Geography Exam Review Notes

Physical Connections
Structure of The Earth
● Crust ​- Earth's thinnest and outermost layer, hard and rigid
● Lithosphere​- ​lies under the crust.​ made up of the crust and top part of the upper mantle
● Asthenosphere​- ​ ​The upper layer of the earth's mantle
● Mantle​- ​ is the widest section of the Earth. made up of magma
● Outer Core-​ ​ ​The layer surrounding the inner. It is a liquid layer, also made up of iron and nickel.
It is still extremely hot, with temperatures similar to the inner core.
● Inner Core- ​The centre and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and made up of iron and
nickel. With its immense heat energy, the inner core is like the engine room of the Earth.

Plate Tectonics

Divergent Plates
● two plates are ​moving away​ from each other
● new crust is forming from magma that rises to the Earth's surface between the plates

Convergent Plates
● plates are ​moving toward​ each other
● Subduction occurs when one plate moves under the other
Types of Convergent Boundaries
● Oceanic-Continental:​ One part of the lithosphere pushes under another part of the lithosphere
which cause volcanoes to form at the point of intersection
○ Land is created and destroyed
● Continental-Continental:​ The crusts are pushed against each other which forms mountains
○ Land is neither created or destroyed

Transform/ Lateral Plates

● occur when two plates​ grind past​ each other
● These faults can produce intense earthquakes because of the friction that is created
● Land isn’t destroyed or formed.

Convection Current
● Provide the basic driving forces for plate rotation
● The hot but solid rock behaves in a ​plastic way ​over long periods of time
○ It can flow very slowly circulating within the earth
Glaciation
Glacier: ​large slow moving ice mass that forms over hundreds/thousands of years and moves by its own
weight due to gravity
Alpine Glaciers: ​glaciers that form in the higher elevations of mountains
Continental Glaciers: ​thick sheets of ice that can cover thousands of square kilometres
Moraine: ​any glacially formed accumulation of glacial debris

How Glaciation Has Changed Canada

● Glaciers have made Canada what it is today because it has made all of our landforms
● Our mountains and hills are all formed from glaciers
Types of Rock
Sedimentary Rock
Creation:
1. Weathering: rocks breaking down
2. Erosion: movement of rock pieces
3. Deposition: building of rocks in a new location
Characteristics: ​layers, fossils, numerous types of sediment in the rock
Example: ​sandstone
Metamorphic Rock
Creation: ​formed from heat and pressure or the chemical action of fluids, changing the original rock
(sedimentary, igneous, another metamorphic) into a new rock
Characteristics: ​layers, crystals in layers
Example: ​Gneiss
Igneous Rock
Creation: ​formed by the cooling of magma/lava
Characteristics: ​doesn’t contain fossils
Example: ​Obsidian
Intrusive:​ cools below Earth’s surface
Extrusive:​ cools on the surface

Landform Regions
Western Cordillera
Provinces: ​Yukon, British Columbia, Some of Alberta
Physical Characteristics: ​Mountain ranges, valleys, warmer temp, isolated/protected, farmland
Natural Resources/ Economic Activities: ​fishing, forestry, metallic mining, farming

Interior Plains
Provinces: ​Alberta, Saskatchewan, Northwest Territories
Physical Characteristics: ​flat lands (fertile farmland), sedimentary rocks (from the Canadian Shield)
Natural Resources/ Economic Activities: ​fossil fuels
Innuitian Mountains
Provinces: ​Northern Nunavut
Physical Characteristics: ​icy, barren (no vegetation), jagged younger mountains
Natural Resources/ Economic Activities: ​potential fossil fuels, potential mining

Great Lakes & St. Lawrence Lowlands

Provinces: ​Southern Ontario
Physical Characteristics: ​Fertile land, abundance of metamorphic rock
Natural Resources/ Economic Activities: ​farm land, transportation routes- lakes, roads, air travel (on the
U.S. border) ​Industrial and Commercial Heartland of Canada

