AVIATION METEOROLOGY IC Joshi Group Captain (Reta Himalayan BooksAA Himalayan Books Presentation . Published in 2006 by Pawan Chowdhr and Bhupinder Chovedbe {for Himalayan Books, New Delhi 110013 Distibured by ‘The English Bool Store 17, Connasghe Circus, New Delhi 71000 “Tek 2341 7126,2341 503], 2341 7936 Fax: O9T-1125417931 Email info@engishbookstorein IC Joshi (Group Caprain Rex) First Published 2007 Second Ediion 2008 First Reprinc2009 Third Econ 2010 ‘ltighs reserved. No patrof his publication may be reprodaced ot form or by any means, electronic of mecha information storage and etievl ste, ‘Typeser by Mindways Design Princedand Bound ae ‘Thakur Enterpcises, Defi ISBN 81.7002.099.9 onaiitted in any nies, eluding phorocopy, ecording or any without the written permission ofthe publisher Dedicated to My parents, family members and specially to Mehak, Uday, Nitya and GauriCONTENTS Acknowledgements Preface 1. Atmosphere 2, Atmospheric Pressure 3. Temperarure 4 Air Density 5. Kumidicy 6 Winds 7. Visibility and Fog 8. Vertical Motion and Clouds H° Sability and Instability of Atmosphere 10., Cptical Phenomena W Precpication Te Ice Acceetion Pz Tndersorn 1 tir Masses Fronts and Western Disturbances Ife Jee Streams Ge Gear Aic Turbulence 17% Mountain Waves 18, Aiopical Systems 1%” Climatology of India 20,_General Cirewlation 2." Moterotogical Services for Aviation 22. Weather Radar and Met Satellites 23, Mec Insteumenss 24 Station Model xi sx 2 36 40 6 B 93 100 105 10 136 143 145 150 164 181 188 198 206,Continrs Aviation Weather Reports and Codes of Metar Speci and Trend Aviation Weather Forecasts (Codes of Aerodrome Forecast, Area Forecast and Route Forecast) 27. Radar Report, Sigmet Message ancl Satellite Bulletin 28. Plight Forecast (Tabular Fors) and Cross Section Forecast of Route Conditions (Samples) Re Appendix A Meteorological Charts Appendix B Satellite imageries Appendix C Synoptic Chart (Computer Plotted) Appendix D Clouds Appendix E Abbreviations in Weather Bulletins Rainfall Distribution and Intensicy Appendix F ICAO Abberviations Appendix G Plotted starion models for practice Appendix H-1 Mean Sea Level Pressure Analysis Appendix H-2 850 hPa Winds Appendix H-3 850 hPa Streamline Analysis Appendix H-4 500 hPa Contour Chart Appendix H-5 300 hPa Winds Appendix H-6 Prognostic Significant Weather Chace Appendix ‘Weather Associated With Fronts 17 BI 250 253 255, 237 258 260 266 268 270 mm mm 273 Contests Appendix J Synoptic Systems Appendix K Fajita Scale of Tornado, Saffir-Simpson Scale and T Chsification of CS Appendix 1 International Station Code Names “Appendix M Miscellaneous Terms Appendix N Meteorological Scales and Meteorological Divisions of India Index References 74 26 m7 278 279 281 286ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘My sincere thanks are due tothe trainees of Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi, Racbarali (UP) for inspiring me co compile this book. The add questions chey and other stidents used to ask from time to time, made me 10 refer to the available literature in Meteorotogy in vations libraries, websites and Publications of IMD, WMO and ICAO, ‘Thanks are due to my daughterin-laws Vibha and Abha for helping me in ccomputerizing the text, rables and diagrams, “Tomy wife Kamla and sons Jten and Pankaj for encouraging me to write this book. ‘Lasc but nor the lease to thanks to Mr B Chowdhry of English Book Stores for ‘motivation and valuable suggestions. AIC Joshi)PREFACE Meteorology is che science of atmosphere. All weather activities occur in the lowest portion cf the atmosphere, called che Troposphete, Inernational snd local flying activities are confined to chis vegion only. An aviator has, thezefore, 10 understand the weather phenomenon which occur in the region and influence Air Operations. This book dealsin brief with che various aspect of weather which are essential for anaviator, The Definitions, Terminology, Codes used in he book are based on the standacd publications of World Met Organisation, International Civil Aviation Orgnisation (Annex 3) and India Meteorological Deparment. ‘The chapters cover syllabus prescribed by the Director General of Civil Aviation (lndia) for Pilots and by she Chatrapati Sahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur for BSc (Aviation), Breqaently asked questions by the trainees and their answers have also been included. Important chapters like Met Services for Aviation and Aviation Codes are considered useful for che trainees to interpret Met information provided to them by the Met Oftces. ‘The compiler of this| book has experience in Aviation Meteorology, of about 34 years jn the Indian Aic Foree asa Forecaster and asa Met Instructor, He has served for seven years as Ground Instructor (Aviation Mer) and for one year as Chief Ground Jnstractorat India Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (GRUA),Fursergang, Racbareli ‘UB which isa premier and reputed Flying Akademi in India for imparting teaining to the Pilots and to the BSc (Aviation) students, The author has closely observed the weather fom the ground and equally from the at. Some of che material inthe book is his own experience and some from the interaction with the air crew and their debriefings,Presace {cis hoped chat the book will be of ave and guidance forthe aspiring plos, BSc Aviation) seudens, for those appearing in various examinations fo licenees, and for the Mer personnel. The contents of this book are intended to be of general guidance and are nar to be quoted as authority Readers are advised to cefer tothe original documents and standard books on metcorology and IMD web sites wwsimd.gov.in or \wwizmausam.gotin for detailed information, Suggestions for improvement ate welcome Encouraged by the response for the book from CPL/ATEL aspicens, Met pesonnel and aviators, the Third Edition, «revised and improved version, of the book is presented. ‘his Thitd Edition and one Reprint in three years period is elear indication of its Popularity and usefulness. tn facta personal copy of the book would be useful throughout the career of an Avincox (IC Joshi Group Caprain (Red) March, 2010 E-mail: icjoshi@yahoo,com 1 ——— ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE ‘moves with the earth at th limits, However, a very la kilometers of the surface. Characteristies The atmosphere has weight and hence exerts \ Pressure. It is compressible and Expandable, It occupies space and has no defini shape. Ics mobi which \tansfer cf heat and moiscure occurs, Composition A Ait isa misceof ges. Forall practical purposes dey aria uniform mixture ofthe followings gases: Nicrogen 78.0896, Oxygen 20.95%, Argon 0.93% and Carbon dioxide 0.03536, Tiaces of. Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton, Nirows Oxide, Hydrogen, Ozone (000000768) and Xenon,AVIATION MirtoRoloc? Narogen ancl Oxygen constinte almost 94 of test. Theis atiobypropotion Nitrogen: Oxygen Nitrogen: Oxyge 1 by Volume 3:1 by Weight Due co rapid reduction of gases with height, supplementary Oxygen is needed above 10,000 ft, ‘The atmosphere is generally well mixed. Iehasa neatly similar composition up to 3 height of about 80 km, dve to earth gravitation. The atmosphere up to 80 km 's called the Homosphere and above it the Hetcosphere. At about 20-25 kin, however, cere is high concentration of Ozone. Important Variable Gases. In addition to the above gases the armosphere also contains: Water Vapour, Carbon Mono Oride, Suiphor di Oxide, and Nitrogen di Oxide, These gases vary in amoune from place to place, being conceatrated more in industial areas, cites having heavy vehicular traffic, wacer bodies, et, than in open areas. Though very small in quantity, Water vapour, CO, and Ozone ace very significant for weather ard life, They cause green house effect which keeps the earth warm ‘These gases are also known as Green House gases. Ozone procect us from the ill effects (lke skin cancet) of Ulta Violet cadiation from the Sun Dry Air and Saturated Air Worer in the atmosphere can exist in shtee stares-solid (Snow, Ice, Hail), liquid (Drizzle, Rai, Shower) and gas Water Vapour). The concentration of water vapour Fapidly decrease with ligt The amoune of Water vapour that ait an coaiain largely depends on is temperature, Waemer aie can hold greater amouint of water vapour “The water vapout amount can be as much a 496 in the ttopics (region between 23 4 N co 23 9), and almost negligible in the Polar regions or higher altiudes above 30,000 fe, due co very low remperarutes ‘With 4% water vapour the air termed a5 Saturated Ais and has 100 9 Relative ‘Humidity (RH). When RH is < 1009 the aris Unsaturated and is called Dry Air. ATMOSPHERE Carbon Dioxide (CO,) GO, is produced by burning of fuel, wood etc. Its concentration i substantl in industa areas wheres in Polar regions andhighealttdesi ineligible. A large amount of CO, i dissolved inthe oceans. Plantsabsotb CO, use itscarbon as food and release 0, into the atmosphere, Ozone (0,) Ozone forms in the upper atmosphere, [c absorbs the Ulta Violet (UV) tadiation from the Sun, and raises temperacace. O, molecsles then become heavier and sink and accumulate in the lower levels. Appreciable ozone is found becween 10 and $0 4m, with maximum concenccation at 20 to 25 kn, Ozone Hole. In cecen times the O ayer has thinned and large holes have developed ‘nainly over tie Polar and other latimdes due to atmosphericpollation and exceesve itse of Chlorofluoro Catbons. Solid Particles Im addition othe above gases the atmosphere contains patieles such as sale from evaporating sea water, dust from arid regions, industrial and similar other Pattcles They obscure sola radiation an affect visibility and temperature. They alto actas nudei which promote condensation of water vapour, prematurely. In lager cts and industrial areas frequent fog and smog amisture of fog and smoke) is due to che high concentration of such particles. Green House Gases ‘ater vapour and CO, absorb certain wavelengehs of teresral (act) edition, and reradiare hem towards the cath. They cause gceen house effect, which Keeps the earth warmer chan it would have otherwise been, Water vapour, CO, Ozone and some other gases are called Green House gases. These are causing Global ‘Warming, which isa serious theeat to our life and needs to be mined. Vertical Distribution of Air Mass Dueto gravitaionlanraction, the approximate dstbusion of itmass with height: \ 2 of the ait mass is contained below 6 km, 3/4 below 10 km and 99 % below 35 km 3AWATION MeTEOROLOGr THERMAL STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE Solar rays eat he earth and the eatthin urn heats up the atmosphere by condition, The ha intion and tcleese of acon beat by condensrion of water vapour. ‘The flow of heat from the earth sucface to she atmosphere is due to: Sensible Heat (Conduction, Convection, Radiation) 23% Latent Heat (Evaporation, Condensation, Sublimation) 7% Due to absorption of solar radiation, ry bo x too fos Poe a 8 t 2 vf e ‘ & F 5 |] y & © 5 5 ’ & + 2 e ® F 14 00 hase 7 Temperatut lemperature gore 1.1. Thal Srretre of tospey 4 ATMosraie os: not coninue ithe ond of the atmospher. Ther arechangesin the temperature in vations Inyers of the atmosphere, Saelit¢ and Space flights have confiemed that based on temperature distribution, she atmosphere has ceasonably well defined horizontal ayers, as follows Troposphere unst,is “Toposthere isthe lowest portion ofthe amosplere, Itextends o 16-18 km over the Equi and 810 km over the Poles. l this layer the temperatures generally als with heighe, called lapse rate, ae about 6.5°C/km, However, in the nancy Btmospbere the lapse rate could he quite differnt I ‘may fall or rise wich height {inversion or remain he same (isothermal). Teoposphere generally unstable, Mose of che weather is coofined to this region and ss theAying. About 7096 of ce ‘atmosphere lies within troposphere, The Troposphers from surface o 2:1 km scaled Lower Teoposphere, 2.1 km to 7 km Mi Troposphere and 7.6 km to tropopause Upper Toposphere, The equator is much warmer than the poles, and tropopause is much higher at ‘avaror. Hence warmer the surface higher isthe