UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION:

A strain gauge is a strain transducer device for measuring dimensional change on the surface
of the structural member that is under test. Measurement of strain has applications in measuring
force, pressure, acceleration and torque etc. A strain gauge is a device used to measure the
strain on a free surface of a structure. Strain gages are the prominent tool in stress analysis.
Strain gauges of all types are essentially employed to measure the linear deformation over a
given gauge length. They sense the change in length, Magnify and indicate it in some other
form. Strain Gauge is invented by Edward E Simmons and Arthur C Ruge in the year 1938.

4.1 STRAIN MEASURING TECHNIQUES:

There are different types of strain measuring techniques, they are

1. Mechanical strain gauges

2. Electrical strain gauges
3. Optical strain gauges
4. Pneumatic strain gauges
5. Acoustical strain gauges

4.1.1 Mechanical strain gauges: (Berry strain gauge, Huggenbeger extensometer,

Johansson extensometer)
Mechanical strain gauges are also known as Extensometers used to measure static or gradually
varying load conditions. These gauges are usually provided with two knife edges which are
clamped firmly in contact with the test component by means of a clamping spring at a specific
distance of gauge length. When the specimen under testing is strained the knife edges
undergoes displacement, this displacement is amplified by a mechanical linkages and the strain
is displaced on a calibrated scale.

Berry Strain gauge

These strain gauges uses a lever magnification with dial indicator to show magnified motion.
It consists of one rigid frame and two conically pointed contact pointers. One pointer is rigidly
fixed to the frame while the other is pivoted at a point on the frame. The displacement in the
lever is magnified and indicated in the dial indicator.

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

Huggenbeger Extensometer
This extensometer has a set of compound levers which are relatively small in size and high
magnification factor. These gauges are highly accurate. The movable knife edge rotates the
lever at lower pivot, the lever in turn rotates the indicator pointer at upper pivot point with the
help of a link.

Johansson Extensometer
These extensometers uses tension tape or twisted metal strip between two knife edges. Half of
the strip is twisted to one direction and remaining half is twisted to other direction and a pointer
is fixed at the center of the strip. On application of load, displacement in the movable knife
edge takes place with high amplification due to stretching of twisted metal strip.

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

4.1.2 Electrical resistance strain gauge:

In electrical resistance strain gauge the displacement or strain is measured as a function of
resistance change produced by the displacement in the gauging circuit. When the conductor is
stretched, its length will increase and area of cress section will decrease this will result in
change in resistance. Change in resistance per unit strain is defined as Gauge Factor. Gauge
factor indicates the sensitivity of the strain gauge.

4.1.3 Optical strain gauges:

The optical strain gauges are used to measure elongation as well as deflection, following are
the two type of optical strain gauges,

a. Marten’s optical gauge

b. Tuckerman Optical Gauge

Marten’s optical gauge: These optical stain gauges employs variety of mirror systems to
obtain optical magnification. The well-known optical system used in a strain gauge on a single
mirror system is marten’s optical gauge. The pivoted knife edge carries a mirror and the other
end of this arm is fastened to specimen as the specimen elongates the measuring knife edge
will rotate about its point there by tilting the mirror. The Reflection of the illuminated scale in
this mirror is viewed through the telescope.

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

Tuckerman Optical Gauge:

In this instrument, the relative rotation between the fixed mirror and the movable mirror is
measured with autocollimator. The autocollimator consists of a lamp source to produce parallel
beam of rays and a scale to measure the deflection of the reflected ray. A tungsten carbide
rocker (lozenge) acts as a moving knife; one face of this lozenge is polished to act as a mirror.
If the specimen deforms, rotates the lozenge which in turn deflects the incident ray back to the
reticule. Actually three images are visible on the reticule one gives the measurement of strain
and other two helping alignment of the gauge. The sensitivity of the gauge is 2 micro strains
and this gauge is available with a wide range of gauge length of 6mm. it can measure both
static and dynamic strains and cyclic strains up to 180 Hz.

4.1.4 Pneumatic strain gauge:

The principal of operation of a pneumatic gauge depends upon the relative discharge of air
between a fixed orifice and a variable orifice. Magnification up to 100,000 times and the gauge
length as small as 1mm are possible to achieve by these gauges. These gauges are suitable for
both Static and dynamic strain measurements. These are sensitive, robust and reliable.

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

4.1.5 Acoustic strain gauge:

In an acoustic strain gauge the variation in length of a wire stretched between two gauge points
is measured which alters the natural frequency of the wire. The magnitude of frequency change
for a strain gauge can be increased by decreasing the length of the wire or stress in wire. These
gauges are highly accurate and long term reliable. Optical strain gauges are used to measure
strains in concrete structure, concrete dams, rock, steel structures etc.

