sufficient to meet
data requirement.

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 1. Reliability of the data

The reliability can be tested by finding answers to the

following questions about the said data:
• Who collected the data? (How is the reputation of the
collector?)
• What were the sources of the data?
• Were they collected using proper method?
• At what time were they collected?
• Was there any bias of the collector?
• What level of accuracy was desired?
• Was it achieved?
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2. Suitability

• The data that are suitable for one inquiry may not
necessary be found suitable in another inquiry.
• The researcher must very carefully scrutinize the
definition of various terms and units of collection
used at the time of collecting the data from the
primary sources originally.
• The object, scope and nature of the original inquiry
must be studied.
• If the researcher finds difference in these, the data
will remain unsuitable for the present inquiry and
should not be used
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3. Adequacy

• If the area and scope of the study is

narrower than the area of present study
the data are considered as inadequate.

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The secondary sources of information can be
classified into:

• Personal Document
• Public document
A. Personal document
• These include the entire published and
unpublished information document by the
individuals for different purpose:
• Personal documents are not written in scientific
manner (style) nor do they have an objective basis.
• They generally represent some ideas, values and
feeling etc.
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Personal documents have been classified in to
four types

a. Biography / Autobiography
• Some great political, business leaders, social reformers
and eminent persons write their own autobiographies
or some other people (biographer) write their
biography. Such persons provide useful information
concerning, social, economic, political, religious and
cultural conditions and incidents of their time.
• Autobiographies are life histories, life experience and
incidents of prominent individuals written by them.
Biographies are life history, experience and events of
some prominent person written by some biographer
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 2. Diaries:

• Many educated people have a habit of writing diaries

concerning their social relationship and life incidents.
Most of the dairy writer has no intention to publish
them. Some people daily write diaries to include
program of the day.
• Diaries are written with different intentions. Some
write diaries to remember important incidents of their
life. Some on the other hand write diaries to note
things, which they cannot tell to anyone. They may
write it to release their tension. Diary writing is a
confidential and private performance. Therefore, if they
are available they can be considered as a reliable.

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 3. Letters

• Letters are often used by researchers as evidence

especially in studies like, history and sociology and
psychology.

• Letters are the medium of expressions of feelings

likes and dislikes attitudes, desires, emotion,
ambitions and important incidents of life. Letters
are in general, personal and very reliable.

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4. Memories

• Some people are interested in writing down

memories for their travels, participation in different
activities. Such memories provide useful
information in social research

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B. Public and Official document

• Public documents are information gathered from

some governmental or non-governmental
institutions.
• Public documents can be either unpublished or
published documents.
• Unpublished documents are like reports of some
big companies, confidential records of government
departments and non-governmental organization.
• Published document are those published
documents in the general interest of the public.
Such documents may be prepared by government
or any other organs.
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 CHAPTER Six: SAMPLING DESIGN AND
PROCEDURE

• The statistical investigation can take two forms.

The researcher studies every unit of the field of study
(survey) and drive conclusion by computing the sum of
all units. This type of survey is called census survey.
Or

the researcher study only a unit in the field of survey

and this type of survey is called sample survey.

In sample technique of survey some unit are taken as

representative of the whole field of domain and the
conclusion of the sample is extended to the whole
population.
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Some fundamental definitions
Population: Is the theoretically specified aggregation of
survey elements from which the survey sample is actually
selected.
Sampling Frame: Is the list of elements from which the
sample is drawn
Sample: A subset or some part of a larger population
Sample design: Is a definite plan for obtaining a sample
frame
Sampling: Is the process of using a small number or part of
a larger population to make conclusion about the whole
population.
Element: Is unit from which information is collected and
which provides the basis of analysis
Statistic: Is a characteristic of a sample
Parameter: Is a characteristic of a population.
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 Steps involved in sample planning
(Sampling procedure)
Defining population

Census Vs Sample

Sampling Design

Sample Size

Estimate Cost of Planning

Execute Sampling Process

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1. Defining the population

• The first thing the sample plan must include is a

definition of the population to be investigated.
• Defining the target population implies specifying
the subject of the study.
• Specification of a population involves identifying
which elements (items) are included, as well as
where and when.
• If the research problem is not properly defined
then defining population will be difficult

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2. Census Vs Sample

• choice must be made between census and sample

Advantages of census

• Reliability: Data derived through census are highly

reliable.
• Detailed information: Census data yield much
more information.