height of the tropopause ‘Thesolarcadiation heat up che earth surface, which n urn eas the lower: atmosphere. Also the suface hot asses up and transfers heat che atmosphere by conduction convection, radiation and release of lateht heat due to condensation, The atmiosphere is thus heated from below and not from above, and temperature falls wath, bight. Zhe wor! tropos mesns tesing and the fequent overuring couses weather, "amely th gusts, bompines clouds chanderstorms rn, depressions eylomee ec ‘Tropopatse It isthe top of she troposphere and marks the boundary between ¥ropesphre and searosphere, At chs level the lapse rate eeduces to 1.2°Clkm ay teberarce stops falling wit eight. Above tropopause he temperate ae higher Sarthe oles than over the equator. Thus, thee is reversal of temperature ed density above 8 km. 7 Sometimiesthere ate tivo o¢ more tropopause, one overlapping the other. The height © of ttopopeuse varies season to season and also from one synoptic situation to the other. ~ There arebreaks in topopause,at differen levels, t about 10" stand Gd lat, where Jetstreans occur. These breaks broadly divide the ropapatse into tee sections, 5AYEATION METEOROLOGY Polar Tropopause. This occurs near 300 hPa level polewards of Lat, 45° to 60°. It may be noticed oceasonally over Scinagae Jammu and Rashmit) dusing winters when polar aie incursion takes place. The Polat Front Jor Stream is found at che southern end of this Tropopause, at the break, ~ ‘Tropical Tropopause, This s usually at 100 hPa level. [c extends from the equator to Lat. 35°-40°. Over India itis found ar about 16-16.5 km, Above this there is inversion Middle Tropopause, This occurs nest 200 hPa and is sandviched beoween the Polar and Tropical Tropopause. in India it occurs over the extreme N at about 11.5 km with temperature of bout 45°C. Iemay be noticed as south as 23°N in winters. The ‘Sub Tropical Je: Streams found at de break between Middle and Tropical Tropopause Stratosphere The layer above the cropopaus, up 1 50 km, isthe stratosphere Initially for 8-10 km the layesisisothermal. Above this height temperanire increase slowly and then sharply towards the cop cf the layer, The rie in temperature is due to the absorption (of UV tays by ozone and oxygen, Stratosphere isa very scable region with ow humidity and no weather. Nacreous Clouds or Mother of Pearl Clouds, ae seen infrequently in upper stratosphere in higher latnides in winters. They ae probably composed of ice crystals and wacer vapour. Stratopause. itis the upper boundary of the Scretosphere. Mesosphere It extends from Straropause to 80 km. Lack af absorption of solat radiation and weak vercical mixing causes temperaruce ro all with height inthis layer. On rare ‘occasions Noctilucent Clouds are seen inthe upper Mesosphere at about 80 km, inPolar regions. These clouds cate probably composed of ice rystals or supercooled ‘water droplets. ‘Mesopause The top of the mesosphere is mesopause. At this level temperatures stop falling, ‘The Lowest temperatures, about-90* C, inthe atmosphere occur at Mesopause, Araosoene Thermosphere ‘Thermospbereextend from Mesopause to the outermost fing of the atmosphere, imovhich temperatures increase with height, Icisalso called dhe Exhosphere. In thie layer the airs very thin and few molecules are present. These molecules may he very activeand have very high zemperanae, Bu since these ae few and are fa pit, ‘ety litle heats present in this layer. At 200 km temperature is about 600° C and uring sunspocmaxima about 2000° C. In ths layer UV and X rays cause ionisation ‘of gases, andthe portion above 60 kin called the Ionosphere, The density of fons increases with height, being maximum at 250-500 km, Tonospherc is important for radiowavepropagation by reflecting them back to the earch and propagating them hundreds of kilometers away from theic origin. Serious incerference in radio Prorogation occurs daring solar disturbances, during which ther. ofcadio waves, absorption (Note:The Tropopaus, Stratopause and Metopaase mee represent zones berveen the layers where vertical temperatutedistibusion changes. The above verical temperate distibntion 'sofan average mosphere. n day today stations canbe quite ferent due vo the systems Uke eyciones, sit pollution, clouds, thunderstorm, feos, dew, Volcanic Ath ete) International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) A standard average atmosphere has been specified for various purposes like che design and testing of aircraft, evaluation of aircraft performance, calibration of altimerers, tc. fis a hyporhetial atmosphere, which approximately corresponds to the average state of the atmosphere. The most widely used atmosphere i the one defined by the ICAO, known as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Its specifications are: + Airis Dry * Temperature at Mean sea level 15°C (288.15 K) + Pressure at Mean sea level 1013.25 ha + Density at Mean Sea Level 1225 g/m? + Acceleration due to gravity 980,665 cms + Lapse rete up to 11 km 65°Ckm ‘Temperature is assumed constant =56.5°C from 11 km to 20 km. From 2¢ km to 30 km thereis a tise of temperature at the rate of 1°C/ km ‘with a temperature of 44.5°C ac 32 km ?AVIATION METEOROLOGY ISA Deviation: For evaluning srerat performance or making corrections to inseruments, the acwals are compaced with ISA values called ISA Deviation, Ifthe observed temperature is 08°C warmer than ISA, the deviation is + 08°C, (To find ISA Deviation subtract ISA value from Actual value) Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) ‘TheISA values ate quite satisfactory for areraft operating below 30,000 fy btr not ‘hove this level Fo spare lights and ver high ltude yingand engine mantacning actional specif values are requted. Tomeetthes requirements SA wasinroducee, as follows : + Mean sea level temperatuce 15°C (288.15°K) + Lapse Rae 2°C/ 1000 fe + There is no Tropopause QUESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERE QU. Lowese layer of stmospnere is (8) Troposphere —(b) Tropopanse (© Statosphece QL Height of Teopopause at equate is nnn (2) 10-42 kn ©} 1618 km. (9) 12.14 km Qi. Heighe of Tropopause at Poles is .. 4 (A) 1214 be (b) 12.13 lem {9.0810 km. QA. Higher the surface romperatute essonee Would be the tzopopause (a) Higher ©) Lower (0 Some QS. Height of tropopause... (2) Is constanz (0) Varies with alrde —@) Yaves with Laveude 6. Above 8 km che lower temperatures are OVEE nue @) Equator (0) Mid Lartudes ) Poles QF. Atmosphere is heated bY veces (©) Solar Radiation (b) Heat from earth surface (c) Froty above QB. Topas MEIN eens (9) Taroing (©) Under current (0) Convection Atwosriene @. CO, and H,O ate ako called {0} Green House Gases b) Rate Earth Gases QUO. Troposphere is general (A) Sable (6) Unsable te) Newt QU. Statsphere iso. (6) Unsable (6) Neural (0) Stable 12 Tropopause is discontinuous st abOWE seve. fa) 30" ©) 4tae 2 60" Q13. Most of armospherie mass is conned i seams (0) Toposphere, —_(b) Stratosphere (6) Hetcosphere QU. Scccosphere extends fom Tropopstse 10 sa (@) 50 kim (8) 60 km 6 40 km US. The nile srmosphere Iyer with temperaace version and sabi . (8) Tioposphere (8) Tropopase (0) Sratosphete QUE, Motter of Peat clouds o6C2" i sue (0) Mesosphere - (6) Thermospere 0) Seavosphere QU7. The temperamte ia ISA at 17 Kim is an 6) 565% ) 855°C (355°C U8. By weighs, approximate ratio of O, to N, in the atmosphere is. en 14 (ots 19. By velume, the approximate ratio of O, to N, in she atmosphete 6 oso \o 13 wi us 20. By velume, the proportion oF CO, in the stmosphete i ees... (3% (8) 0.3% {© 0.0389 Q21, in TSA, the mean sea level cempeasure iS occ, misc lec fo 25 Q22, Maximum concentration of ozone is at a . (2)10-15 km (by 20-28 km (©) 3035 km 23. Additinal oxygen is needed while fying above ‘Ga $000 fe (b) 7000 feAVIATION MetzonoiogY Q24. CO, and H,0 keep the amosphere (a) Wares (b) Cold (9 Have no effect Qa Bp Noctcen clouds ose in Aa # () Thermosphere —(b) Mesosphere {© Steaosphere Qu 226. Temperature at 2 km is OS°C wha i ISA deviation, Hine + (Aeral — ISA) Aa (@ -05°C 07 C lO) 03°C ax 27. Pestare st MSL is 1002.25 hPa Find che ISA deviation Hin + (Aaual = SA) Aa (0) -11 hPa (b) 10 Pa f) 12 hs (226: In actmal atmosphere temp. at 19 km is -6"C. Find the ISA deviation? fase } -05.5° ¢ 2 asc 29. Nacteous clouds occur in 7 (@) Thecssosphere —_(b) Mesosphere (2) Upper Sreatosphere (Q30, The atmosphere upto 80 kn has a weal sila composition and i called the Homosphere, is usiform composition is due «0 {) Pressure b) Grovitarion of earth (c) Mixing due to turbulence 51. Half of the atmospheric ait mass is conesied «.suw below 40) 20,000 ft & 15,000 fe (4 0,000 ft (32m jet standard atmosphere the Lapse Rate is (@) 25°C 1000 f(b) 2°C / ken (98°C J km 83. The rate of fa of emperacces with heighy, called (9) isorbermal rete (b) Inversion Rate 46) Lapse Rate Q34.In acral atmosphere the lapse rate could : 3). assame any vahie 6) fall up to 8 km ise up co 5 li)assume any vals ¢b) fall up to 8 ky (ise up 0 50 kn BS Topical Tropopaise extends fom the equator o Lat, 35-407. Over Inn itis fetid at about wasn ABOVE this there is inversion. (@) 20-21 bm (0) 215 km (9) 16-16.5 kmanswers 10 15 28 « 16 29 7 30 b 18 3t ATMOSPHERE ANSWERS 9 2 7 b 20 33 ry a 4 2 35 10 23 " 242 a ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Static and Dynamic Pressure ‘The Air pressure changes cause cas to pop up when traveling over significantly “arring topography and ducing rapid descent of an arco Relationship beeween Pressure and Altitude Roughly hPa change in pressure is equivalene to: -aMSL 7H a 20,0008 sof at 2000 fr 30 ft at 40,000 fr 100 &. R ATMOSPHERIC Pressune Vertical Variation of Pressure 100 ken} inkm ékm Pressure-——————_. Figure 2.1 Variation of Pressure with Heighn ‘The presure decreases with height, ata decreasing rat, from sea lave to 600 m a #94 to 15 ke at 3% and up to 3 kin 2.564. Ac 6 km ie reduces co hal the walueatsea level. AC 100 km it is negligible and can be regarded a6 vacenn Fect per hia change of pressure = 96 T / p feet Using above equation, a pressure changes of 1 he at pressure 1000 hPa with temperature 300K, would be: 96*300/1000 = 28.8 fr ‘Variation of Pressure in Warm and Cold Air ‘arm alti les dense than the cold. The presue wil als faster pace over sand lum of sie than over a warm column oft, presse value sy 850 ‘ia, willbe ata higher heighe over a wasm column chan over a calf column, see Figure 22. Thesefore where upper ac mean temperstures ate higher upper at Dresuresare high and where mean temperatues ace lo, the upper aie prevores arelow, BAVIATION MetzoRoLogy coup | OR aso ane 5000 seta asst sso ne coun eto bes 1000 43 Con wan Isa, Isobarc Levels are at Lower Height over Cold Colin than over Warm Column Hence at higher Levels Low Over Cald Column aud High over Warm: Coburn Figire 2.2 Variation of Pressure in Wa and Cold Air Semi Diurnal Variation of Pressure ‘The atmospheric pressure follows a wavy pattern doting 24h, showing maximum 1000 he (primary) and 2200 he (secondary) and minimam at 0400 hr and 1600 hr local time, as shovn in Figure 2,3 The variation could be as much as 3-4 hPa between maximutn and minimum. Such variations ate very small at the Poles an) large at Equavot due to solar influence tis of ise importance in mid and high lnvitades, being overshadowed by the cravelling weatier systems. la low latitudes itassumes considerable importatice, ‘When the temperature is highest in the afternoon, the density of ait close to the round is lov. Hence he pressure slowest. Atabout sunrise when the temperature is lowes, the pressure is highest. Thece is however, a phase difference of about 3 hour berween the temperature and the pressure. A departure from these regular oscillations is often an indication of tte approaching bd weather! storm, Semi diurnal vaiation of presureis probably a nacualoscilaon of she atmosphere, having a period of almost 12, hours. Iris excited and maintained! by the temperature ‘Variation during 24 hr, As the air is continuous, ifthere is a high pressure on one Side ofthe globe, there should be alow on the other side. With the rotation ofthe ‘arth the pressaresleo