671 - 1 - Spring 2019-1

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Course: Educational Psychology (671)

Semester: Spring, 2019
Level: M.A/M.Ed. (Special Education)
Assignment No.1
Q.1 Education psychology is important knowledge for mainstream and special

education teachers. Yes, it is somehow differed from psychology. Discuss how it
is similar and differed? Support your answer with examples.
Answer:
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of
human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral
perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence,

cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their
role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods,
including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to
instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate

learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other
disciplines. It is informed primarily by [psychology], bearing a relationship to that discipline
analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. It is also informed by

neuroscience. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within
educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum

development, organizational learning, special education, classroom management, and
student motivation. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive
science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology
are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of
representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.
The field of educational psychology involves the study of memory, conceptual processes,
and individual differences (via cognitive psychology) in conceptualizing new strategies for
learning processes in humans. Educational psychology has been built upon theories of
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operant conditioning, functionalism, structuralism, constructivism, humanistic psychology,

Gestalt psychology, and information processing.
Educational psychology has seen rapid growth and development as a profession in the last
twenty years. School psychology began with the concept of intelligence testing leading to
provisions for special education students, who could not follow the regular classroom
curriculum in the early part of the 20th century. However, "school psychology" itself has
built a fairly new profession based upon the practices and theories of several psychologists
among many different fields. Educational psychologists are working side by side with
psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and counselors in
attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining behavioral, cognitive,
and social psychology in the classroom setting
It seems too simple to say that educational psychology is the psychology of learning and
teaching, and yet a majority of educational psychologists spend their time studying ways to
describe and improve learning and teaching. After reviewing the historical literature in
educational psychology, Glover and Ronning (1987, p. 14) suggested that educational
psychology includes topics that span human development, individual differences,

measurement, learning, and motivation and is both a data-driven and a theory-driven
discipline. Thus, our definition of educational psychology is the application of psychology

and psychological methods to the study of development, learning, motivation, instruction,
assessment, and related issues that influence the interaction of teaching and learning. This
definition is broad because the potential applications of educational psychology to the
learning process are immense!
Today educational psychology is a vital discipline that is contributing to the education of

teachers and learners. For example, Jerome Bruner, an enduring figure in educational
psychology, recently noted the need to rethink our ideas of development, teaching, and
learning and the interactions among them. Specifically, Bruner (1996) urged educators and
psychologists to see children as thinkers, and stated:
No less than the adult, the child is thought of as holding more or less coherent "theories" not
only about the world but about her own mind and how it works. These naive theories are
brought into congruence with those of parents and teachers not through imitation, not
through didactic instruction, but by discourse, collaboration, and negotiation . . . . This model
of education is more concerned with interpretation and understanding than with the
achievement of factual knowledge or skilled performance. (1996, p. 57)
These words reflect many of the goals of this book: Think of educational psychology as a
vital tool that can be of immeasurable help in planning, delivering, and evaluating teaching.
To illustrate how the science of educational psychology can help teachers, we'd like to
identify some key concepts and their relationship to instruction and learning. Much more
will be said about each of these concepts as you work your way through this book.
How a teacher of special needs children can apply the knowledge of educational psychology
to modify the behavior of special need children more positive toward society and family:
When most people think about psychology, they think about mental illness, counselors and
therapy. People might come up with names like Sigmund Freud. But the field
of psychology is actually quite large, with lots of different areas where people might work.
Beyond trying to help people in counseling types of situations, psychology also studies
everyday life types of questions, such as: Why are some people racist? Or, why do we fall in
love? Or, how do children change as they grow up?
One of the most popular areas of psychology is educational psychology. Educational

psychology could be defined in a lot of different ways, but the basic idea is that it's a field
that studies and applies theories and concepts from all of psychology in educational
settings. Educational settings might be schools, ranging from preschools all the way
through college. But they also might be anywhere people learn, such as after school
programs, community groups, companies or even within families. The goal of educational
psychology is to make any teacher-student relationship as positive as it can be, so that the
students can learn to the best of their potential.
So, let's get a little more specific. What are some of the major questions or ideas that
educational psychologists study? The rest of this lesson will be a preview of some of the
concepts that you can learn about more if you watch the other educational psychology
videos available on the website.
Two theoretical perspectives within educational psychology are the cognitive
perspective and the behavioral perspective. The cognitive perspective is an area of the
field that studies how people acquire, perceive, remember and communicate information. In
these lessons you'll learn about how memory works, for example. The behavioral
perspective, in contrast, studies the tendency to modify our behavior due to consequences.
So here, you'll learn about how rewards and punishments in a classroom setting help to
motivate students in both good and bad ways.
Educational psychology borrows a lot of theories from another subfield