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Limitation of census

• Expensiveness: Investigating each elements of the

population is expensive to any individual researcher

• Excessive time and energy: Beside cost factor,

census survey takes too long time and consumes
too much energy.

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Need for sampling

• Sampling can save time and money (it is

economical than census).
• Sampling may enable more accurate measurement,
because sample study is generally conducted by
trained and experienced investigator.
• Sampling remains the only way when population
contains infinitely many members.
• Sampling technique also enables researchers to
obtain detailed study, as the number of sample
units is fairly small these can be studied intensively
and elaborately.
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 Limitations of sampling

• Less accuracy: In comparison to census technique the conclusion

derived from sample are more liable to error. Therefore, sampling
technique is less accurate than the census technique.

• Misleading conclusion: If the sample is not carefully selected or if

samples are arbitrarily selected, the conclusion derived from them
will become misleading if extended to all population.

• In assessing the monthly expenditure of university students if the selected

sample contains more rich students, our result (conclusion) will be
erroneous if it extended to all students

• Need for specialized knowledge: The sample technique can be

successful only if a competent and able scientist makes the selection.

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Conditions to use Sampling :
• Vast data: When the number of units is very large, sampling
technique must be used. Because it economize money, time and
effort

• When at most accuracy is not required: The sampling technique is

very suitable in those situations where 100% accuracy is not
required, otherwise census technique is unavoidable.

• Infinite population: If the population is unlimited sampling

technique is imminent.

• When census is impossible: If we want to know the amount of

mineral wealth in a country we cannot dig all mines to discover and
count. Rather we have to use the sampling technique.

• Homogeneity: If all units of the population are alike (similar)

sampling technique is easy to use.
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Essentials of an ideal sample

Representativeness: An ideal sample must

represent adequately the whole population.
It should not lack a quality found in the whole
population.
Independence: Each unit should be free to be
included in the sample
Adequacy: The number of units included in the
sample should be sufficient to enable derivation of
conclusion applicable for the whole population. A
sample having 10% of the whole population can be
considered.
Homogeneity: The element included in the sample
must bear likeness with other element.
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11/9/2018 201
III. Sampling method
3.1 Errors associated with sampling
• Two basic causes of differences between statistics and
parameters are
1. random sampling errors
2. systematic (no sampling) error
• Random sampling error is the difference between the
sample result and the result of a census conducted
using identical procedures.
• The sampling units, even if properly selected according to
sampling theory, may not perfectly represent the
population, but generally they are reliable estimates.

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• Random sampling errors and systematic errors
associated with the sampling process may combine to
yield a sample that is less than perfectly representative of
the population.

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3.2 Probability versus Nonprobability Sampling
• The main alternative sampling plans may be grouped into
two categories: probability techniques and no probability
techniques.

• probability sampling: A sampling technique in which

every member of the population has a known, nonzero
probability of selection.
• The simple random sample, in which each member of the
population has an equal probability of being selected, is the
best-known probability sample.

• nonprobability sampling: A sampling technique in which

units of the sample are selected on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience. .
• The probability of any particular member of the population
being chosen is unknown.

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• No appropriate statistical techniques exist for
measuring random sampling error from a
nonprobability sample. Therefore, projecting
the data beyond the sample is, technically
speaking, statistically inappropriate.