rotate, Hence, two maxima and wo minima dng 24 he “4 ATMOSPHEUC PaissuRE ex max in esisuee we eee Local Time Figure 2.3 Semi-Diuena Variation of Pressure Measurement Pressures accurately measured by Mercury barometer in which atmospheric pressure is balanced by the height of the mercury column. Aneroid barometer is another instcoment which is used for measuring pressure, Although aneroid barometer is not as accurate as mercury barometer, but for its ease of handling and convenience, itis widely used, Altimeter is an aneroid barometer in which the scale is graduated ‘o cead altitude instead of pressure, Alimeter has.a subscale, which can be set co the desiced value of pressure, For continually recording the pressure a Barograph is used. It coald be a Daily Barograph or Weekly Barograph. Altimeter Correction (Alkicor/D Value) ‘The correction applied ro the indicated arisude to obtain the tee abide is called altitude correction/atrimecer correction or in short ALTICOR. This is frequently required during mountain fyng:and bombing operations. , Alcor = Indicated Alitude = True Alitude Negative of Alcor i rermed as D Value ie D Value = True Altitude ~ Indicated Altitude 1D value decreases when aircraft flies from High to Low 5AVIATION Mereonotocy Rough calculations of Altimeter Cortection {0} Duco Pesure difrencs fom I, Add 30 for evecy 1 hPa differance When MSL pressuce is higher than 1013.2 hPa and subtcact 30 ft whee lower than 1013.2 hPa, ©) Due to Temperature diffrence from ISA, Add 1% of indicated altitude for every difference of 3°C when actual temperature is at the Flight Level and subtract when lower than ISA, (©) Add these algebraically co gt the final correction, Contours and Thickness ‘The mean temperatures of vertical colusans of aie di Accordingly the height ofthe columns, of pressure vahe (ay 850 hs) weed ao differ The lines oining places of equal ieght are called Contour, Shane os Bean cempéranire corresponds to Law pressure at higher levels, the areas of low Se eel lobe areas of ow presse and vice versa The Contour lines my also be treated as isobars, Scopocental meter: 1 gpm = 9.8 juleg. The contour lines ate numbered in Seopotential decametreseg, 5280 gom is indicated as 528. Ifthe ‘gpm is 700, then anit paces located approximately 700 gm above ml, Centres of Low and High high thickness where mean temperarare ofthe layers higher. Thus the isopleths of thickness coincide with the isotherms of mean temperature of the layer. Pressure Gradient 16 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Presse Tendency end Isallobars ‘he shane of pressure with imei aed pressure tendency in india peste tendency is worked out for the pas 24 hr and in che higher ltndes forthe past {nee hours of he curceneobsereation. The lns joining equal presure change ate called Ullobars, Aa glance he isalloars, indicat aeas of rsingot linge ‘These are used as forecasting aid for movement and intensification weakening of Tate ‘stem. The region of greatest fll enclosed by isallobat is termed as Isallobatic Low and the region of highest rie, che'Tsallobanie bigh, ALTIMETRY Definitions Altitude. It isthe vecticaldiszance from the mean sea level (MSL), Height. Is che vercialditance from a specific dacum (eg from the ground), Elevation. ris the vertical distance of a poiat or a level onthe surace ofthe earth from MSL, ‘Teansition Alvitude (TA). Thisis the highesc altinude beloxe which an aircraft will always fy on local QNH. At or below TA the vertical posiion of ae aircraft is controlled with reference ta height above the aerodrome. Teansition Level TL), Thelowest Flight Level above which an aircraft wll always fly on standard QNE 7013.2 hPa, Above TL the vertca! position of an aircraft is from danum 1013.2 hPa. TL is expressed in hundreds of feee Transition Layer, The airspace beeween T A and TL, Flight Level, ‘These aze levels of constant pressure at or above the TL separated by apresue interval corresponding to $000 fe th MSE presure LOLS cn (eg. FLSO = 5,000 ft, FL300 = 30,000 fr, FL200 = 20,000 fy. Pressure Akiade, When the altimeter sub-scales seco 1013.2 hPa the alimeter indicates Pressure Alicude. Using 1013,2 bPa sectng avoids she need to update QNE. Pressure lttude isexpresed as g, 3500, 19000, 40000, st, whereas the attude 'sexpresed (by avoiding ls 0 zeros) as FL 35, FLI9O, F400, 7AUATION MertoRotoay Pressure Settings A barometer provides pressure reading. To this reading certain corrections ate =pplied, These corections are: Index correction (to compensatc for instumental eros) Gravity correction (gravity Using liferenc at differen latices) and Temperature correction (ie changes continosl). The pressure is then reduced to 3 common level clled che mean sea level (ms), Such practice is called pressure setting, The pressure sertngs are QFE, QFF and QNH. GEE. eis defined asthe actual presute at the aerouirome elevation (which s the highest point on the landing area), also called Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP), IE QFE ise onthe subscale ofan altimerer, che altimeer would read geo or height of aircraft alrimerer from che ARP. Ics also called zero setting. QUE. Itis defined as the barometric Pressure of a place reduced to msl, The existing impart of the place is assumed so be the temperature of column extending ‘rom the baromeresfevel to the msl. This values used for plotting on Synoptic charts and drawing isobars, QUA, It is defined as the Station level pressure reduced to the msl assuming [SA condicions, When QNH isser on the sub-scale, the altimeter indicates the sexton Clevation, the vertical stance of the station above msl This secing is usa fr ‘ertcal separation between aiteaftand from ters, QNH should be updated ‘rom time to time asickeeps changing with tine and place due o change in emperatre and pressure, Its also called Absolute Altitude Regional QNH, This isthe forecast value ofthe lowest pressure expected in an Alsimeter Sering Region (ASR). Is issued every hour and fs valid for one hoa Correct use of regional QNH ensures adequate tercain clearance QNE. Iris he ahitude indicted onan akimeter on landing when the sub-seale is Baie fOt8.25 hPa 29.92 inches) The shitadcisknossn a5 QNE value. Normily QUE is used for high altitude aitfields, Relation between QNH, QFE and QNE © TEQNE > QNH ie, sea level is lower than MSL For : Station Level Pressure (QFE) 950 liPa, and Sea Level Pressure = {QNH) 1000 hPe and 1 hPa = 30 fi, the Elevation of Station = (QNH - QEE) * 30 f = (1000 - 950) #30 = 50* 30 = 1500 f 18 ATwosrHeRiC Pressune Tf the Altimeter is set co QNE of 1013 he, the altimeter would indicate the Station level = (QNE - QFE) ¢ 30 ft = (63 hPa) * 30 = 1890 f@ Gi) iF QNE < QNH ie sca level is higher chan MSL For: QRE $70 hPa, and QNH 1020 hPa, che altimeter would indicate the Sta elevation = (QNH ~ QFE) * 30 = ( 50 hPa) * 30 = 1500 ft {CAlcimeteris st to QNE of 1013 hPs, che altimeter would indicae the Seaton level = (QNE - QFE) * 30 ft = (1013 -970)* 30 = 43 "30 = 1290 fe Asa cule: ‘When the subsaeis set to valueless chan QNH, the alkimeterindicaces lower ‘than the actual height above sea level. ‘When the subscale is set to a value greater chon QNH, the: altimeter indicates higher than the actual height above sea level, Standard Isobaric Levels Corresponding ro ISA pressore the Pressure Altitude (Fe and Flight Levels are as follows: Level(hra) | 650 | 700 [00 [400 [300 Jan D100 Pressure 5.000 | 10,000 | 18,000 | 24,000 | 30,000 | 38,000 | 53,000 Alinide (Ee) FlgheLevel {so | 100 [tea [240 Tacn J aa0 | a0 ns 1 Tablena Under Reading Over Reading An Alrimeters has a subscale on which the desired pressure can be se onthe ground rin he aie. On his setting altimeter indicates heights pr ISA specifations The altimeter over read ifthe pressure falls during che flight and under reads fie ives, As a general cule: Ly and. Gay High to Low ~ Over Read Low to H igh - Under Read ‘Warm to Cold ~ Over Read Cold to Warm ~ Under Read JnISA 1.5 km ahitude corresponds toa pressuce of 864 Ps and 2 km to 795 hPa see Figure 24, Whenan aitcraft flies into a Column of warm ait from 864 LPs level, “TUBS, bey aeAVIATION METEOROLOGY the pressure being lower over warm level, say ar 2 km (where ISA Press an altitude lower than teue ait er column will have the same pressureata higher ture is 795 hPa}, Hence che altimeter wil indicate de, as in figure below. ‘Tivo Helaht 1010 wa 1012 apa 10132 Pa AC fm ow fo High i Unér Ataf om Call to War i Uni Reed Figure 2.4 Alimcter Response with chonging Pressure and: Temperature Resls ofthis ype canbe elaed withthe wind alo, Figuee 25, tn che case of winds the general cule in the N hemisphere is: Pot oo Art oa Fort it on gh Sat. nt hes, os anor ne eel fon etme leo te vind and i Honoe, aetnetsrwoud UNDEY oc Figure 2.5 Altimeter Response to Wd fom Starboard 20 ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE ‘When fying with winds from port he alimeter will ovectead, and with winds from starboardunder-rea. The error increases with strength ofthe wind and length of the route. In § hemisphere opposite is crue Pressure Fatterns To represent the spatial distribution of pressure ata given time, all pressures are ‘reduced to rhe msl. When pressures ar different stations are plocted on a chart andi isobars are drawn at 2 hPa incerval the following pastern, Figure 2.6 and Figure 27, emerge: Low (lowpar).Irisan atea enclosed by an isobar, with lowest pressure athe centre. ‘When there ate two or more closed isobars a2 a inerva,itiscalled a Depression, A farther intense system is Cyclone or Severe Cyclone. Winds around a low blow ‘manticlockwise direction in N hemisphere, converging towards the centre. There is convergence and upward motion at 2 low. Hence 4 low is associated with bad ‘weather, visibility Is better than a High. Winds back in alow. wind speed on the surface is less chan 17 ke Trough of Low. A tongue like extension of isobars from a low is called erough of {ow Pressure along the trough is lower than on eter side. sobarsalong the ough S Cyclone Aiestone u 996nPa 1060nPa 100K “o00rPa ‘TroucH, a Fignne 2.6 Pressure Pattomis aAVIATION MertoRotogy ‘002 hee 7000 hPa Figure 2.7 Pressure Patterns in Isobar Analysis are"V" shaped and wind direction abruptly changes and backs. Its algo associated ‘with bad weather. The monsoon rough along he Indo-Gangetc phinsis an example of accough. High, Ie isa region enclosed by isobar with highest pressure atthe centce. High Pressure is associated with fair weather but visibility is poor due to subsidence, ‘Winds blow in a clockwise direction and diverge oursvards. Winds veer in a high, Ridge. Ic is a wedge like extension of isobats froma high pressure area. Pressuce is higher along the ridge than on either side. Isobats along the ridge are rounded and not "V" shaped as in a trough, [tsa region of fair weather. Winds veer ata ridge. Col, Cols aregion enclosed between two highs and rwo lows. The isobars towards high pressure areas are 2 hPa higher chan cowards lows. Weather within a Col ig ‘mixture of high and low, winds are light variable, Pressure at Col is uniform, Synoptic Systems. See Snopric Systems at Appendix J, and Met Scales and Divisions at Appendix N, n @ wu. @. Qs. y. @ @. Qu. qu ATMOSPHERIC PREssunE QUESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Winds in a low pressure ©) Converge (b) Diverge (6) Go straight Low presre is sssociaed with @) Good Weather (0) Bad Weather (0) None In a high pressure area winds are () Norm ) Seong {) Weak, Flying from Low to High an altimeter would read (a) Over (b) Under (© constant Isallobars are lines of equal (a) Presse (b) Temperature Tendency (c) Pressure Tendency What kind of a barometer is an alkimerer ~ (a) Aneroid (b) Mercury, {c) Alcohol, A tezion berveen to Lows and Tivo Highs is {a} Depression (b)Secondacy Low (©) Col Bad weather and bereer visibility is associaced with {oh High {ty Low te) Cal ‘The relasionship benween height and pressure is made use in construction of @) Alimeer ast vsi Altimeter sways measure the heighe of siccraft above @) MSL. {b) datum of 1013.2 hPa (6) dacum ac which its subscale is ser, ‘To aircraft lying ar same indicated altitude with sltimeters se co 1013.2 ha. One is fing over cold air mass and other over warm air mass. Which of che two has greater altinude: (@) Ae flying over warm ait mass (b) Ac flying over cold air mass + The rate of fall of pressure with height ina warm air moss compated to cold aie mass will be (@) Same () More LessAVIATION MeTsoRoLoGY (QS. An Increase of 1000 feet in elevation near the earth is associated with decrease of pressure off (2) 100 hPa) 1000 hPa (3 hha 4@) 33 hPa QU4, Lines dawn through places of equal pressure are known a8 + (@ Isobars (@) lockers © Isogonal ——@) seat QUS. Which is true (2) Tiough has frontal characteristics lb) Aer ecossng the axis of rough winds back in Nchetisphese : (4 After crossing the axis of trough winds veer in N-hemisphere QU6. Semi diurnal pressure changes ace most pronounced in (@) Polar region (b) Middle latirades Se) Teopies (O17. Flying trom Delhi to Kolkata contant indicated althude but, expedencing a Aft o Starboard, The actual atinede will be (Vird-vis) indicated alitude _fAl Lower (©) Same (9 Higher (QB, Im the Southern Hemisphere, around a Low Pressure Area wind blows ~0) In clockwise ditection (6) In anvictockwise direction (© Across isobars towaeds the centte (U9, Altimeter of ale on ground reads aecodkome elevation, its sub-cale is set so fa) QNH (0) QNE {c) QFE (QFE : (00. Instrument for cecording pressure is called (0) Anemopraph (9) Barometer (0) Hygrogeaph Q21, Poor visibility is associated with fo) High 0) Low @ Ga 22. On either side, perpendicuae 0 the snow pressures rise folTeough 4b) Ridge (9 Low 23. Fall of pressace with height is more rapid in _AA) Cold areas (6) Warm sceas (©) Hamid areas iA. 300 ba in ISA coresponds tothe level (@) 20,0008 (),30,000 fr (©) 35,000 v 4 ATMOSPHERIC. PRessuRe (225. 