called developmental psychology, which studies how people change over the course of
their life, from infancy to older adulthood. For example, educational psychology will be able
to help teachers decide how abstract or concrete their lessons need to be, depending on
how old their students are. For younger children, abstract concepts might be more difficult
to understand.
Next, educational psychology studies how different individuals are motivated by different
things. When you think about your dream job, are you motivated by how much money you
could make, or by how prestigious the job is or by how much you would simply enjoys
doing the work? Different people have different answers, and educational psychology
studies why that's true. You'll learn about famous theories such as Maslow's 'Hierarchy of
Needs', and how that theory applies in a classroom setting. Educational psychologists also
study other individual differences, such as students who have special needs or disorders
that might create challenges for learning in traditional environments.
{=================}
Q.2 Compare the child development of normal and special child from birth to 24
months. Discussion should cover child physical, cognition, language and social
development?
Answer:
Physical growth refers to an increase in body size (length or height and weight) and in the
size of organs. From birth to about age 1 or 2 years, children grow rapidly. After this time,
growth slows. As growth slows, children need fewer calories and parents may notice a
decrease in appetite. Two-year-old children can have very erratic eating habits that
sometimes make parents anxious. Some children may seem to eat virtually nothing yet
continue to grow and thrive. Actually, they usually eat little one day and then make up for it
by eating more the next day.
During the preschool and school years, growth in height and weight is steady. Children tend
to grow a similar amount each year until the next major growth spurt occurs in early
adolescence.
Different organs grow at different rates. For example, the reproductive system has a brief
growth spurt just after birth, then changes very little until just before sexual maturation
(puberty). In contrast, the brain grows almost exclusively during the early years of life. The
kidneys function at the adult level by the end of the first year.
Children who are beginning to walk have an endearing physique, with the belly sticking
forward and the back curved. They may also appear to be quite bow-legged. By 3 years of
age, muscle tone increases and the proportion of body fat decreases, so the body begins to
look leaner and more muscular. Most children are physically able to control their bowels
and bladder at this time.
Doctors report how children are growing in relation to other children their age and monitor
the children's weight gain compared to their height. From birth until 2 years of age, doctors
record all growth parameters in a chart by using standard growth charts from the World
Health Organization (WHO). After age 2, doctors record growth parameters by using growth
charts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Your child's rapid brain development between the ages of 12 and 24 months causes
amazing changes to happen—such as talking, walking, and remembering—as he or she
enters the toddler years.
The changes that happen in this period are often grouped into five areas:
 Physical growth.Expect your child to grow about3 in. (7.6 cm) to5 in. (12.7 cm) and
gain about 3 lb (1.4 kg) to5 lb (2.3 kg).
 Cognitive development. This is your child's ability to think, learn, and remember.
Your child will start to remember recent events and actions, understand symbols,
imitate, imagine, and pretend.
 Emotional and social development.Toddlers form strong emotional attachments

and often feel uneasy when they are separated from their loved ones. Around the
same time, toddlers typically want to do things on their own or according to their
own wishes. This sets the stage for conflict, confusion, and occasional breakdowns.
 Language development. At 15 to 18 months, a typical toddler understands 10 times

more words than he or she can speak. By the second birthday, most toddlers can say
at least 50 words.
 Sensory and motor development. Motor skills develop as your child's muscles and
nerves work together. Toddlers gain control and coordination and become steady
walkers. Climbing, running, and jumping soon follow.
Why are routine medical visits needed?
During a well-child visit, the doctor examines your child to find out whether he or she is
growing as expected. Your child will get any needed immunizations, and the doctor will ask
you questions about the new things your child is doing, such as saying any words or
walking. The doctor may also check your child for signs of developmental problems such as
autism.
Schedule routine checkups for your child. Talk to your child's doctor about when to make
these appointments.
When should I be concerned about my child's growth and development?
Talk to your doctor if your child is not reaching normal growth and development
milestones. But keep in mind that every child develops at a different pace. A child who is
slow to reach milestones in one area, such as talking, may be ahead in another area, such as
walking. Usually it is of more concern when a child reaches developmental milestones but
then loses those abilities.
See your doctor if your child makes repetitive motions or odd movements or has not
bonded well with others, especially caregivers. Also, watch for signs of hearing problems,
such as not reacting to people or loud noises.
Do not hesitate to talk to your doctor anytime you have concerns about your child, even if
you are not sure exactly what worries you.
How can I help my child during this period?
You can help your child grow and develop by understanding a toddler's need for
independence and allowing safe exploration. It helps your child become confident in trying
new skills when you are patient and provide unconditional love. Also, recognize that your
child can be easily overwhelmed by all the new things he or she is seeing, hearing, learning,
and doing. Help your child to get plenty of rest and quiet time. Schedule well-child visits
with a doctor to keep track of your child's growth, development, and overall well-being.
{=================}
Q.3 Discuss basic concepts of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. How Piaget’s
meaning of organization helps the children to organize their experiences
Answer:
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's
stages are:
 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like
little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world.
As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build
upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.
How Piaget Developed the Theory
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing
his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual
development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and
Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding
hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of
adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different
from the way adults think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of
stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested.
Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of
young children versus older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults,
they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a
genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive

development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to
changes in mental operations.
The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the
earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth
and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new
discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short
period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform
physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language
from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into a number
of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that early
representational thought emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding
that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at
this point of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of
their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names
and words to objects.
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage,
but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational
stage of development.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet
continue to think very concretely about the world around them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the
point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is
rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the
flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the
two pieces are exactly the same size.
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can
also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and
hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily
shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific

information
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of
seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the
world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal
operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future
and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this
stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at
age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
Important Concepts
To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is
important first to examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.
The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:
Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the
world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of
obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify,
add to, or change previously existing schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's
sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry,
and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will
take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new
observations.
Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences
and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a
dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.
Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of
new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying
existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas
may also be developed during this process.
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As
children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to

account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can
move from one stage of thought to the next.
A Word From Verywell
One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is that it takes the view
that creating knowledge and intelligence is an inherently active process.
"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget
explained. "I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of
transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means
constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to
reality."
Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of children's

intellectual growth. It also stressed that children were not merely passive recipients of
knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and experimenting as they build their
understanding of how the world works.
{=================}
Q.4 We hope you have studies M. M. Clifford. How family can be an effective social
institution, especially for social development of children with special needs? Give
examples with reference to Pakistani society.
Answer:
Humans rely heavily on learning for child development. Because we are not born knowing
how to behave in society, we have to learn many of the behaviors from the environment
around us growing up. For most of us, this learning starts with the family at home. Learning
comes in many forms. Sometimes children learn by being told something directly. However,
the most common way children learn is by observation of everyday life. A child’s learning
and socialization are most influenced by their family since the family is the child’s primary
social group.
Child development happens physically, emotionally, socially, and intellectually during this
time. To make an analogy, if you were constructing a large building, you have to make sure
that it has a solid foundation so that the rest of the building can stand tall and strong for
many years to come. If the foundation is not strong, the building will have trouble standing
on its own. Just like people, if our foundations are not solid, we find it more difficult to be
successful in our relationships with others, work, health, and ourselves. So, it cannot be
stressed enough how important the family is in development of a child.
Ultimately, the family will be responsible for shaping a child and developing their values,
skills, socialization, and security.
Values
We generally understand values to mean an understanding between what is right and what
is wrong. As a society, we have norms and values, and these function in conjunction with
personal values and norms.
One way to see what a society values is to look at whom a society respects. Usually, people
show more respect to people and to things that they value highly. Whenever you treat
people with disrespect, your child will certainly notice. Children are sponges that soak
up everything around them, and many times we forget that they are watching us.
However, as a whole, many of us agree and desire to share with our children values of
respect, compassion, fairness, and responsibility to name a few.
A good way to teach your child values is to discuss with them the importance of healthy
and unhealthy values. Even when your child is little, giving them some responsibilities, such
as cleaning the table or helping to cheer up a friend or sibling when they’re sick, will begin
to teach them the importance of these values. Additionally, explaining the importance of
values will help your child understand consequences.
Within the world we live in today, where media is a dominant, it may be appropriate to
block some forms of media from your child. For example, a 4 year old may not be learning
the best values from watching rated-R movies. As adults, we can more easily separate right
from wrong, whereas little children are still trying to understand where the line is.
So, as the family, it is your job to teach your children about the values that they will use to
guide their own lives. This requires a lot of work for you because not only do you have to
directly teach these values to your children, such as through explaining and tasks as
mentioned above, but your children will look to you as a role model. Your child will notice if
you do behave in the same way that you expect of them. Your child watches your behaviors
to gauge how to behave themselves. When something goes awry, having a level-headed
response is very important.
Trying to always exhibit your values is important more than ever with a family because a
child’s presence must then always be taken into consideration.
Skills
Once your child is born, they start learning motor skills, language skills, cognitive skills, and
emotional skills.
Regarding motor skills, it is largely the family’s responsibility for teaching these skills. Even if
your child is in daycare, the work that parents put in at home to teach these skills is much
more effective than in the few hours your child is under someone else’s care. Your child will
learn how to sit up, walk, run, climb, hold a spoon, and so on. These seem so natural to us
as adults, but they are skills that have to be fine-tuned at a very young age, and they also
reinforce your child’s independence which is essential for their development.
Language skills are another essential component of the role of family in child development.
If you do not speak to your child and teach them your language, they will never learn. One
infamous example of this occurring is with Genie, a child who was locked in a dark room
with extremely little human contact until she was rescued at age 13. She was never able to
develop language fluency because it was never taught to her. So, teaching your children
language skills from a young age is also essential to child development.
Another skill that is very important for child development is emotion. Emotional skills are
important throughout your child’s entire life as they teach them when to have sympathy
and compassion for others as well as teach them how to deal with the highs and lows that
come with life. If your child does not have proper emotional skills, they will not be able to
deal with bad outcomes. If they lack emotional skills, it could lead to destructive choices
when they are older.
To help develop your child’s emotional skills, teaching them to smile and wave when they
are babies is a good place to start. When they get a bit older, teaching them to share is very
important. In a family, because there are multiple people, the family can be very helpful in
developing a child’s skills with the multiple perspectives.
To bring this more to foundational building blocks, while your child is very young,
something very helpful for family members to do is to teach children basic emotions. When
a child is feeling a certain way, naming emotions and describing them are important ways
for your child to understand how they are feeling. Once this foundation is set, children can
learn how to respond to their feelings and move forward.
Socialization
When you bring your child home for the first time, your family will become their social
group. Parents are the first teachers for children.
What your child learns through the interactions between you and them is what they will
carry for the rest of their life in regards to how to treat others. Through this socialization
with family, your child will learn how to trust, seek friendships from others, and find
comfort with others as well.
Generally, we have to learn how to make and sustain relationships. These skills are started
and strengthened with the family. Additionally, giving your child the tools for interpersonal
development before they learn the skills of technology is vital.
Learning how to have face-to-face interactions is critical in a child’s development. Face-to-