Hudson Bay/ Arctic Lowlands

Provinces: ​Nunavut, Ontario, some of Manitoba and Quebec
Physical Characteristics:​ lowlands, tundra, permafrost, wetlands, forests
Natural Resources/ Economic Activities: ​eco tourism, lignite mining

The Canadian Shield

Provinces: ​Ontario, Quebec, Labrador
Physical Characteristics: ​metallic minerals, glaciation, plate tectonics
Natural Resources/ Economic Activities: ​mining, hydroelectricity, tourism

Appalachian Mountain Range

Provinces: ​atlantic provinces→ Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, PEI, Newfoundland
Physical Characteristics: ​eroded mountains (rounded), lots of sediments, fertile land
Natural Resources/ Economic Activities: ​fishing, farming, forestry, trading

Climate Calculations
Temperature Range = ​Highest Temperature - Lowest Temperature
Annual Average Temperature = ​sum of monthly average temperatures ÷ 12
Total Precipitation = ​add the precipitation totals for each month
Snowfall Equivalent = ​ sum of precipitation of every month with <0℃ × 10
Length of Growing Season = ​number/names of consecutive months with a temp. of 6℃ or more of 6​°​C
or more​ (i.e. May-September)
Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation:
● sum of precipitation throughout “winter” months (Jan, Feb, Mar, Oct, Nov, Dec)
● sum of precipitation throughout “summer” months (Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep)
the greater of the 2 sums is the ​seasonal distribution of precipitation

Type of Climate
Continental Climate = ​(has to have ⅔ of these factors)
- Temperature range of more than 25C
 - Precipitation total of less than 1000mm
- Seasonal Distribution for summer is higher
Maritime Climate = ​(has to have ⅔ of these factors)
- Temperature range of less than 25C
- Precipitation total of more than 1000mm
- Seasonal Distribution for winter is higher

Factors Influencing Climate

L​atitude
● The further you are from the equator, the colder it will be

O​cean Currents
● Travel in streams in bodies of water
● The temperature of ocean currents affect the temperature of nearby land
● Warm ocean current = warm climate
● Cool ocean current = cool climate
● Frontal precipitation causes fog and lots of snow
● Maritime Provinces
W​ind and Air Masses
● Air masses have the same conditions from where they are formed (wet, dry, hot, cold)
● Prevailing winds are the main pattern of winds that impact us
● our prevailing winds go from west to east called ​the westerlies
○ allows us to look at weather in western canada and see what going to east
● Jet Stream: ​boundary between cold arctic air and warm tropical air
○ winter the jet stream is further south, so we get more of the cold arctic air because we
are on the cold side of the boundary
○ summer the boundary moves north so we get more tropical air since we are on the
tropical side of the boundary
○ can disappear and reappear because the winds are not ongoing
○ the stream flows the same as the prevailing winds

E​levation
● The higher the elevation, the dryer the air
○ Dry air cannot hold moisture which causes lower temperatures

R​elief
● The effect mountains have on precipitation
● The ​windward side ​(direction wind is coming, wetter) gets a lot of precipitation
● The ​leeward side ​(sheltered, downside; dryer) gets less precipitation because air masses lose
moisture at the top of the mountain so the air mass becomes dry
N​ear Water
● Bodies of water moderate the climate
● air masses pass over bodies of water so masses become the temp of the water
● winter, places close to water are warmer because there is a warm air mass over water
● summer, places close to water are colder because there is a cold air mass over water
● After september → water is cooling down
● April and May→ the water is trying to warm up

Types of Precipitation

Relief
● Created as air masses are pushed over mountains/upland areas
● Rainfall occurs where moist air is forced to rise over a physical barrier (mountain range)
Mountainous Areas→ Innuitian Mountains, Appalachian Mountains, Rocky Mountains

Frontal/ Cyclonic
● Cold and warm front meeting
● The cold air is more dense than the warm air
○ Forces the warm air to rise which adds more moisture to the clouds
Maritime Provinces