18,000 f height in ISA coresponds ro pressure level (@) 700 hPa () 200 hPs {6500 hPa (26, 206 bPa in ISA corresponds co the level (@) 20,0001 A) 30,000 ) 40,000 f 27, 24,000 heg in TSA corresponds to pressure level 6) 400 Pa ) 500 hPa (2) 300 hea ‘G28. 700 HPs in ISA coneesponds to che Flight level @) 20,000% (©) 10,000 ft (6) 28,000 (225, 40,60 fe beige in ISA approximately cosceponds to pressure level (2) 400 ha (6) 500 hPa 5) 200 hp 230. B50 bain ISA corresponds 10 the height 2.0008 6) 5,000 & © 19000 f ANSWERS Q , tS 6 7 8 yo wn ey Aa boc bo ce a ce 4 aoe d Qs wo 1 yn 2 5 2 25 26 Ma boc a as hoa ag boc Q 27 2 2 30 Aa be b uae Sy dor te3 TEMPERATURE Temperature is a measure of heat. Its measured by a chermomeser in degrees Celsius (Centigrade) or Fahrenheit. These scales acc arbitrarily fixed with reference so the melting poinc of ice and the boiling poine of pure warer at normal pressure. On the Celsiusscale these are respectively as 0° Cand 100° C and inthe Fahrenheit scale 32° F and 212° F. Celsius scale is used incernationatly,in aviation and science. Use ofthe Fahrenheit scale is confined to afew English-speaking couneries only. A thied scale is based ofthe following argument, Heat isa form of energy As heat is extracted froma substance cs internal energy is reduced and the random motions ofits molecules slows downs The molecules sec arranged in a more orderly pattern than before. As more heat is extracted the cooling and the orderliness increases, Finally a state is reached when the molecules attain their maximum orderliness and the moleculat motion almost ceases. After this state no more heat can be extracted and the temperarute renches its lowest Possible value. This minimum temperature isthe same forall substances, and is accordingly called che absolute zero (K). 1K =-273.16°C Conversion to CF and K ‘The conversion from one scale to another can be done by che following equations: F = (C5) + 325C = 5/9 (R32) ;K=C +273 Ac may be noted thar 40° C = ~40" F 6 ‘Tesareparune Instruments for Measurement Dry Bulb Thermometer, Wer Bulb Thermontetec (the bulbs covered ith a muslin cloth which skept mois), Maximum Thermomotr (ike Doctors Theemomieter), Minimurn Thermometer and Thermograph, ae used for measuring temperature, Mercury is used in thermometers, except that in Minimum thermometer Alcohol is used insead of mercury. In Thecmographs and in Upper Ait empecature ‘ieaserements Bismetallc snips are used, Thermograph gives 4 continuous record ‘oftemperature. A minimum thermometer has.a dumbbell shaped itoindex, which permits alcohol to pass through when temperature rises, When temperature falls ‘healcohol, which has concave meniscus, dtagsthe index back to indicate minimum cemperature. Surface Temperature {isthe temperature recorded at a height of ft (1,25m) above the ground in shade (inside a Stevenson’s Screen), . Ambient Temperature.The cemperature of che surroundings is called Ambient ‘Temperature, ‘Heat and Temperature Heatisthe sum tal ofthe KE ofl moleculesand atoms ofa substance, Temperatiare is the average KE of all the molecules and atoms of a substance, The water in a bath tub at 60° C will have more heat than the boiling water in a eup, In the ‘thermosphere although the teniperatures are very high yet che heat content s less 2 there are very few particles and ehey too far apact. Hence there is hardly any effect of high temperatures tothe rockets and spacecraft in the region. Specific Heat It is defined as the heat requited to raise the temperature of unit ‘ass of a subwance by 1° C. The specific heat of water, egatded as the highest, {s 1, that of ie: 0.5 and of the soil 0.2, Hence land gets heated/eooled much faster than the water. Latent Heat. Latent heat is defined as the “amount of heat absocbed or celeased dling change of phase fromvto solid /lquid/vapour” ris absorbed during change of solid to ligiid and liquid vo gas and released during the reverse processes. 7AMATION Meteonovocy _ Evaporation, Condensation and Latent Heat “hen water changes co vapour, certain quantity of heats supplied To change boiling water into vapour, more then five times as auch heat is required asis needed to bring the seme aniount of ce cold water to the bol, Once boiling has beg, ‘he emperanure ceains constant and the heat supplied in this stage becomes laene leis leased as latent heat when the vapour condenses to water, Heat Transfer ‘Heats transfezred from one place to che other by conduction, convection, cadiation and some otlier methods, as follows. In che atmosphere all these processes are important, However, radiation plays a significant role in heat tansfer, Conduction. In this process heat is physically eransferred by the molecules by contact, Conduction is an important process of heat transfer very close to the ‘ground. Convection, In this process hor fluid is bodily eransferred ro the colder part of the fluid. As more than 70 9 of the earth is covered with Waser, hence the impoctance of convection. In the atmosphere Pree Convection is triggered by incense solar heating and the Forced Convection by topography. The hot ai lifts to higher levels and transfers heat. Radiation. Every body radiates heat at ies temperature. In this process of heat ‘tansfer the medium is neither affected nov requiced. The solar radiation directly hear up the earth wichoue affecting the atmosphere, Other Methods of Heat Transfer, Advection, Latent heat release, Tarbulence, Up and Downward motion of ai are some of the the other methods of heat transfer. The advection transfers hear horizontally by winds, The irregular eddy motion of the armosphere clled turbulence, causes redistibusion of heat the latent heat which 'sabsorbed bythe melting ofice or evaporation of water, mostly at the earth's surface, issubsequentiyrelessedas latent hatin the atmosphere by condensation or freezing lathe troposphere all heabove process transfer heat. nthe staosphere howeves, neither convection nor latent heat have any influence butshort wave tadiation hee it up due to absorption by ozone, 8 ‘Tesetaarune Insotaton Total amount of solar radiation received over a particular area is caled insolation, Theinsolation depends on the obliquity of sun's rays, Figure 3.1. Hence insolation atany place is maximum when sun is overhead and least daring suntise and sunset, Similaly maximum insolation is received over the Tropics, the region berween ‘Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, and least ax che Poles. ‘ suv a ess lslin Mee llain Figure 3.1 Insoltion and Obtignty ofS Raye Black Body Every body, emits radiation, atits eamperaturein the from of electromagnetic waves ‘over a wide range of wavelengths simulrancously. A radicing body is ealleda black body. Laws of Radiation Stefan Bolezman’s Law. The law states that the coral amount of energy radiated by blackbody is proportional eo the fourth power of itsabsoluce temperate, Hence intense radiation are emisted by hot bodies like the sun, zat ‘Wien’s Law. The wavelength of most intense radiation is inversely proporcional ro the absolute temperature. Hence hot bodies (like sun) radiate Shorc Waves and colder bodies lke earth, radiate Long Waves, Planks Law. This law describes tne distribution of radiated energy with absoluce temperature. The curve is a right skewed central distibution. 9AVIATION MertonoLogy Solar Radiation The temperature ofthe surface of che sun is about 6000° C. The solar radiation i, ‘herefore, mainly Short Waves In the sola spectrum the white visible light consists of various wavelength colours (VIBGYOR), in wich the longest waves appear red, theshortest voles, naddtion to vse ih, the sole specam consists of wavelength ‘00 shor be seenby the eye. The wavelength beyond the violet end ofthe spectrum arecaled Ula Vile (UV) and those an the other extesue beyond the eed wavelengths are called infra Red (R) waves, The complete sola radiation, including visible ight, ‘Wand IR, is responsible forall the hea chat the eatth receives from sum as short wave radiation, The solar radiation consists of about: IR 46 %, Visible 45 % and UV 09 % ‘Tercestrial Radiation ‘The earth radiate acits own tempecature and looses heat, These ae calle terrestrial radiation, which are long wave radiation. ‘These are invisible and ace mostly IR radiation, The ewth recerves heat as short-wave radiation from the san and loses heat as long wave radiation Nocturnal Radiation Atnight when the shoct-wave radiation is absent only the earth radites and looses heat. The radiation emitted by the earth at night are called Noccutnal Radiation, Green House Effect ‘Water vapone and toa lesser extent carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrous oxide absor® terrestal radiation in cerain wavelengths and pesmi remaining 0 escape. These gases, therefore, keep the atmosphere warmer, causing an effect similac to the Green House effect, These gases also e-radiate pact ofthe absorbed heat towards the earch, The warer vapour and CO,, thus reduce the noctucnal ‘cooling ofthe ground toa certain extent. Inthe absence of water vapour and CO, in the atmosphere the earth would have been much cooler Radiation and Heat Budgee Since the mean remperatae ofthe earth has reined almost unchanged foralong period, ie follows thar heat received from the sum as Shore wave radiation is returned to the space by the earch as Terrestrial Radiation‘and are equal 30 : ‘TeureraTune About 3096 of the solar radiation is reflected hock or scattered by the earth Sumospher, 199s absorbed by amospheric consents (sch zone) and $196 are absorbed by che earth surface, [Absorbedby Tora Earth surface 3% Water Vapour, Dust, Ozone 16 98 ‘Clouds 36 7036 Back Scattered by air a Clouds 2056 Eatth Surface 498 — ee me Table32 ‘The 30% of he solac radiation which are reflected back tothe space by the earth and clouds i the reflecting power of cart. Iris called “Albedo”. Albedo = Reflected Radiation/Incident Radiation In clear weather about 5/6 of che solar radiation reach earth surface. Of his energy ‘arth teflectsabout 1096, Snow surface reflects about 80% of the incident, energy. Diurnal Varistion of Surface Temperature Due tothe nature of surface the diurnal temperature changes are much smaller over the sea than overland. The sea surface terapezature shows a variation from day to night of less than 1° C, whereas overland, the diurnal variation may average ‘ax much 25 20° C. Neat the coast the diuenal variation depends on the direction oi the wind. Witha wind off the Land the ducal variation near the coast nay be a large as inkead, bue with a wind off ehe sc it willbe small, The sea breeves have ‘ pronounced cooling effect, ‘The diurnal variation is mamta when the wind i calm. Wich trong wind, the surface ait mixes with te air above and che heat gained by day and lost by night Sereads through the Friction Layer (up to 1 ka above). Consequently the diarnal "ration is all when winds are strong. 