face interactions require immediate responses, facial expressions, cues, certain tones of
voice, and much more that we do not receive through texting or other online message
systems. This is exactly what your child is looking to you and their family to learn. By making
sure family members are putting away their smartphones and spending at least a portion of
the day “off the grid,” it will ensure that interpersonal connection is happening with your
child. Simply talking to your child during dinner about their day does a lot more to reinforce
person-to-person skills than you may think!
Security
Your child gets their primary sense of security from their family. They rely on you to make
sure their basic needs, such as shelter, food, and clothing, are met.
More than that, there is emotional security at home that your child will not find in any other
place. Once your child goes to school, they will learn more of public and social skills. But,
when they are at home is when your child really learns how to be themselves and express
themselves fully. Creating a safe, open home environment is vital so that they can grow.
As a parent, giving your child consistency and structure helps them to develop feelings of
security. This can be achieved through schedules. Your child will know that everyday around
a certain time, they will eat, bathe, sleep, etc. Therefore, with a schedule, your child will be
able to feel comfort knowing their needs will be met.
When your child feels secure, they are able to develop many more skills. Like the mention of
Genie above, she was never able to have security before she was rescued. Because of that,
she was not able to grow (properly) emotionally, cognitively, or physically.
Security within your child is a lifelong positive attribute. This also happens with building
trust between family members and child. When your child feels that they can trust others
around them, then they will be more comfortable to be themselves. Trust happens through
secure attachment when a child’s basic and emotional needs are met.
Imagine what it would be like growing up without trust, attachment, or security. Key
qualities that ensure your child’s security are dependability, consistency, respectfulness, and
responsiveness.
As a parent, recognizing your child’s needs is very important. Additionally, knowing how
they ask for their needs is essential. Everyone expresses themselves in different ways, and
children are no different (especially young children).
Final Thoughts
Raising children can be very difficult, but it can also be extremely rewarding. Remember to
not only teach your child, but make sure that you act in the way that you expect your child
to act. It’s impossible to be perfect all the time, but you can always strive to be your best
when it comes to your role in child development. No one is perfect and no family is perfect.
However, knowing how important the role of family is in the development of children is
crucial. As parents, you are your child’s first teachers. More than day care or other
caregivers, most of your child’s learning happens at home with their family. Creating an
environment where your child can learn the appropriate skills and values as well as learn
how to socialize and be secure creates a solid foundation upon which your child can grow.
{=================}
Q.5 Discuss Moral Internationalization theory and highlight the points Denstbier
(1978) stressed in his attribution theory?
Answer:
Internalization (or internalisation) is the process of making something internal, with more
specific meanings in various fields. It is the opposite of externalization.
In psychology, internalization is the outcome of a conscious mind reasoning about a specific