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3.2.1 Nonprobability sampling
Some of the nonprobability sampling methods
include convenience , purposive , quota, and snowball
sampling.
convenience sampling refers to sampling by
obtaining people or units that are conveniently
available.
• Researchers generally use convenience samples to obtain a
large number of completed questionnaires quickly and
economically, or when obtaining a sample through other
means is impractical.
• The user of research based on a convenience sample
should remember that projecting the results beyond the
specific sample is inappropriate.
• Convenience samples are best used for exploratory
research when additional research will subsequently be
conducted with a probability sample.
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Purposive (Judgment) sampling is a nonprobability
sampling technique in which an experienced individual
selects the sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required of the sample
member.

• Researchers select samples that satisfy their specific purposes,

even if they are not fully representative.

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Quota sampling is a non probability sampling to ensure
that the various subgroups in a population are represented
on pertinent sample characteristics to the exact extent that
the investigators desire.

• Although quota sampling has many problems, carefully supervised

data collection may provide a representative sample of the various
subgroups within a population.

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Snowball sampling involves using probability
methods for an initial selection of respondents and
then obtaining additional respondents through
information provided by the initial respondents.

• This technique is used to locate members of rare

populations by referrals. When the focus group is not
expected to be a generalized sample, snowball sampling
may be appropriate.

• Reduced sample sizes and costs are clear-cut advantages

of snowball sampling.
• However, bias is likely to enter into the study because a
person suggested by someone also in the sample has a
higher probability of being similar to the first person.

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 3.2.2.Probability Sampling
• All probability sampling techniques are based on chance
selection procedures.
• Because the probability sampling process is random, the
bias inherent in nonprobability sampling procedures is
eliminated.
• Note that the term random refers to the procedure for
selecting the sample; not to the data in the sample.
• Randomness characterizes a procedure whose outcome
cannot be predicted because it depends on chance. It is
the basis of all probability sampling techniques.
• the various probability sampling methods include: simple
random, systematic, stratified, cluster, and multistage
sampling.
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Simple Random Sampling
• The sampling procedure that ensures each element in
the population will have an equal chance of being
included in the sample is called simple random
sampling.
• This process is simple because it requires only one
stage of sample selection.
• For example, drawing names from a hat if the names are
thoroughly stirred, each person or ticket should have an
equal chance of being selected.
• When populations consist of large numbers of
elements, sample selection is based on tables of
random numbers or computer-generated random
numbers.

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Systematic Sampling
• A sampling procedure in which a starting point is
selected by a random process; then every nth number
on the list is selected. ( where n is considered as the
sampling interval .)

• While systematic sampling is not actually a random

selection procedure, it does yield random results if
the arrangement of the items in the list is random in
character.

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Stratified Sampling
• stratified sampling: A probability sampling procedure in
which simple random subsamples that are more or less equal
on some characteristic are drawn from within each stratum of
the population.
• The initial step is the same for both stratified and quota
sampling: choosing strata on the basis of existing information.
• However, in stratified sampling, a subsample is drawn using
simple random sampling within each stratum. This is not true
of quota sampling.
• The reason for taking a stratified sample is to obtain a more
efficient sample than would be possible with simple random
sampling.
• Suppose, for example, that urban and rural groups have widely
different attitudes toward energy conservation, but members within
each group hold very similar attitudes. Random sampling error will
be reduced with the use of stratified sampling, because each group is
internally homogeneous but there are comparative differences
between groups.

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• Another reason for selecting a stratified sample is to
ensure that the sample will accurately reflect the
population on the basis of the criterion or criteria used for
stratification as simple random sampling yields a
disproportionate number of one group or another and the
sample ends up being less representative than it could be.

• A researcher can select a stratified sample as follows.

• First, a variable (sometimes several variables) is identified as an
efficient basis for stratification and this variable chosen should
increase homogeneity within each stratum and increase
heterogeneity between strata.
• Next, for each separate subgroup or stratum, a list of population
elements must be obtained. And then a separate simple
random sample is then taken within each stratum.
• Of course, the researcher must determine how large a
sample to draw for each stratum. This issue is about using
either a proportional or disproportional stratified
sampling method.

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• If the number of sampling units drawn from each
stratum is in proportion to the relative population size
of the stratum, the sample is a proportional stratified
sample.