3AVIATION Mertoroiocy Due co nocturnal cooling the surface temperatuces continve to fll even after che suns, til a balances reached between the incoming and outgoing radiation. The balance occurs alle afte the sunrise, when temperature is minizmum atthe surface, Thereafter some time may elapse for this temperature to reach the screen level (125m). The minimum temperature, therefore, occurs % to 1 hour after the sunrise asin Mim) Tenpea evn Minin Corre) ~—t ‘Sen Rise itd Sunset Figure 3.3 Diurnal Variation of Surface Temperature ‘or dawn, Theceafte, che incident radiation exceed until mid day. The surface temperature isthe highest at noon. Ic takes another 2-3 hours for transfer ofthis ‘emperature to che screen level, when che maximum temperature is recorded, Eifect of Clouds on Surface Temperature Acloud cover obscures the sun and reflects major par of te radiation back to space A thin sheet ofcitrostratus cloud can cut off fait proportion of the solar radiation, and a thick layer of iower cloud ox a deep layer of fog may completely block the radiation and reduce che heating of the earth by day. During nigh, the loud cover absorbs most of the oucgoing radiation from eatth. Ac the same time the lower surface of che cloud radiates towards the earth, Hence cloudy nights are warmex ‘When sky iscoveced with low clouds te diurnal vatiation of temperature a the ground is small. The lower the cloud the more effectively i reduces the nocruenal cooling. 2 Teatrenarune QUESTIONS ON TEMPERATURE QL, Diurnal variation of temperature is greatest when wind is (9 calm ©) light (© strong 2 Diuttal vorasion of temperature is maximum over (2) forese (©) ocean, (0 tand 3. On a clear day the amount of solar sadiation received by catth surface is a% 0) 3054 (9 516 , QU. ALBEDO is 9 Radiavion received by earth {€) Amounc of heat 40 Reflecting power of earth Q5. During Day the aribient cemperacute iS case than ground {@ Lower (b) Higher (a) Same Q6. Divrnal variation of temperature over ocean is . (a1 More thaa land Q% Ata coastal station che diucnal vatition of temperate depends on .. (6) Wind speed (© Radiation (3) Wind direction (0) Above 3°. (@) Less than °C QB. Stow sucface reflects abou Gi 7598 ) 80% 96 of solar radiation, 2) 90% Q Amount of Solac radiation ceceived per unit area is (0) Convection 40) Raciacion Quo Sd radiation ceccved by the earth i (@; lnsolation (@) Long Wave QUA. Rive in temperature of (©) Albedo a surface is proportional (2) Dircety 2) Inversely QU2. Sprcific heat of land is ©) Lower QU3. Minimum temperature is reached at (@) suntise ) Same () mids 3 4e) Shortwave specific heat + than that of water (© Higher (0) %4 1 hour after dawnAMTION MeTzoROLOGY QU4. An air parcel is lifted rill it gers saturated, The temperature attained by it is called (0) Potencial temperature (6) Dew Point {9 Wer bulb QS. Clondy nighes af an : (2) cold (©) normal (9 warm QU6. Wetec vapout is transparent eo serestial radiation {a) complesely (0) partially (9 indifferent QUT, Higher che temperate .....0u would be the wavelength of emitted radiation (@) longer () shorter Q1S. Airis bad conductor of hea. A parcel ofr ean therefore be regacded as insulated. from the environmenc (2) False (0) True . QU9. Warmer the earn, will be the Nocturnal radiation (2) incense (b) weaker (0) moderate QUO. Heat is che «..nof the KE of all che molecules and atoms of a substance (2) sum tora (b) average LL. The solar radiation consists of sbout 46 9, (a) W () TR (9 Visible Q22. The tora energy cadiated by a black body is proportional to its temperstte(T) oT oP : oT 23. Inense radiation are emiced by : (@) Ho bodies (6) Cold bosties (9 Stars QUA, The wavelength of moscintense radiation is inversely proportional 10 . (a) Absoluce temperature (b) Humidity (@) Albedo QW. Hot bodes dike sun) radiate (@) Shore Waves (&) Long Waves (9 Both Q26. The How of heat from earth sunface is 7706 by (a)Sensible Heat (b) Latent Heat QU7.- 4° C = 40" F (6) Thue (6) Fae ‘TenrenaTURe 28, Surface Temperature is recorded at a height of. 15 m (0) 1.25m 29. The door of Srevenson’s screen should open () opposte to sun fb) into sun 30. The liquid used in Minimum Thermometer is (@) mercury (6) alcohol ANSWERS Q 203 6 8 Aa oc 1S 16 17 18 19 20 an 27 28 29 30 reo re (©) any diceerion © spec 10 23 u 4 2 a5 1BON Th py mi og . " ory TP oy 4 41 on AIR DENSITY ‘Armesheie density isan important facrorin aviation, Deni afects pefotnance ofan aircraft significantly. Teles, test, deg, climb eat and speedo! on dire Inlow densi the climb ous are lowes, bah andingand tea sped re Breas the thus of the engine i educed and longer runway ae required for take off and landing, Allowance has to be made for chese effects in planning the length of zunway and calculating the allup weight ofan arena” Definition and Units ‘The atmospheric density is defined as the mass of. air contained in a unit volume, Its une is g/m* or kg Density is also expressed as the Density Altnude, Density altitude is defined as the alcitude above ms! ac which a given atmospheric density occurs in the ISA. The Pressure altitude and the Density altitude have the ‘same value in the ISA. ‘or every It rise in temperatre above A, che Density altcude increases by abour 120 fe above tne Pressure alticude, ‘The Density altitude is higher ifthe atmosphere is watmer than the ISA. High density aliude would mean taking of from or landing at an sivfield located ara higher alrtude. 36 a Desire Density of Dry Air Theat density (p) an beis obtained by substituing observed valves ofthe pressure (P hPa} and temperature (T Kelvin) in che fundanental gas equation: PV=RT Since for a unit mass of gas density pis the reciprocal of the volume V, therefore: Dip = RY orp = PRT where Vis the volume, T the absolure temperature and R the gas constant for the particular gas. Substituting the values of the gas constant for dry aic R = 2.87 * 10, 1SA sutface Dressure 1013.25 hPa and temperarore 15° C (288° K}, the equation gives te density as 1225 gin, Density of Moist Air Being « gas, water vapour obeys the fundamental gas equation, The value of the £18 constant for water vapour is 8/5 times that for dry ait. The total pressure P of Imoist ar inay be regarded asthe sum of che patil pressure (p) exerted by the dry ait and the parcial pressure exerted by the water vapour (c). Then from éhe gas equation Density of water vapour i SeSRT Densicy dry ait, having parcial pressure (p — e) 5 (p-yRT, Density of the moise air (the sum of the above two) : 348.4 (p ~ 3e8) /T ‘Thus tke moist air has a lower density than dry air under similar conditions of Pressure and cemperature, Since the effect of humidity on density is smal it can be ignored for the aviation purposes. Factors affecting Densicy. Air density is aected by che following thee factors: Alriude. The higher the altitude, te less dense che ait is. Temperature, The warmer the ait, the les dense it is, Hlumidiey. [es not a major factor in affecting density, yee humid airs lighter ‘han dry air. Ahh temperanue, the atmosphere can eraina high water vapor aAvlaTION MetzoRoLoGY patent, If humidiy is high, ics wise co add 10% to che computed takeoff distance and anticipate reduced climb care, ‘Variations in Surface Density ‘Atagiven pressure, the density is inversely proportional othe absolute temperature, ‘The warm ait is thus comparatively lighter and the cold ae is heavier, Variations in density during a day occur due to the diurnal variation of temperature. The lowest densities acer in the afternoon and the highest just afte sunsise. Seasonal density changes eccur due to variations in temp. and pressure, Tris noteworehy that a decreese of density of about 1 per cent is produced by a {all of pressure of 10 hPa, by an increase of temperature of 3° C, or bya increase in height of 300 feet, Variation of Density wich Height Tm ISA the density decreases wich height ar all eves, The decrease at Lower levels for 1000 fis pproximacely 3 % ofthe value for any given level, Ths rule give good approximation up to about 20,000 feet. Lfthe density ofthe air was to remain uniform with beight, the atmosphere would extend up 108 km. Bot since density decreases with height, atevery 5-6 km itreduces 10 is previous half value kis 12 of the surface value at 6 kin, 1/4 ac 11 km and 1/8 at 17 km. However, at 240 km also there is sufficient density to offer resistance. Its, hetefore, believed that the atmosphere extends up to about 800 km. Latitudinal Variation Density of air at sta level is lowest near che equator and greatest at che poles. This distribution is maintained unto abont 8.0 kin. Above 8,0 km. reversal occurs and the density becoming more near che equator chan at poles(higher latitudes). This vwillmean: Forsiterft wid ow cruising altitudes (piston engine type the operational efficiency at any level would be greater in high lastudes than in the tropics For aitcrat with high crising altisudes Get airezaf the operational efficiency would be greater in the tropics than ar high latitudes, . 38 Bs. 6. yw. ws |. Density is . Above 8 km density is. AIR Density QUESTIONS ON AIR DENSITY ar poles than equator (b) Lower [a)Higher () Same sw at oles than st equstor (a)Highee (b) Lower (6) Same ‘The sltude in ISA at wich air denspy is che same as the observed density is called (@) Density Abinude (0) ISA Density (©) Real Density Density is usually expressed as. @) Kebq 40) gfea m (0) Nig m Higher densicy altitude means... density (a) Higher 0) Lower ( Same For given pressure and temperature moist air has density (o) Higher (0) Lower (9 Same Ac is ess denser in (@) High Altitudes (o} Warm Ait (0) High usidicy () All hese Density ‘altiude may be defined as: (@) The alimade in a standard atmosphere at which che peevailing presute occurs, (6) The altitude in a standard atmosphere ac which the prevailing densiy occur. (@) Suriace of constant aumospheric pressure relaced co standasd atmosphere of 1013.2 hPa ANSWERS. x»HUMIDITY ‘Water vapour is always present in the ait to a greater or lesser extent, in the Toposphere: This water vapour pay very mponanczole inal the atmosphere Processes, ‘ater evaporates ino the ai rom oceans, ake, rivers, vegetation ec ir atcends and forms clonds which cause precipitation, The water cyl is thus completed, ‘Water exis in hoe pass: che gas (water vapour), liquid (in, diz, shower} 8andsolid (snow, hai). The capacity of dry aco hold wate vapour depends largely them berature and to some exten on pressure. Higher the temperature higher is the capacity of sit to hold the water vapout ‘Various terms used for describing water concenc in the atmosphere are: Dey Air. Ait that conzains no water vapour is called dey ait Such an air nay exist in the upper troposphere or stratosphere, Moist Air. The notmat ai, that we breathe i the mois aie. Ie is also called ‘osarurated or dry ae at she existing temperature and pressure, Saturated Air. Ais lke a sponge which can absorb cern amount of water and ‘move. When their holds maxinum water vapour, iis called saturved aie Measurement, Humidity is measured by che instruments Poychrometer and Hygcomerer, and is recorded by Hygrograph. — 0 Huai ‘Vapour Pressure, The pata preswute exerted by water vapour in the ai called apont pressure, Ip isthe total pressure of ait and eis the vapour pressure, cen (+) isthe pressuce of dry air. Sarason Vapour Pressure, I is the pressure exerted by water vapour when aic is sacunied Absolute Humidity. 