Convectional
● in the summertime
● the ground gets heated very quickly from the intense heat
○ makes rapid evaporations
○ Then as it rises, it cools and condenses
○ all the moisture condensed together and reaches a maximum saturation
● storms last 20 minutes, very strong massive amount of rain
Southern Ontario, Southern Quebec, Prairies

Ocean Currents
North Pacific Current
● Slow warm ocean current that moves north of the Pacific ocean
● Causes places nearby (Vancouver, Victoria) to have milder, rainier winters
Labrador Current
● Cold ocean current that flows south along the coast of labrador
Gulf Stream
● Warm Atlantic ocean current that originates in the gulf of mexico and moves north
Ecological Footprint
● The impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land
required to sustain their use of natural resources

Climate Change
● A change in global or regional climate patterns in a particular change apparent from the mid-
late 20th century onwards
● Attributed largely to increased CO​2​ in the atmosphere caused by fossil fuels

Adaptation
● Actions to reduce the negative impacts or take advantage of potential new opportunities
● Dealing with issues caused by climate change
Mitigation
● Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
○ Slows climate change over the long term

Greenhouse Gas
● A gas that contributes to global warming by trapping heat in the atmosphere (CO​2​)

Carbon Sink
● A forest, ocean, or other natural environment viewed in terms of its ability to absorb carbon
from the atmosphere

Human Systems
Ways by which humans, through their daily activities, shape and reshape the earth
Examples:
● CO​2 ​ emissions from humans causing climate change
● Littered plastic disrupts marine ecosystems
● Deforestation disrupts evaporation and condensation levels in rainforests

Physical Systems
Natural cycles/systems that shape and reshape the earth
Examples:
● Carbon cycle
● Nitrogen cycle
● Water cycle
 Human Connections
Population Pyramids
● A visual representation of an area’s population, that includes age and gender
● They can be used to predict how a population may grow or decline in the future
 
Expansive ➔ living conditions cause there to be a low life expectancy
Population Pyramid: ➔ maybe not enough resources for the
amount of people/country can’t manage the
population
➔ demand for resources will go up and will be
more expensive
➔ population is growing rapidly, could double
in the near future

Stable Population ➔ IDEAL TYPE OF GROWTH

Pyramid: ➔ easy for a country to keep up with this growth, manageable
➔ has some (slight) periods of growth: “baby booms”

Stationary ➔ no growth at all, birth rate = death rate

Population Pyramid: ➔ close to a declining population
➔ has a narrow base and roughly equal numbers in each
group, tapering off at the older ages

Declining Population ➔ High proportion of aged people and low proportion

Pyramid: of young people
➔ Lower working population; the upper and lower
dependency levels need support, depend on the
working population
Demographic Transition Model

Stage 1
High birth rate and high death rate, population growth is small
● Limited birth control
● High infant mortality rate encourages the birth rate to increase
○ Children seen as a future source of income
● High risk of disease
● Poor hygiene and nutrition

Stage 2
High birth rate, falling death rate, population growth is rapid
● Improved public health
● Better nutrition
● Lower child mortality

Stage 3
Falling birth rate, continuing falling death rate. Population growth slows down.
● Preferences for smaller families cause low birth rates
● Changes in social trends and fashions= less kids
● Rise in materialism (people wanting to spend money on things rather than on kids)
● Lower infant mortality rate

Stage 4
Low birth rate, low death rate, population growth is small (begins to fall)
● Changes in personal lifestyle, more women are in the workforce = less kids

Stage 5
Death rate exceeds birth rate. Population decline
● Rise in individualism
● Lack of resources for future generations
 ● Increase in non traditional lifestyles
● Disasters (war, disease) wipe out substantial amount of the younger population

Dependency Load/ Working Population

Dependency Load: ​the percentage of the population that is non-working. People younger than 15 and
older than 65
Working Population: ​percentage of the population between the ages 15-65 that earns income
Population Calculation Formulas