4.2 REQUIREMENTS OF STRAIN GAUGES:

Following are the requirements of strain gauge so that it gives the accurate measure of strain

 Extremely small size and negligible mass

 Simple and easy attachment to the specimen under test
 Good response in union with changes in the surface to which it is fixed
 Noninterference with the stiffness and other characteristics of the member over which
it is mounted
 High sensitivity in the direction of measured strain and low sensitivity in the transverse
plane
 High speed of response and negligible time lag
 Capability to indicate static, transient, and dynamic strain
 Insensitiveness to ambient conditions such as temperature, humidity, vibration etc.
which are likely to be encountered in testing machine parts under service conditions
 Inexpensive, reliable and readily available

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

 Availability of gauges in variety of types and sizes suitable for a wide range of
applications

4.3 RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES:

In an electrical resistance strain gauge, the device consists of a thin wire placed on a flexible
paper tissue and is attached to a variety of materials to measure the strain of the material. In
application, the strain gauge will be attached to a structural member with the help of special
cement. The gauge position will be in such a manner that the gauge wires are aligned across
the direction of the strain to be measured. The wire used for the purpose will have a diameter
between 0.009 to 0.0025 centimeters. When a force is applied on the wire, there occurs a strain
(consider tensile, within the elastic limit) that increases the length and decreases its area. Thus,
the resistance of the wire changes. This change in resistance is proportional to the strain and is
measured using a Wheatstone bridge.

When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there occurs an increase in length of the bar
in the direction of the load. Strain refers to the relative change in dimensions of the bar under
load and it is prescribed as the ratio of the change in length to the unstressed length of the bar.

Strain = change in length / unstressed length = delta L / L

The strain is usually expressed in units of mm per mm and consequently is dimensionless. In

practice it is often stated as micro strain (mu-strain).

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

K.JAYASIMHA REDDY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR GPREC: KURNOOL

UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

K.JAYASIMHA REDDY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR GPREC: KURNOOL

UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

4.4 STRAIN GAUGES ALLOYS AND MATERIAL:

Variety of materials are available for use in strain gauges and the selection of a proper gauge
for a specific application is generally based upon following factors and considerations

 High gauge factor which should remain constant over a wide strain and temperature
ranges
 Resistance change to be simple, preferably a linear function of mechanical strain
 Low temperature sensitivity
 Minimum thermos electric tendency at connections
 High yield point and endurance limit
 Good workability, solder ability and weldability
 Negligible hysteresis
 Economical cost

The following table refers to different element types that are used for electrical strain gauges

GRID COMPOSITION GAUGE REMARKS

MATERIAL FACTOR
Advanced 57% Cu 43% Ni 20 F constant over wide, easily workable,
widely used for static strain measurement
Iridium 5% Ir 95% Pt 5.1 Suitable for high temperature range
platinum above 10000C
Iso-elastic 36%Ni 8%Cr 0.5%Mo 3.5 Used for dynamic strain measurements,
52%Fe appreciably higher output
Nickel 2.5 Used for dynamic temperature work up
to 12000C
Silicon -100 to Brittle
semi- +50
conductor

4.5 BONDED AND UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGES:

The wire strain gauge can be further divided into two. They are bonded and un-bonded strain
gauge. As shown in the figure below, an un-bonded strain gauge has a resistance wire stretched
between two frames. The rigid pins of the two frames are insulated. When the wire is stretched
due to an applied force, there occurs a relative motion between the two frames and thus a strain
is produced, causing a change in resistance value. This change of resistance value will be equal
to the strain input.

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

A bonded strain gauge will be either a wire type or a foil type as shown in the figure below. It
is connected to a paper or a thick plastic film support. The measuring leads are soldered or
welded to the gauge wire. The bonded strain gauge with the paper backing is connected to the
elastic member whose strain is to be measured.

If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer, both changes
resulting in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip of
conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will broaden and
shorten. If these stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the metal strip (so that the strip
does not permanently deform), the strip can be used as a measuring element for physical
force, the amount of applied force inferred from measuring its resistance.
Such a device is called a strain gauge. Strain gauges are frequently used in mechanical
engineering research and development to measure the stresses generated by machinery.
Aircraft component testing is one area of application, tiny strain-gauge strips glued to
structural members, linkages, and any other critical component of an airframe to measure
stress. Most strain gauges are smaller than a postage stamp, and they look something like
this:

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

A strain gauge’s conductors are very thin: if made of round wire, about 1/1000 inch in
diameter. Alternatively, strain gauge conductors may be thin strips of metallic film deposited
on a non-conducting substrate material called the carrier. The latter form of strain gauge is
represented in the previous illustration. The name “bonded gauge” is given to strain gauges
that are glued to a larger structure under stress (called the test specimen). The task of bonding
strain gauges to test specimens may appear to be very simple, but it is not. “Gauging” is a
craft in its own right, absolutely essential for obtaining accurate, stable strain measurements.
It is also possible to use an unmounted gauge wire stretched between two mechanical points
to measure tension, but this technique has its limitations.
Typical strain gauge resistances range from 30 Ω to 3 KΩ (unstressed). This resistance may
change only a fraction of a percent for the full force range of the gauge, given the limitations
imposed by the elastic limits of the gauge material and of the test specimen. Forces great
enough to induce greater resistance changes would permanently deform the test specimen
and/or the gauge conductors themselves, thus ruining the gauge as a measurement device.
Thus, in order to use the strain gauge as a practical instrument, we must measure extremely
small changes in resistance with high accuracy.
Such demanding precision calls for a bridge measurement circuit. Unlike the Wheatstone
bridge shown in the last chapter using a null-balance detector and a human operator to
maintain a state of balance, a strain gauge bridge circuit indicates measured strain by the
degree of imbalance, and uses a precision voltmeter in the center of the bridge to provide an
accurate measurement of that imbalance:

Typically, the rheostat arm of the bridge (R2 in the diagram) is set at a value equal to the
strain gauge resistance with no force applied. The two ratio arms of the bridge (R1 and R3)
are set equal to each other. Thus, with no force applied to the strain gauge, the bridge will be
symmetrically balanced and the voltmeter will indicate zero volts, representing zero force
on the strain gauge. As the strain gauge is either compressed or tensed, its resistance will

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

decrease or increase, respectively, thus unbalancing the bridge and producing an indication
at the voltmeter. This arrangement, with a single element of the bridge changing resistance
in response to the measured variable (mechanical force), is known as a quarter-
bridge circuit.

4.5.1 Un-bonded versus bonded gauges:

The following are the advantages and limitations of un-bonded gauges over bonded gauges

 Creep and hysteresis is small due to positive anchorage at the insulating pins. With
bonded gauges there is always a possibility of slip between the carrier material and the
cement.
 Freedom from faulty insulation. With bonded gauges imperfect binding may result due
to faulty cleaning of the test surface
 Absence of any organic substance permits their use in high temperature installations.
Organic material present in the cement of bonded gauges may decompose
 Very little or no transverse sensitivity
 More prone to wire breaking
 Poor heat dissipation, possibility of wire slackening due to electric heating
 Comparatively large base area disallows their use in situations where sharp stress
gradients exist, also unsuitable for bending strains

4.6 BONDING TECHNIQUE:

Surface preparation and bonding techniques have been discussed under the following three
topics namely:

1. Backing, base or carrier material.

2. Bonding material or cement.
3. Surface preparation and mounting of strain gauges.

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 UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

4.6.1 Backing, Base or Carrier Material:

The purpose of providing the carrier/backing material in a strain gauge arrangement has been
listed as follows
1. The backing material provides support to the resistance wire (grid) of the strain gauge
arrangement.
2. The backing material provides protection to the sensing resistance wire of the strain gauge
arrangement. It also provides dimensional stability for the resistance wire of the strain gauge
arrangement.
Characteristics Required for Backing Materials
1. The backing material should be an insulator of electricity.
2. The backing material should not absorb humidity, that is should be non-hygroscopic.
3. The backing material should be very thin.
4. It should go along with the adhesive material used to fix (bond) it on the structure under study.
5. It should not be affected by temperature changes.
6. It should be strong enough to transmit the force from the structure under study to the sensing
resistance wire.
4.6.2 Bonding Materials or Cements (Adhesive)
The strain gauge has to be fixed (bonded) on the structure under study using an adhesive or
paste. These adhesive are called as bonding material or cements.
The different adhesive, their composition and the temperature for which they can be used are
shown in following table.
Adhesive that is used Bonding Material Composition For Temperature
Thermo-plastic cement Celluloid dissolved in acetone Up to 75’C
Thermo-setting Cement Phenol resin From 150’C to 210’C
Special Ceramic – cement - Above 175’C
Characteristics Required
1. The characteristics required for a bonding material are listed.
2. The bonding material should be an insulator of electricity.
3. The bonding material should not absorb humidity, that is, it should be non-hygroscopic.
4. It should go along with the backing material so that the backing material is fixed (bonded)
rigidly on the structure under study.
5. It should not be affected by temperature changes.
6. It should have good shear strength to transmit the force from the structure under study to the
sensing resistive wire.
7. It should be easy to apply and should spread easily and should provide good bonding adhesion.
8. The bonding material should have a high creep resistance.
4.6.3 Surface preparation and mounting of strain gauges
The steps involved in preparing a surface to mount a strain gauge are listed:
1. The structure under study is made even and free from dust and dirt by rubbing with an emery
sheet or by sand blasting.
2. The even surface is then cleaned by a volatile solution (acetone) using a cloth to remove
oil/grease.
3. The bottom side of the backing (gauge carrier) is also cleaned by a solvent using a cloth.