1cis defined as the aceual amount of water vapour contained ‘ inagiren volume of air ata given temperature. tis expresed in gn Humidity Mixing Ratio, Iris defined as the mass of water vapour concained in a. aiven mass of air. leis expressed as g/kg, Humidity Mixing Ratio for Sarurated Air. Iis defined as the maximum mass of ‘water apour shat can be conrained ina given mass of ac ata pariularmperaene and pressure. Its also expressed a8 gk of dry ait Relative Humidity. Is defined ashe ratio, in percentage, ofthe actual ware vapour Present in che ait to che maximum it cam eoatain at the same temperature and pressure, RH (96) (Humidity Mixing Ratio x 100) / (Hurni lity Mixing Ratio for Saturated Ait) RH (6) = (Vapour pressuee of air x 100}/ (Saturation Vapour Pressure of Air) NerBub Temperature (T,,). Ie isthe lowest temperature which ar would atain by evaporating water into ito sancti, Desert coolers work on thi principe Dryer the air more effective would be the cooling Dew Point Temperature (TT). Is the lowesc temperarate to which ait should be cooled at constant pres to saturaeit with respect co water. Cooling below Dew Point (DP) causes condensation, PP sory affected by change in water content, whereas RM is affected by change in warer concent and temperature both DP is higher if air contains move water vapous, By cooking or warming she air, RH changes but DP does not change, aLAVIATION MeTIoROLogY tost Point. Is ehe temperaure eo which ae aust be cooled to reach satnetion with respect co ice, Cooling below the frost Point causes formation of host frost. Icis important to note that: As the temperate ofthe ai ncreses, the amount of water vapour required to saturate it also increases. ‘Ac bro temperatures water molecules have inore nergy and a greater degree of freedom shan ce, consequently the stration vapour presure ovr wate drops is more chan that over the ice particles. If water drops and ice particles co-exic, ‘ater drops ill evaporate and condense onthe ice particles. Ths principle ig applied in explaining canfall from clouds which extend above 0 °C level in the ‘mosphere and have both supercooled water deops and ice cystals co existing Sinall ware droplets can exist in super cooled state inthe clouds up to —40° C and in CB clouds up to ~ 45° C., For saturated si; (in Fog, during in) Aic temperature (TT) = Wet Bulb (Tw Tw) = Dew point (Td Td) For Unsaturated air: Dry Bulb Temperature > Wet Bulb > Dew Point ‘With the increase of temperance the saturation humidity mixing catio ako increases Hrnicity Mixing Ratio remains constant when ac is lifted adisbatiealy, if there is no addition or removal of water vapour, QUESTIONS ON HUMIDITY Ql. The raion % between the amount of water vapour present in she air eo the amount of water vapour that i can hold atthe same temperature is (@) Hamidiey (0) Relive fuming {6} Dew point G2 The semperstrs co which sir be cooled at consent presre ro become sturste, is called (2) Wee bul cemperarure ©) Dry bulb temperatuce (Dew point @) Humidity a Hunipiry % Fiseairemperature, Wer bulb temperature and Dew pine ‘emperanice are equal shea (a) Air temperature is °C (b) Relative humidity is 10096 {0 Ar cemperature isnot below O°C On a eainy day compared to sonny day the length of cunvey tequited is @) More (b) Less (9 Same QS. The sorend (difference) berween Free ait tem Perarute and Dew point temperacure wheo air is saturated (b) Lease (Some 6. "The smurition vapour peesare over Wate iS ony than the ce (0) More (6) Less (© Same Q7 A the temperature ofthe st increases, the amount of water vapour required to sarurae (0) decreases (0) increaces (6) remains same QB. The semal amount of water vapour conttined in a fempecaeure if tet 8 oer (@) Ratative Humidity (b) Specific Humidity (6) Absolute Humidity 8. Humiiy Mixing Ratio... when ait lied adnbaally (2) decreases (6) semains constant (6) inceeases aiven volute of air at a given QUO. te isthe lowest temperature which air would attain by evaporating water into i to sarurate it, (@) Wer bulb temp (6) Dry bulb temp (© Dew point ANSWERS Qtlo2 3 4 5 6 7 9 Ab er boa 86 WINDS In che atmosphere a moves horizontally and vertically The horizontal mavernent ofthe aris called wind, The wind is closely related tothe horizon variation of Pressure and consists ofa succession of strong winds (gusts) and weak winds (lls, Tehas evo components: the Dircerion and the Speed, Wind Ditection ‘The direction of the wind isthe direction from which wine is blowing or wind is ‘coming from, A So ‘W.Wind direction is ‘Wind Speed Wind speedis expressed in nautical mile pechour (knot) The relationship herveen the alternative speed units are:- Akmh = 0.278 mps = 0.540 kt (konh — kilometre per hours mps - metre per sscond) ‘Wind speed is generally seprced at an interval of 05 kt a follows: O°2 kas Calms 03-07 kt a5 05 Kis 08-12 ke a8 10 kt son, 48052 ras 50 ke ere, winps Gross Wind, Runways ace oriened along the most prevling win ditetons ofa local, based on the cimatologcl records, However, sometimes, expecially during dvese weather and tans seasons, he winds deviate from these crectona ‘wind 90° othe runway in use is calle Cross Wind Component, Citcl cross components for each type of aircraft are specified. Great caution is exerviged ‘ereer this value exceeds, Crosswinds tend co sing the aircraft doing take offard landing, especially lighter aircraft, Instruments for Measuring Wind ‘place wind sped is measured by Anemometer and Wind diection by Wind Mane: Upper winds are measured by - RAWIN and Plo Balloon equipment These drogen filed balloon are racked by RADAR and Optical Theodalite especie, Exposure of Wind Instruments To tecord surface wind che Anemometer and Wind Vane are installed ata height Of 10 m, in an area free of obstructions. The wind is averaged for 10 minutes for all weather observations, For take off and landing purpose, however, the wind ie averaged for 2 minutes. Gust and Lull A gues aniregular and rapid uration inthe wind, Gusts ate caused by che furbulance due tothe grou frition ad by che nneven heating ofthe ground, spesialy in the hot afternoons. The positive fluctuations ate called Gusts and the negative fluctuations Lalls, Figure 6.1. our Mean Wind UL, Figure 6.4 Gust and Lal 4sAVIATION MeteoROLocy Squat Squall is defined as the sudden inctease in wind speed by 32 kmh (16 ke, 08 mps), Should ast for one minute ot more and speed should increase to 44 kmh (22 be, 11 mips) oF more. Squall is associated with large CB clouds and violent convective activity. Squall extend some kn horizontally and several thousands of eet vertically Both speed and direccion in squall may cffer widely from che prevailing winds Violent squalls ace experienced in Norwestets, Thunderstorm (TS) and Dusttotmn {0S) from March so June, Line squalls occur ahead of Cold Feontsand sometines with the Norwesters, ‘The main difference between squalls and gusts iste duration. Agustisa transient ‘Rereass in peed lasting for afew seconds, ce squall i an increase in wind lasting for some minutes. A squall is associated with CB ot Thundeserorm and may be accompanied by 4 marked drop in tenipeature and precipitation, ‘Strong sudden squalls are more dangerous than the strong meanhvinds. A parked aircraft may easily sustain a gale (defined as persistent mean wind of 34 knot or more) but may not sustais a squall or sudden gus of say 60 kt, eventhough the ‘mean wind may not ceach gale force, Gale Gales defined os the persistent mean wind of speed 34 ktor more. Ir isassocated with depressions and cyclonic storms, Backing and Vecring, Backing the change of wind diestion anticlockwise, eg, wind diecion changing £m 090° ro 60° or From 270° ro 160 ete. Conversely, change af wind direction f and the actual wind V is greater than Y, for the sume Pressure gradient. Or in other words the gradient wind is Super geostropicin an anticyclone {the iobars are stsight and parallel he gradient wind equals the geostrophic wind, ‘When, asin lower latitudes, the Coriolis terms negligible the gradient wind equal to the Cyclosteophic wind, : {sellobaric Wind, When the pressor changes rapidly the geostrophic and gradient ‘les do nor apply. n sucha case another force called Isallabaie Force cores inn play. This forces directed from higher isallobaro che lower iallobar. Ths dfleces wind towards che falling pressure, The wind under che influence of B,fand the Tsallobari force is called the Isallobsric wind. Inertial Wind Ic is a frictionless flow under the balance between the Centitugal Force and the Cotiolis Fores, and thereisno Pressure Gradient Force. The constant Inertial ing speed V, is given by Wins ‘where fis the Coriolis Force and R the radius of curvature (Wradius) of the path. The inertial flow is Anticyclonie in both the hemispheres. Effect of Sucface Friction The cough earth causes friction, Depending upon the wind speed, lpse rate and foughnes ofthe surface, the effet of fiction may extend in the atmosphere up ‘© about 1 kin This layer is called friction layer, The thickness of this layer is ‘ariable, Within the fiction layer the wind slows down and the Coriolis Force ‘educes proportionately and is insufficient to balance the pressure gradient force. The wind is, therefore, deflected towards the low pressure and the flow becomes cross isobaric, Figute 6.5. Presee Gratien Force 4 [7 we win Fiction Corns Force 1004 Pa UEFCT OF FRICTION ON wi Pressuce Graeme Force 3002, hts CCavois Force GEostRoPHic WIND, Figure 6.5 Effect of Friction ou Geostropbic Wind Asa rongh rule: over the sea, where feition is small, che surface wind blows at athouc 15°10 theisobas while its speeds about vo thitds ofthe geostrophic peed. Ove the land frtion is greater, the inclination tothe isobasis about 30° and peed |s 13 co 1/2 the geostrophic value, Turbulence and Gustiness Winds seldom steady. Ie ucaates, The peak fluctuations ar called che Gusts and the lowest che Lufls. The width ofthe fuetuations beeween gusts and lulls an indication ofthe degree of gustiness. The ar flow with such fluctuations i termed as turbulent. 3hAVIATION METEOROLOGY ‘Types of Turbalence ‘There are evo eypes of turbulence or gustines, viz. Frictional and Thermal, When the speed of he stream is low, the flow remains smooth ot lamina, but scien the Speed stupasies a certain lini che flow becomes unstable, Eddies fom and dsife away into the stream, making the flow turbulent, The thermal expe of curbulence is caused by the convection cusrents. due co sucface heating, The heating may resale rom insolation over the land or from the passage of a relatively cool mass of air over a warmer land or sea surface, Factors affecting Turbulence [he urbolence and the thicknes ofthe rcton layer ate accentuated by low over buildings, recs or ragged country. The eddies so created involve both vertical sad horizontal velocities, They develop more esl when the lapse rte is seep, Open Senor celatvely smooth ground, light wind and stable lapse rate are unfavourable ferrbulene, The thera cubulenc sles on cool suface and sable annoephere, Over land she wuzbulenceis more by day when the lapse eae is te and lene on a clear night with an inversion, ‘Turbulence and Aircraft To the occupants ofan aircrafy,urbulenceis recognized as bumpines, In torbulent Condition the landing and eaking off of aictae may be difficult due to sudden changes in wind, ‘Thermal Eddies Zhe eddies of thermal origin are often of large dimensions and produce stronger esis than thse produced by fection, They are more nodceable by occupant of au alreratchan the retinal eddies. They may also extend to considerable highs when che lapse rate is favourable, Diurnal Va tion of Surface Wind (effect of Temperatuce and Friction, Daring ay the convection due ro groond heating creates theamal edie. Thee dies cause turbulence and serch the fiction Iyer upwards and slacken the Itictional effec, 2 wins ‘The turbulence enables the upper level stroug winds, above the friction layer, co descend eo the surface, making it stcongand gusty. Ira backs and slighty weaker than the tpper At hight the chermals die down, and friction layu stinks close he surface. Due *0 ition the surface wind blows actss the soar. The fiction layer also prohibits the upper stong winds fom penetrating tothe sac. The surface vind i therefore, weak ond backs. There may be marked wind shea around $00 m, with strong