• In a disproportional stratified sample the sample size

for each stratum is not allocated in proportion to the
population size but is dictated by analytical
considerations, such as variability.

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Cluster sampling
• It is an economically efficient sampling technique in which
the primary sampling unit is not the individual element in
the population but a large cluster of elements; clusters
are selected randomly.
• The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample
economically while retaining the characteristics of a
probability sample.
• In a cluster sample, the primary sampling unit is no
longer the individual element in the population but a
larger cluster of elements located in proximity to one
another.
• The area sample is the most popular type of cluster
sample.
• Cluster sampling is classified as a probability sampling
technique because of either the random selection of
clusters or the random selection of elements within each
cluster.

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• Ideally a cluster should be as heterogeneous as the
population itself—a mirror image of the population. A
problem may arise with cluster sampling if the
characteristics and attitudes of the elements within
the cluster are too similar.

• For example, geographic neighbourhoods tend to

have residents of the same socioeconomic status.
Students at a university tend to share similar beliefs.
This problem may be mitigated by constructing
clusters composed of diverse elements and by
selecting a large number of sampled clusters.

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multistage area sampling
• It is a sampling that involves using a combination of two
or more probability sampling techniques

• Typically, geographic areas are randomly selected in

progressively smaller (lower-population) units.

• For example, a researcher might first choose woredas

within a zone to ensure that the different areas are
represented in the sample. In the second step, kebeles
within the selected woredas may be chosen and as a
final step, the researcher may select households within
the kebeles , and then interview all the households.

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 What Is the Appropriate Sample Design?
• The criteria for selecting an appropriate sample
design may include degree of accuracy , resources ,
and time.

Degree of Accuracy

• The degree of accuracy required or the researcher’s

tolerance for sampling and non-sampling error may
vary from project to project, especially when cost
savings or another benefit may be a trade-off for a
reduction in accuracy.

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Resources
• The cost associated with the different sampling
techniques varies tremendously. If the researcher’s
financial and human resources are restricted, certain
options will have to be eliminated.
• Managers concerned with the cost of the research
versus the value of the information often will opt to
save money by using a nonprobability sampling
design rather than make the decision to conduct no
research at all.
Time
• A researcher who needs to meet a deadline or
complete a project quickly will be more likely to select
a simple, less time-consuming sample design.
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Reading Assignment
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages , as
well as the cost and degree of use of the different
sampling methods you know. ( Refer Zikmund, PP
404-405)

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iv. Sample size determination

• Refer to your statistics for Management Course

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
OVERVIEW OF DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

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• Generally stages in data processing and analysis can be
summarized as:

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 Data processing
Data possessing implies editing, coding, classification
and tabulation of collected data so that they are
amendable to analysis.
• Editing: Is a process of examining the collected raw
data to detect errors and omission (extreme values)
and to correct those when possible
• It involves a careful scrutiny of completed questionnaires or
schedules
• It is done to assure that the data are
• Accurate
• Consistent with other data gathered
• Uniformly entered
• As complete as possible
• And has been well organized to facilitate coding and tabulation
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Editing can be either field editing or central editing 225
 • Field editing: Consist of reviewing of the reporting
forms by the investigator for completing what has
been written in abbreviation and/ or in illegible form
at a time of recording the respondents’ response
• This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible
after the interview or observation.

• Central editing: It will take place at the research

office. Its objective is to correct errors such as entry
in the wrong place, entry recorded in month

• Coding: Refers to the process of assigning numerical or

other symbols to answers so that responses can be put
into a limited number of categories or classes.
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• Classification: implies the processes of arranging data
in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics.

• Data having common characteristics placed in one

class and in this way the entire data get divided into a
number of groups or classes.

• Classification according to attributes: Data are classified on

the basis of common characteristics, which can either be
descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc) or numerical
(such as, weight, age height, income, expenditure, etc.).

Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon,

which cannot be measured quantitatively: only their presence
or absence in an individual item can be noticed.
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• Classification according to class interval: Data relating to
income, production, age, weighted, come under category.
• Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified
on the basis of class interval.
• Fore example, individuals whose incomes, say, are within 1001-
1500 Birr can form one group, those whose incomes within
500-1000 Birr form another group and so on.