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

4.7 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION:

Temperature adversely impacts strain measurements in many ways, though three are of primary
concern:
• the device or object studied will almost always have a non-zero coefficient of thermal
expansion. Unless compensated for, changes in temperature will cause the item to which the
strain gauge is attached to expand or contract, which is then indicated as a change in strain.
• The materials of the strain gauge itself have a non-zero coefficient of thermal expansion.
Changes in temperature will cause the strain gauge itself to expand or contract, independent of
any strain in the part to which it is attached.
• The wiring and the strain gauge itself will have a non-zero Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance. That is, as the temperature changes, the resistance of the strain gauge and
connecting wires will change independently of any change in strain. (For example, copper wire
resistance changes at approximately 3,900 ppm per °C (.393% /°C).)

Some texts treat the first two items as the same effect. After all, if the coefficients of expansion
of the gauge and the item under test are the same, they will contract or expand at the same rates
in response to a temperature change. In this case, a change in system temperature would not
cause any change in the indicated strain, except that based on the gauge’s temperature
coefficient of resistance.

It’s important to note that in some applications, it may be desirable or even critical that strain
induced by temperature changes be noted. Imagine an application where a “hot section” turbine
blade is being tested to ensure proper clearance between the blade tip and the surrounding
shroud. It’s important to know how much the blade has elongated based upon temperature in
addition to the centrifugal force of rotation. On the other hand, if the parameter of interest is
really stress, or its close relative, force, any strain caused by temperature changes would induce
a true error in the result. A strain gauge used to measure the “g” forces on a supersonic aircraft
wing skin might see temperatures from -45°C to +200°C. If the g-force information was critical
to not overstressing the wing, you’d certainly not want significant temperature-induced error.
In a more simple case, the load cell used to measure the force placed on a postal scale should
not induce errors simply because the scale is next to the window on a sunny summer day!

4.7.1 Methods of temperature compensation:

By using dummy gauges:

Due to the ratio metric nature of the Wheatstone bridge, a second, unstrained gauge (often
referred to as a “dummy” gauge) placed in another leg of the bridge will compensate for
temperature induced strain. Note that the dummy gauge should be identical to the “measuring”
gauge and should be subject to the same environment (i.e. at same temperature).

However the dummy gauge is bonded to a separate unstrained component identical to that of
the loaded member. Evidently the dummy gauge remains unstrained throughout the test run
and suffers change in resistance due to temperature only. The two gauges are placed close to
each other so that they are influenced equally by the ambient temperature changes.

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

Strain gauges tend to be small, and have short thermal time constants (i.e., their temperature
changes very quickly in response to a temperature change around them), while the part under
test may have substantial thermal mass and may change temperature slowly. For this reason, it
is good practice to mount the dummy gauge adjacent to gauge being measured. However, it
should be attached in such a way as not to be subjected to the induced strain of the tested part.
In some cases, with relatively thin subjects and when measuring bending strain (as opposed to
pure tensile or compressive strain), it may be possible to mount the dummy gauge on the
opposite side of a bar or beam. In this case, the temperature impact of the gauges is eliminated
and the scale factor of the output is effectively doubled. Refer fig below

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UNIT-IV STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT

Matching the strain gauge to the part tested: (Self temperature compensation method)

The use of different alloys/metals allows manufacturers to provide strain gauges designed to
match the thermal expansion/contraction behavior of a wide variety of materials commonly
subject to strain (and stress) testing. This type of gauge is referred to as a “Self-Temperature
Compensated” (or STC) strain gauge. These STC gauges are available from a variety of
manufacturers and are specified for use on a wide assortment of part materials. As you might
imagine, the more common a metal, the better the chances are there is an STC gage that
matches. However, you may count on being able to find a good match for such materials as
aluminum, brass, cast iron, copper, carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium and many more.
Though the match between the STC gauge and the part under test may not be perfect, it will
typically be accurate enough from freezing to well past the boiling point of water.

This can also be done by making a strain gauge grid with two different materials which have a
positive and negative gauge factors respectively. The lengths of the two wire materials are so
proportioned that increase in resistance with rise in temperature of one material is very nearly
balanced by decrease in the resistance of the other. For example nickel (negative gauge factor)
and isoelastic (positive gauge factor).

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