winds above and weak winds below, which i seious an aviation boeaed. There is no observable diurnal variation over che sea (only about 1° ©), and alse ver the land when skies are continuously overcast, In such eases the sus face winds are nearly che samie during day and night. ‘The diurnal vasiaron is most spparentin fine weather, clear night and sunny days, ‘Wind Shece (W'S) ‘The change of wind direction andor peedin ashore distance is called wind shear WS at lower levels close to ranway has caused mtmerous ait accidents WS ig normally associated with thunder storm, microbust, toradoes, warerspoucs, gust Kconts, roms, topography; cemperatue inversion, mountain waveset. li eereined by dopplertadar, and appropite sensors. Arca ying in che affected nes provide useful information on. WS. This enables Mer authorities to issue WS warning for the safety of other aircratt in fligh LOCAL WINDS DUE TO TOPOGRAPHY Fohn wind Isis forced over the rop ofa mountain bate, the adiabatic oolng may lead co the formation of cloud ard precipitation. Wihin the cloudy, de rsing ai cols st the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR). [some of the condensed weer falls one ‘Precipitation and the air descends on the le slopes, chen the late heat liberated dhring condensation is party used oevaporae che loud droplets in the descending at After cloud disappears the descending sit warmsup ache dry aiabaticlapse ae (DALR). The more the precipitation on the ‘mountain, the warmer the air gets on descent. The local name for these warm dry winds in the Alps sth Fol, 3AviaTION. METEOROLOGY ‘In big mountains the Fobn wind may be 10° C ot mote warmer, ‘The Chinook of the Rocky mountains isan example of Fohn wind, Dry wind may not produce Folin. ‘wind. For Fokn wind co oceur itis essential that: (a) there is substantial mountain ‘ange (b) wind blows within 30° of the range and fc) wind kas high moisture content. Anabatic and Katabatic Winds Duting the day,a mountain slope is heated by the sun. "The air in contact becomes ‘warmer than the wind a he same level. Ici therefore lighter and tends to ascend the slope, Such ascending winds are called Anabatie Winds. As the Anabati winds ace masked by irregular convection, dey may aotbe fle clealy, except where they ‘ate intensified by the funnel effec ofa valley. In such cases they aze called Valley winds, On a coastline an up-slope wind may be augmented by the sea breeze. ANABATIC, kataparic A 7 FOHN WIND COLD WIND DRY AND. . WARM Figure 6.6 Awabaickatabatic and Fok Winds ‘The reverse of Anabatic wind is the down slope Katabatic Wind, During night, due to nocturnal cooling the mountain slope becomes cold, The air in contact also becomes colder chan the wind atthe same level in che free trmosphere, s it sinks. Adown slope wind sersin, called Katabatic wind. leis a natural phenomenon, Even in gently sloping county cold Kuabatc wind eccurs om a ele quiet night, The\, speed of che wind may be not more than a few knots, b ‘on low lying ground, causing local frost, mist and fog, forms pools of cold. (Over NE parts of India Katabatic winds are common and cause fog and TS in the ‘morning. s4 Wins Ifthe mountair. slope is snow covered, the Katabatic wind ‘may occur during the day time as well asa night. Bora, an offshore wind on the northern shores ofthe Adtiatic, 's4 Katabtie wind, Itsets in suddenly, and feequently reaches well over gale foree ith guss of over 1001t.tisextremely dangerous to shippingandlow yng sera, Similar winds also occur onthe const of Greenland and the shoves of Black sen, ‘The distinconberween the Fohn and the Katabatic winds is thatthe formers warm and dry while the later is cold, Both are down slope winds off high ‘ground, © Ravine winds ‘These occur in and near ravines or narrow valleys which penetrate a mountain barrier. When there isa pressure difference, evel for level between the two sides ofthe barr, sic is impelled chongh the ravineby the pressute gradient Such winds imay be very stong not only inthe ravine bu also after leaving its mouth, Land Breeze and Sea Breeze Due to the diurnal variation of empetature in coastal areas, he wind blows from the sea towards he land doring the day-cime, called Sea Breeze, and from rhe land ‘towards the sea during nigh, called Land Breeze. ‘Acer sunrise the land becomes warmer. The ait overland stat rising due co convection, The pressure aloft becomes slightly greacer than before, Ths cause the "upper ar to drift from the land rowards the sea, The surface pressure over the sea slightly increases and reduces, over the land. In consequence wind stars bowing from sa wo land as sea breve. At night reverse happens duc to radiative cooling and land breeze sets in, “The sea breeze cften sets in abruptly afew hours after the suntse. If there isan off stote wind its onsets delayed, uni he afternoon, The breeze generally brings sharp fll of temperature and an increase of humid. The breeze is sometimes gusty Ie ‘raul extend 15-25 km on either side ofthe cost line. Due wo peculiar topography ‘hesea rere, may have peater extent over the land. Case in example ig Pane, about 1/0 ka fom Mumba, where seabreere is observed in te afternoons. In ropes and Subteopics, where prevailing winds ate normally light, sea breeze occutss 4 routine, The sea breeze is initially directed pespendiculac to the coast. Later on, as the Coriolis effect becomes apparent, i tends to align along the coastline, with che land (on the left (righ: in the S ~ hemisphere). The sea-breeze weakens after the sunset 35AVIATION METEOROLOGY and after a few hours is replaced by the land breeze. In che cropies land breezes axe usualy light and do not develop wich the regularity ofthe sea breezes, They may even be imperceptible, On some occasions the effect of the sea-breeze extends ro 3000 or 5000 feet. The ‘warmer air from the land lifts over the cooler air from che sea and a line of small camuliform cloud develop..1c has small dimensions and although of use ro glider pilos, its effect goes unnoriced by powered aircraft. The and brceze is shallower than searbteeze, and does not extending above a few hundred feet. ‘Wind and Contoues ‘The lines joining equal heights are called Contouts, Over warm atmosphere a contour will beat a higher height and over cald at lower height. Heights of a Particular pressuce valu, say 500 hPa, vay from place to place depending on the vatiations in cemperarure, ‘The consour lines depict centres of High and Low heights, in exactly the same way as height of ground is indicazed on a survey map. ‘A contour lin is horizontal and the pressure is the same at all the points on the line. Thos contour line, of height say 5520 m, isan isobar in che horizontal sutface atthat height. The geostrophic wind blows along the contours wich the lower value onouts on the left in the N hemisphere and oivthe tight in the S hemisphere Thecontour charts can be used for determining cyclostrophic and gradient winds, The limitations ofthe geostrophic rule equally apply to the contour charts ‘Thermal Wind ‘The ermal wind in ayeris defined as that wind which mustbe added vecoraly forthe geoserophie wine ache lower level inorder to obtain the geostrophic wind at the upper level. ‘Ismay be recalled cha the rule for vector addition i : Draw one vector, from the head of this vector draw the other vector. Join the rl of the ftst vector ro the head of the second vector, For vector subtraction the above tule applies, excep hat the direction ofthe second vector is reversed, a8 in Fig 6,7 below : 56 wins © A 3 ~ 7s a AbBeC AvBac Figure 6.7 Vector Addivon and Subtaction Thermal Wind (V) isthe vector difference of lower leve), |geoscrophic wind (Vo) fron: ‘he upper level geostophic wind (V), which blows parallel to isotherms, keeping low temperature to the left in the N hemisphere, ‘Thermal Windis the vertical geostrophic wind shear in an atmosphetie layer The term ‘herrmal wind nas been adopted because the wind shear is determined by the mean temperature in the layer. Ici a fictitious wind which blows paralle co the thickness {ines (man sochecms) keeping low thickness (low temperature) onthe left in the N. hemisphere. The speed of thermal wind i proportional ro the romperature gradient. Figure 6.8 Ther Wind Example : Calculation of Upper Level Wind LowerLeve Wind | ‘Thermal Wind | Upper Level Wind will be 270/10ke 270/15 ke 270)N0kt #270/35 kx = 270025 ke 70/1044 090/15 ke 270/t0ke + (270/15 ta) = -270/05 kt = 090405 ke Tables. Tf che south is warm and the north is cold, a temperature geadienc acts from S ro Non sucha case the thermal wind will be westerly. [fsuch tenperarure distribution ‘continues inthe higher levels also che thermal wind will continue to be westerly 7AVIATION MereoRoLoay {fom level to level and keep on increasing wich height. The subtropical westerly Jet streams 9 example of thermal wing Variation of Wind with Height Eascery winds prevail above $00 hPa level ducing the monsoon monte {Avgustand Seprember), which strengthen with height. They ace weaker SAAN todia and songer over the S Inia. ‘Tropical Eascerlyjtsteam len rear 23 letitad at abont 25 km. les poston, however, fluctuates N and during the season, Outside tropics iow level westerly winds usually increase with height with litele change indirection. On the other hand easterlies rend to weaken and eventuaily ‘hecome westerly. Due to this the easterlies are often shallows ‘westerly chermal wind aso implis thar northerly winds would backe with height and southecly winds would veer Fn sinters, dhe speed of the westettis above the tropopause reduces and eventually bocome Ely, which strengchen with height. The strongest westeties in troposphere Serer ac about 40,000 fen abel benveen 25 N-40N, Dueto weak ehemnal gradienn Sees isbeofsonger winds shifss0 40-45, Tere isalmos cinardsbion of winds in the S hemisphere but with a smaller seasonal varation ie speed. {n the low stratosphere in winters, cemperaite i lowest in polar regions and from he iesen 40a 60" atte. Hence, westerly winds increase wth eight from che xopospheeinto he stratosphere In ower lasudes,equnonvaee ofthe “eperacue maximum, westely decrease with height above the tropopause, {nthe summer hemisphere, temperatures inthe suatosphere are highest in the polar ‘esions and lowest over the ropics resulting in an easterly cherial wine Vorticity Vorticity is a measure of rotation or turning, The rotation can be eyclonic or anticyclonnic. Voricty plays a imporcane roe in she formation and development 58 Wings of weather ystems, sucha clones, depressions, antcyelones, ‘Change in Vorticity auses divergence and convergence. Iris caused by + (@) Horizontal Wind Shear : When a bee of strong winds lies slong side a beh offighter winds, he faster flow rates around the slower lon i may Seojlonic or anteyclonnc dependingonthe orientation oftherwo ane (©) Curvature of the Flow : Flow around a curve has cyelonic Vorticiey when ai deflects et (asin a trough inthe Neispher td anteylorsie (G5 in a tidge) when it deflects to right. (©) Rotation ofthe Earth. Earth rotates fom W to (anticlockwise, which Absolute Yorticity, It is che sum of all the above vortictes, Since Vortcity due to cart s always cyclonic, and it predominates, the absolue Vanity always cyclonic, Beaufort S:ale ‘The Beaufore Force (BF) scale as adopted by Admiral Beaufort to estimate wind force is as follows:- BrScale Speed at 10 m (ki) BEScale Speed at 10 m te) 0 ain “1 7 NearGile 28-33 2 hear 1-3 8 Gale 34-49 2 Ligh breeee 4-6 9 Strong Gale 41-47 3 Gentle breeze 7-10 10 Som 48-55 § Moderuetreeze 11-16 —‘Vilene Storm 36 263 5 Fash reese (7-21 12 Hurdcane 64 of more 6 Seong brecee 2.7 Tables.2 Names of Winds of the World Bora Cold Katabatic wind that originaes in che mountains ‘of Yugoslavia and NE Traly and flows in the coastal plans of she Adriatic sea, Buran (Russian Buran Teukish Bora) : Serong NEly wind in Rosi and central ‘sia. Te oceus most frequently in winters and often blows snow Ge then called ‘Pug’, 9AVIATION METEOROLOGY Chinook, Warm dry Why wind on the eastern side of Rocky Mountains Dol Drams - Calm wind near Equator where opposing ttade winds converge. Haboob- (Arabic