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Some problems in processing

• Don’t know (DK) Responses: During data

processing, the researcher often comes across
some responses that are difficult to handle.
• Don’t know (DK) is one example of such responses.
When the DK response group is small, it is of little
significance. But when it is relatively big, it
becomes a matter of major concern

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How the DK responses are to be dealt with by researcher?
• Prevention is the best!
• The best way is to design better types of question. Good
rapport (understanding) of interviews with respondents
will result in minimizing DK response.
• But what about the DK responses that have already
taken place?
• One way to tackle this issue is to estimate the allocation
of DK answers from other data in the questionnaire
• The other way is to keep DK responses as a separate
replay category if DK response happens to be legitimate,
otherwise we should let the reader make his own
decision.
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 Analysis

• Data analysis is:

• further transformation of the processed data to look
for patterns and relations among data groups.
• the computation of certain indices or measures along
with searching for patterns or relationship that exist
among the data groups.
• Analysis can be categorized as
• Descriptive Analysis
• Inferential (Statistical) Analysis

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 Descriptive analysis:
• Descriptive analysis
• refers to the transformation of raw data into a form that will
make them easy to understand and interpret.
• is largely the study of distribution of one variable.
• The calculation of averages, frequency distribution, and
percentage distribution is the most common form of
summarizing data.
• The most common forms of describing the processed data are:
• Tabulation
• Percentage
• Measurements of central tendency
• Measurements of dispersion
• Measurement of asymmetry
• Data transformation and index number
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• Tabulation: Refers to the orderly arrangement of
data in a table or other summary format.
• It presents responses or the observations on a
question-by-question or item-by-item basis and
provides the most basic form of information.
• It tells the researcher how frequently each
response occurs

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• Percentage: Whether the data are tabulated by computer or by
hand, it is useful to have percentages and cumulative
percentage. Table containing percentage and frequency
distribution is easier to interpret. Percentages are useful for
comparing the trend over time or among categories
• Measure of central tendency:
• Mean (arithmetic mean) is the common measure of central tendency
• Mode is not commonly used but in such study like estimating the
popular size of shoes it can be used
• Median is commonly used in estimating the average of qualitative
phenomenon like estimating intelligence.
• Measurement of dispersion: Is a measurement how the value
of an item scattered around the true value of the average.
• Range: Measures the difference between the maximum and the
minimum value of the observed variable
• Mean deviation: It is the average dispersion of an observation around
the mean value.
• Variance: It is mean square deviation. It measures the sample variability.

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 Inferential Analysis

• Most researcher wishes to go beyond the simple

tabulation of frequency distribution and calculation of
averages and / or dispersion.
• They conduct and seek to determine the relationship
between variables and test statistical significance.
• When the population is consisting of more than one
variable it is possible to measure the relationship
between them.

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• If we have data on two variables we said to have a
bivariate variable, if the data is more than two variables
then the population is known as multivariate
population.
• If for every measure of a variable, X, we have
corresponding value of variable, Y, the resulting pairs of
value are called a bivariate population

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1. Is there exist association or correlation between the two
or more variables? If yes, then up to what degree?
• This will be answered by the use of correlation
technique.
• In case of bivariate population correlation can be found
using:
• Cross tabulation
• Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation: It is simple correlation
and commonly used
• Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation

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• In case of multivariate population correlation can be
studied through:

• Coefficient of multiple correlation

• Coefficient of partial correlation

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2. Is there any cause and effect (causal relationship)
between two variables or between one variable on one
side and two or more variables on the other side?
• This question can be answered by the use of regression
analysis.
• In regression analysis the researcher tries to estimate
or predict the average value of one variable on the
basis of the value of other variable.
• For instance a researcher estimates the average value score
on statistics knowing a student’s score on a mathematics
examination.
• There are different techniques of regression.
• simple regression.
• multiple regression analysis.
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