Push and Pull Factors

Push Factor: ​a reason that encourages people to move away from their current country
● War
● Harsh weather
● Disease
Pull Factor: ​a reason that encourages people to move to a country
● Job/education opportunities
● Safety

Immigrants & Refugees

Immigrant: ​a person that permanently moves to a country

Advantages
● Contributes to population growth; improves social and economic growth
 ● Helps maintain stable population growth (in case of natural growth rate slowing)

Disadvantages
● Less housing opportunities
● Makes housing more expensive

Urban Land Use Patterns

Transportation Land Use

● Roads, highways, subways, transit lanes, train stations, bus stations, airports, railroads

Residential Land Use

● living space; houses, apartments,

Type of Dwellings
Low Density: ​single family homes, detached/semi-detached homes
Medium Density: ​townhouses, low-rise condos
High Density: ​high- rise apartments/condos

Commercial Land Use

● Land meant for business activities or the buying/selling of goods and services

Types of Commercial Land Use

Local Service Centre: ​sell low order products or services (street- corner shops, variety store)
Neighborhood Ribbon: ​plazas with businesses (supermarkets, bakeries, hair styling, bank)
Community Shopping Centre: ​a retail property offering a wide range of apparel and general
merchandise. (Walmart, Kmart, Target)
Power Centres: ​large outdoor shopping mall which usually includes 3 or more “big box” stores,
as well as smaller retailers and restaurants.
Regional Shopping Centres (Mall): ​a major shopping centre typically incorporating a
department store, and approximately 150 specialty shops
Central Business District: ​commercial, office, retail, and culture centre of the city and is usually
the centre point for transportation networks

Industrial Land Use

● Land used for factories, warehouses, shipping products
● Near waterfronts, highways, railway lines

Institutional Land Use

● Land occupied by schools, hospitals, government buildings, churches
Open Space
● Natural areas, land that is left in its natural state (forests, ponds)

Urban Sprawl
Urban Sprawl: ​the outward expansion of urban centres bordering areas
Causes increasing population in addition to more land being used per person.
Issues ● Low density development
● Forests, wetlands, meadows and valleys are cut, bulldozed, filled in and
paved over to make room for urban expansion.
● Farmland is destroyed,so food can’t be grown near cities.
● New roads slice through natural habitats, threatening populations
● Sprawl causes water and air pollution.
Solutions ● Grow upwards instead of outwards to increase the density
● Wildlife crossings

Smarth Growth (New Urbanism)

Smart Growth: ​planning for urban expansion that involves “complete cities” while preserving the
natural environment
Goal: ​develop communities that are more compact rather than creating suburbs that spread into natural
areas
Principles:
● Mix Land Use: put homes, stores, offices and services in the same neighbourhood within walking
distance of each other, create multipurpose buildings
● Create a range of housing types that meets a variety of financial needs
● Create a variety of transportation choices
○ Make public transit more convenient, faster, cheaper
○ Safe walking and bike paths
● Create wildlife corridors to protect greenspace, farmland, animals and plants
Result: ​more people living in a smaller area (increased density) surrounded by productive rural lands
and protected natural systems
Complete Cities: ​a place where people can live, work and play without traveling long distances

Economic Connections/ Resources

Types of Industries
Primary/ Extractive Industries: ​an industry that focuses on producing or extracting natural resources.
● Forestry, agriculture, mining, fishing
Secondary Industries: ​an industry that focuses on making things using the products of primary
industries.
● Manufacturing, construction, ​utilities: t​ he provision and distribution of electricity, water, natural
gases, etc.
Tertiary Industries: ​an industry that focuses on providing services.
● “Everything else” that is not included in the primary and secondary industries
● Paramedics, firefighters, police officers, teachers
Quaternary Industries: ​intellectual industries providing information services
● Computing, ICT, consultancy (offering advice to businesses), research and development in
scientific fields
BASIC INDUSTRY: ​an industry that brings money into an economy from somewhere else
NON- BASIC INDUSTRY: ​an industry that circulates money within itself

