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Reviewer in Biology
Reviewer in Biology
Phosphate have a large amount of chemical -also contains significant membrane proteins
energy . Whenever a bond holding a for cellular respiration . It is impermeable to
phosphate is broken , a large amount of most molecules.
usable cellular energy is released.
Cristae- These folds greatly increase the
Releasing Energy – Energy released by surface of the inner membrane.
breaking bonds –used to power cells.
*Deficiencies in proteins found on
Storing Energy- Other chemical reactions can mitochondrial membranes will lead to diseases
be used to bond a phosphate to ADP to make characterized by muscle weakness , heart
ATP. problems , epilepsy and often , dementia
Reduction – Gaining of Electrons and H+ Lose Products of Transition Reaction per pyruvate:
of oxygen
1- Carbon Dioxide
Oxidation- Losing of electrons and H+, Gaining 1- NADH
of oxygen 1- Acetyl CoA
Gycolysis – A 10 – step biochemical pathway This Acetyl CoA will then enter the Krebs Cycle
that occurs in the cytosol and involves the
breakdown of glucose to pyruvate Krebs Cycle- It functions as a metabolic
furnace that oxidizes organic fuel derived from
-also known as EMP pathway ( Embden – pyruvate.
Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway)
-Happens in the matrix
-Break down 1 glucose into 2 molecules of
pyruvate -Also known as the Citric Acid Cycle or TCA
(Tricarboxylic acid Cycle)
-Produce ATP & NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine
-Discovered by Hans Adolf Krebs
Dinucleotide)
-4 ATP are produced( 2 ATP net gain ) -Succinyl CoA (4C) will produce ATP the result
will be succinate(4C) and CoA will leave again
Transition Reaction
-From Succinate (4C) will donate two H+ to
*Most of the energy remains stockpiled in the FAD to form FADH
two molecules of pyruvate from the glycolysis.
-Fumarate (4c) will be transformed to Malate
-Happens in the matrix (4C)
Products of ETC:
Theoretically,
Complex I –NADH dehydrogenase
1 NADH=3ATP
-Receives e- and protons (H+) from NADH
1 FADH2 = 2 ATP
-The electrons are transported to ubiquinone
Adjusted ratio cause of leaky complexes,
-H+ are released to the IMS
1 NADH = 2.5 ATP
Ubiquinone (Q)-Coenzyme q
1FADH2= 1.5 ATP
-mobile lipid – soluble molecule
NADH Problem because inner membrane is not
-Receives e- from Complex I and Complex II impermeable to most molecules 2 NADH
formed in the glycolysis will follow this ratio ,
-Transports e- to Complex III
1 NADH= 1.5 ATP
Complex II- Succinate Dehydrogenase
Problem in Aerobic Cell respiration
-receives e- from FADH2
- Reactive Oxygen Species , this is a free
-No H+ are transported to the IMS radical cell that takes a e- molecule
Complex III – Cytochrome c reductase / from a healthy cell creating oxidative
Cytochrome bc1 complex stress, and antioxidants can turn these
free radical cell into a healthy cell by
-receieves e- from Q giving extra e- to it.
- Cyanide , this stops Complex IV from
-Transports H+ to the IMs
working
Cytochrome C - Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin
and oxygen can no longer be carried to
-Shuttles e- to Complex IV one by one the ETC
- 2,4- dinitrophenol need H+ in the IMS Stoma – pore like openings on the openings
since H+ is insufficient it cannot create a on the underside of the leaf , each stoma
concentration gradient and no has two guard cells which control its
chemiosmosis will occur therefore no opening and closing . ,allows carbon
ATP will be produced dioxide , oxygen and water diffuse into and
out of the leaf.
Anaerobic Respiration – A catabolic
pathway for organic molecules , using -Plants keep them open just enough to
oxygen as the final acceptor in an electron allow photosynthesis to take place but not
transport chain and ultimately producing so much that they lose excessive amount of
ATP water.
-but in anaerobic respiration inorganic -Maybe closed in the bright sunlight under
molecules other tan oxygen accept hot, dry conditions in which water
electrons the downhill of the end of conservation is a matter
electron transport chains
Palisade mesophyll-Column- shaped cells
EX. Acidophiles containing chloroplasts
-It is a way of harvesting chemical energy Chloroplasts – found in plants and other
without using either oxygen or any electron photosynthetic organism
transport chain.
-contains the light absorbing pigment
Lactic Acid Fermentation –After glycolysis , named chlorophyll
pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to
Parts of a chloroplasts
form lactate as an end product no CO2 will
be released. Stroma – semi gel like fluid containing the
Alcohol Fermentation – After , pyruvate is chloroplast DNA and ribosomes
reduced by receiving H+ and it releases Thylakoid lumen – space inside the
CO2 resulting in acetaldehyde. Then thylakoid
reduced by NADH to form ethanol.
Thylakoid- flattened , interconnected sacs
PHOTOSYNTHESIS- An anabolic , carbon surrounded by the stroma.
dioxide (CO2) – requiring process that uses
light energy (photons) and water (H2O) to Granum- A stack of thylakoids
produce organic macromolecules
Chlorophyll-located in the thylakoid
(glucose).
membranes
-takes place in the chloroplast
-plants are green because the green
-Although all cells in the green parts of a wavelength is reflected by chlorophyll not
plant have chloroplasts , the majority of absorbed.
those are found in specially adapted
-blue and red are absorbed
structures called leaves.
-have Mg+ in the center
Parts of a leaf
-pigments harvest energy ( photons ) by -This results in taking an H+ from the stroma.
absorbing certain wavelengths of visible
light. Light Reaction
M-Phase
• Carbon Fixation will join 6 CO2 and 6 RuBP
(5C each) to produce 12 PGA (3C each = 36C Mitosis -somatic cells
in all PGA products).
Meiosis- sex cells
• Reduction will phosphorylate and reduce the
12 PGA to 12 G3P (3C each = 36C in all G3P Fertilization
products).
• The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a
Regeneration zygote.
•Tetrads align on the metaphase plate. •Major cause of human reproductive failure
• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter Cancer Causes •Mistakes in mitosis •Defects in
cells are formed cell cycle checkpoint mechanisms •Defects in
DNA replication •Defects in DNA repair
After Meiosis I (23 duplicated chromosomes •Abnormal chromosome number
per cell)
Cancer cells invade and colonize territories
Meiosis II
normally reserved for other cells.
•No interphase II (or very short - no more DNA
replication)