subject; the subject is internalized, and the consideration of the subject is internal.
Internalization of ideals might take place following religious conversion, or in the process of,
more generally, moral conversion. Internalization is directly associated with learning within
an organism (or business) and recalling what has been learned.
In psychology and sociology, internalization involves the integration of attitudes, values,

standards and the opinions of others into one's own identity or sense of self. In
psychoanalytic theory, internalization is a process involving the formation of the super ego.
Many theorists believe that the internalized values of behavior implemented during early
socialization are key factors in predicting a child's future moral character. The self-
determination theory proposes a motivational continuum from the extrinsic to intrinsic
motivation and autonomous self-regulation. Some research suggests a child's moral self
starts to develop around age three.[4] These early years of socialization may be the
underpinnings of moral development in later childhood. Proponents of this theory suggest
that children whose view of self is "good and moral" tend to have a developmental
trajectory toward pro-social behavior and few signs of anti-social behavior.
In one child developmental study, researchers examined two key dimensions of early
conscience – internalization of rules of conduct and empathic affects to others – as factors
that may predict future social, adaptive and competent behavior. Data was collected from a
longitudinal study of children, from two parent families, at age 25, 38, 52, 67 and 80
months. Children's internalization of each parent's rules and empathy toward each parent's
simulated distress were observed at 25, 38 and 52 months. Parents and teachers rated their
adaptive, competent, pro-social behavior and anti-social behavior at 80 months. The
researchers found that first, both the history of the child's early internalization of parental
rules and the history of his or her empathy predicted the children's competent and adaptive
functioning at 80 months, as rated by parents and teachers. Second, children with stronger
histories of internalization of parental rules from 25 to 52 months perceived themselves as

more moral at 67 months. Third, the children that showed stronger internalization from 25
to 52 months came to see themselves as more moral and "good". These self-perceptions, in
turn, predicted the way parents and teachers would rate their competent and adaptive
functioning at 80 months.
{=================}

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Course: Educational Psychology (671)

Q.1 Education psychology is important knowledge for mainstream and special

perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence,

instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate

analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. It is also informed by

educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum

operant conditioning, functionalism, structuralism, constructivism, humanistic psychology,

psychology includes topics that span human development, individual differences,

discipline. Thus, our definition of educational psychology is the application of psychology

Today educational psychology is a vital discipline that is contributing to the education of

One of the most popular areas of psychology is educational psychology. Educational

videos available on the website.

Two theoretical perspectives within educational psychology are the cognitive

Educational psychology borrows a lot of theories from another subfield

 Emotional and social development.Toddlers form strong emotional attachments

 Language development. At 15 to 18 months, a typical toddler understands 10 times

Why are routine medical visits needed?

When should I be concerned about my child's growth and development?

then loses those abilities.

How can I help my child during this period?

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7

 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11

 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.

from the way adults think.

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive

development that included four distinct stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

this point of development.

The Preoperational Stage

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The Concrete Operational Stage

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a

The Formal Operational Stage

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

about hypothetical problems

 Abstract thought emerges

 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific

balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to

move from one stage of thought to the next.

A Word From Verywell

Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of children's

understanding of how the world works.

personal values and norms.

response is very important.

reinforce your child’s independence which is essential for their development.

when they are older.

developing a child’s skills with the multiple perspectives.

comfort with others as well.

Learning how to have face-to-face interactions is critical in a child’s development. Face-to-

In psychology, internalization is the outcome of a conscious mind reasoning about a specific

an organism (or business) and recalling what has been learned.

In psychology and sociology, internalization involves the integration of attitudes, values,

trajectory toward pro-social behavior and few signs of anti-social behavior.

histories of internalization of parental rules from 25 to 52 months perceived themselves as

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