Locational Factors of Manufacturing

1. Proximity to raw materials
2. Location of customers
3. Availability of freshwater/ power
4. Labour supply
5. Transportation
6. Political factors
7. Circumstance

Farming
Sustained Yield Management: ​ the process of managing a renewable resource to ensure that the
amount harvested does not cause long- term depletion of the resource.
● The harvest is equal to or less than the amount that’s replenished each year
Sustainable Development: ​economic activity that is conducted without the depletion of natural
resources

Extensive Agriculture
● Involves large areas of land
● Requires relatively small amount of labour
● Produces products such as wheat and cooking oil for exports

Intensive Agriculture
● Involves relatively small areas of land
● Requires large amounts of labour
● Located near large urban areas and produces perishable products for the nearby population

Sustainable Agriculture
● To meet society’s food needs in the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own need
● Planting not monoculture crops is sustainable because if a pest comes, they will eat all of your
crop so if you have different types of crops, most of it will be safe from pests
Forestry

Commercial vs. Non Commercial

Commercial Forests:
● Trees in warmer, wetter areas in Canada, that grow quickly
● Located near roads and railways and can be harvested for profit
● Located in southern Canada
Non Commercial Forests:
● Located far from transportation routes, Northern Canada
● Climate is not ideal for trees to grow quickly or large, so they are unlikely to be harvested

Logging Methods
Shelterwood Logging:​ a harvesting method used in the forestry industry that cuts down old trees in the
forest to allow newer, younger trees to thrive.
● Good for the economy and environment
Selective Cutting: ​a harvesting method that cuts down only the trees that are diseased, individually or in
small groups
● Good for the environment
Clear Cutting: ​a harvesting method that cuts down every tree in a forest
● Good for economy, bad for environment

Forest Stewardship Council

● Put labels on items that are made by wood products from a responsibly managed forest
(environmentally and socially)
● The Forest Stewardship Council has influenced how canadian forests are used by letting
consumers know what products have been made more environmentally friendly than others

Sustainable Development
● Re-planting trees
● Protecting forests from invasive species

Water Scarcity
Key Terms
Precipitation: ​water from the atmosphere that falls to Earth, including rain, snow, hail and sleet
Stores: ​places in the world where water is stored
Flows: ​mechanisms by which stores move from one reserve to another
Groundwater: ​Water held underground in tiny spaces in the soil or some types of rocks
Aridity Index: ​A value used to show water availability. It combines measures of supply and natural
demand.
Potential Evaporation: ​the natural demand for water in a particular environment, including evaporation
from the land surface and transpiration by plants
Extraction: ​the process of taking water from a store (e.g., groundwater or a river) to be used. After the
use, it is returned to the store, where it is available to be used again.
Consumption: ​the process of taking water from a store to be used, but it is not returned to the store
after the use (e.g., it evaporates). It cannot be reused
Drainage Basin: ​the area of land in which all of the water flows to the same body of water
Bulk Water Exports: ​according to NAFTA rules, any water exports in quantities larger than 20 litre
containers

Energy
Alternative Energy: ​generated in ways that do not harm the environment by avoiding uses of fossil fuels
and nuclear energy; renewable resources
Conventional Energy: ​when used, it leads to increased GHG and environmental issues; non- renewable
resources
Renewable Energy: ​a resource that can be used repeatedly and replaced naturally
● Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy
Non- Renewable Energy: ​a resource that can not be naturally replenished as fast as it is used.
● Coal, natural gas, polymers

Global Connections
Developed Countries:
● higher average income per citizen
● High standards of living
● High quality and quantity of resources and services
● Long life expectancy
Developing Countries:
● Low average income
● Economy relies on few things (farming)
○ Farming is conducted in primitive ways
● Rapid population growth
● Low quality of life
Newly Industrializing Countries: ​Level of economic development ranks between developed and
developing country
Life Expectancy:​ The average number of years that a person is alive for in a particular country
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): ​Total value of goods produced and services provided in a country in 1
year