hubbub: blowing furiously): Any strong wind which raises sand into a sand storm, particulary in Suda, Harmattan, Hot dusty NEly wind in central Asis. Khamsia: Oppresiv, hor, dr often laden with snd, Sly wind over Egype Apr - Jone, : Mistral: A well known Katabatic wind which descends: from snow clad Alps down ‘he Rhone River Velly of France and into Gulf of Lyons along the Medicerranean coast. Monsoon. Any markedly seasonal wind, particulatly in E and SE Asia. Roaring Fortcs. These are Wly winds which blowin both the hemispheres between 35° and 60° lat In § hemisphere they are of a very stormy nature beyond 40° lat throughout the yea. In the olden days suilocs called them Roaring Forties ot Brave ‘West Winds, Furious Fifties, and Crying Ssces, since ches winds crested very avsy sorroundings and were not favourable to them. ‘Trades. Steady wind blowing between lastudes 10° and 30° from the NE in N hemisphere and fcom SE in hemisphere. They were of importance to sailing ships, hence were called ‘wind that blows trade’ by rvigatorsin 18th century. Trade winds Ctoups High Clouds Girus (CD). These clouds ae white and fiovs delice filaments or patches or Qarrow bands. They are composed of ice crystals. They do wan cause precipitation Grrocumulus (CO). CC clouds ase chin, white, wave tke very smal puis, composed offer cota. They are moter lesegulrly ranged The shy is visiblein berween ‘he pull. They do not cause precipitation and handy ay he accretion, ‘Medium Clouds elstats (AS). These ate unformly gaysh or whitish hood sheets or layers of bsout appearance, Tey tally or partly cover the sky Ik thin, they reveal the sun, astbrough gout glass Optical phenomena Corona cecce 2 these clouds. Thick alronratsensses continuous ain or snow lee acertin ossible below freezing Low Ctouds Statocumitys (SC), These are low clouds of large, jeregular puffs or rolls, gray ot ‘whitish in appearance. SC clouds ate regularly arranged, peas (ST) A gray cloud lay with a uniform hae, ST clouds may strech from hotizon to horizon. ST ‘may give drizzle, ice prisms or snowy grains. ST cloud 7AVIATION MeTtoRoLoGy ‘ouching the ground o siting on the grounds called Fog, In bad weather sommes ST isin the from of ragged patches or small fractures, called Fracto Stratus, Clouds with Vertical Development Comulus (CU): CU are detached clouds, generally dense with sharp outlines, Their bases dart and nearly horizonsal, They develop vettcallyas rising mounds, domes or towers. The bulging upper part of CU often resembles cauliflower, The suit Parts of these clouds ace biliane white. Sometimes cumulus is ragged. A well developed CU with great vertical excent is termed as Towering Cumulus (TCU) Fir Weather Cumulus: These clouds have linited vertical exten and they do not Cause precipitation. They are caused by thetmal currents due to surface heating. Hence they occur during day time only. They develop in the forenoon, reach ‘waximum development in che afternoon and dissipate in the evening, (Cuntulonimbus (CB): Heavy and dense cloud of large vertical extent, 5 mouneaing OF huge towers. Ear of its upper portion is usually smooth, fibrous and neatly flatened and spreads out 2s anvil The base ofthis cloud i often very dack, under Which there are low ragged comolus fracas or strarus facts clouds, Sometimes the precipitation is seen as Virga (ie a shaft of rain or snow falling from a distant oad which vapourises before reaching the ground). CB cause all ype of precipitation viz. RA, SH, GR, SN. This loud is the most hazardous for aviation, and should be avoided, Very High Level Clouds . The following clouds are in addition to those discussed above: Nacreous Clouds (Mother of Pearl Clouds). Observations of nacreous clouds ae infrequent, and are mainly from Scotland and Scandinavia. These clouds resemble cirrus or altocurmulus Lanticularis. They show very strong nisation {tainbow coloured patches) and nay be composed of ce crystals or supercooled water droplets. They form in the upper Stratosphere. Noctilucent Clouds. These clouds resemble citus but have a blush or silvery and sometimes orange to red colour. They accor in the upper Mesosphere {between 80 and 85 lem). They are visible soon after sunset and just before samtise berween 72° N and 45° N, but mostly around $5°N, in summers (late 8 I VeRmicaL Motion asio CLouns May mid August) Bavie ic was believed dust but rocket measurements reveal tae Reporting of Goud Base ‘The base ofcloe is reported from shove ground level in Reports (METAR, SPECT te), TAR, Local forecase. Onlin. tea forecast chats, iis feom above mean sea level, that they were made up of meteoric they consist of ice-particles, Altitude of the Various Cloud Genera ‘The clouds canbe identified bythe approximate altitudes at which they normally Occur, The approximate altitudes of low, medium and high clouds are: |Level of Clouds TPotar Reyion “Temperate Region | Tropical Region isn ted = 28.000 "| ise00 - 45,000 & 120,000 - 60000 & {= 8) kn = 1) km (6 = 18) kn cium 6500. 1000 & [6500 - 25,000 % T6500 25000 4) km @-7)km (2) kan raw opt 6500 & "065% [up w estde 2 km km) imp Tebles.2 Lous AND THER APPROXWATE HEIGHTS Fg 8.2 Cloud of Operational: Significance A cloud with che beigh ‘of cloud base below 1500m (5000 ft) or below che: highest Iinimu sector acue, whichever tester »AMATION MéTEOROWOGY Biying Conditions In Clouds Steatform Cloud. Fyinginsatifonm clouds (AS and CS generally smooth, Even uring the monsoon months when there are thick cloud layets of AS and NS, the Foingmay be very smooch In NS clos the itil isceduced due vo continions prccipiation, ST clouds reduce sane visibility and eave dfieulyin locating she inway daring landings, Ice accretion also occurs in AS and NS clowds akong feezing levels Ganubform Clos, The CCand AC may cause some amount of trbulenee Fai ‘eather CUand SC case bumpines while yng chrough Wall developed cu,Tcu and CB can pose serious aviation hazards, The hazards like severe turbulence, hal, Strong up and downdraughts, gusts, ice accretion, lightening etc are commen Flying Cloud Amoune For expressing cloud aroun, the sky is divided into eight imaginary parts, Each pact of itis called one Octa as: [Cloud Amount] Nit ie) swe [5778 Jere fTemed as (skc | ew lsc [ak Jove Sky noe visible (iy clean) {Few) | Geateed) | Broken (Overcast Sty Cendivon |Fine | Fair [Pandy elowiylCoady fOverawe Sky Obscased “Tables.3 CloudCeiting The height, above the ground or water sutface, of the lowest layer of the ELR > SALR fre che atmosphere is unstable for saturated oir and stable for unsaturated ai, Latent Instability. An armospheric layer in which on initally stable parcel of ait ¢venmually becomes unstable duo forced ascent poseses latent (hidden) istabiiy. Itis Real Latent the force required tli the parcel is much less than the energy seleased when it becomes unstable. Icis Pseudo Latent if the energy required to life eis mote than the energy released later. otentil (Convective) Instabiley. Sometimes when alayeras 2 whole lifed bodily becomes unstble, The instability occutsif the latent hea releaced on lifting produces a sufficien: cemperarre difference between the bottom and op ofthe layer «o steepen the LR of lifed layer. For potencialinstabiiy to occur its essential that the RH is bigh in the lower levels and low in the higher levels, Stability Criteia When Dry air is Stable DALR > ELR Saturated airs Stable SALR > ELR Air (Dry or Sarurated) is Absolutely Stable SALR > ELR Air (Dry or Saturated) is Absolutely Unstable ELR > DALR Conditional Instability DALR > ELR > SALR 37AVIATION METEOROLOGY ‘When lifted parce of dy ie follows DALR and Saturated ar fllows SALR. On Comparing the temperature at any level, ABin Figure 91, ofthe lifted ar with the nvironmental temperature (as given by ELR), Stability o Instability en be found ironmental temperacure, Stable amosphere. ‘oue. Ifthe temperature of lifted parcel is more than the envi it will shoot uj Instable atmosphere, If colder it will sink HR SALR 5 DAR éf SMR wR = I. . LA\\ “Temperstre DAUR > ELR > SALR. Coins) instal, — Tempersare SALR > ELR Sable (le Sateated Ale) pain ER SALR ELK \w \ ~ DALR > ELK SALR > ELR Stable (for Dry Air) ‘Asolutely Stable Figure 9.1 Stability nstabllityDiggrnns 88 STABILITY AND INSTARILITY OF ATMOSMHERE “Tphigran. Iisa thermodynamic diagram on which upper air ‘emperacuces, winds and dew poine semperatre s obtained from Radiosonde and Rewin are plowed at various levels. It is used for estimating various ‘meteorogical parameters viz, Sebilty inthe atmosphere, Temperature and winds at various level, Altimeter correction, Tropopause, Minera Level, Lifting Condensation Level: (LCL), base andop of cloud, Ptenil and Latent Instability, wee bulb tempersage ere ‘The Tphigram, used in India has of the following lines + Hocizontal Lines Potential Temperature or DALR + Vertical Lines Temperature * Shnting Lines 45° to DALR Pressure at different levels ase! test ast zest: T “Tervd VLelbe* A ion eh a wether sping Or? a0" 1180 ms Yn 4 Entropy-joutewkgr'c c Tephigram Figure 9.2 Tohigrans 9AVIATION MeTtoRoWey + Curved lines slanting to lefe Bradvally becoming parallel to DALR at higher levels SALR * Dashed Lines slightly slanting left Isohygtic o lines of equal saturation icing ravi (fg). Ac cernperatures ‘Separate lines for saturation over water and over ice, Normand Theorem, The theorem states that if we produce DALR from, dry bulb semperasure, SALR from wet bul temperaure and iohyerc fom the dew point Teebeutel of thre ines meet ata pois, clled Normand Pine. Hence by knowing TT and Td Td we can calculate Ti Tat any level inthe stimosphere. QUESTIONS ON STABILITY OF INSTABILITY ATMOSPHERE QU. DALR = 9.8 °C, ELR = 6.8 °C ; armeuphere is (0) sable (6) unstable 2, SALR = 5.5-%C, ELRe 4.5 °C 5 atmosphere is (3) stable 0) stable QS. DALR > ELA > SALR {3} conditionally snstable (6) lntently stable (6) indifferent ( sndifferene (©) potencaly srable Qk Dry air is ursrable when : () ELR=DALR (6) ELR>DALR QS. The sorursed ait is said be unstable if ()SALR=ELR ——(h) SALREELR Q6. JEBLR = SALR = DALR the atmosphere is (0) Stable (b) Instable Q7 DALR means: (0 Ti sae at which cenperstue of uestraed parcel of st falls with heghe when made © ascend adiabatiesily (©) The rate sr which temp falls wis height (0) The rate at which ascending parcel of saturated dir cools (© ELR ELR (2) Incitferent 90 STABLITY AND INSTABLUTY OF ATMOSPHERE 8 The surf sir cemp is 30°C Assuming DALRprvang whais th epee at 2 km 1 C wwe jane 2. An Isothermal stmosphece iss () Stable (b) Unscable (9 Neutral (QUO. TF environmental apse rte(ELR) is less chan SALR, that part ofthe atmosphere is said to be: @) Absolutely unstable (b) Conditionally unstable (0) Absoluely stable QU DALR is approximately (a) 5° C am (6) 15" C Alan fo) 10° C km Q12. SALR at inean sos level is about (0) 1 OKin () S* CK (o 5° Fkm QU3. SALR app:oackes DALR. (a) ar OC. () ar -15'F (oa 40°C 4 Day sit having empecature of 35°C on surface when forced 10 rt adibatially by 1 km would attain a remperatuce of @ a9C ( 25% asc (6) Neurality QU6. aversion i sass Lapse Rate (LR) (0) Positive () Negative fe) Neural QU?, Environmental LR can be more chan DALR () Tive by Fase (G18. The process which to a large extene determines the vertical disuibution of temperature in atmosphere is (@) Adinbade 4b) Isothermal (6) Isenrropic QS, Rise in cemperatuce with height is (@) Inversion (6) Lapse {e) Normal 9AVIATION MeTEoROLOGY Q20. Inversion is common in (@) Fost Monsoon (b) Monsoon (0) Wineers ANSWERS: Q@1 2 3 4 5 6 7 § 5 wp nh 2 5 a Quo 6 17 Bw yw 10 — OPTICAL PHENOMENA ‘Anumber of optical phenomenon Srequenly occur the atmosphere. They provide ‘seh nforation about he constitution and ype ofthe clondsand thet recognition, atosphericuulence lapse rat, ice accreon ec. Thsinfocmation sof mportance for aviation Some of the optical phenomenon important in aviation ate billy discussed in he following paragraphs. Rainbow Roinhow isa group of concentic acs with colours ranging from violet to red, Protiued ona background of water drops (eindrops, doplete of drial or fog) inthe armosphece by light from the sun or moon. Sometimes simultaneously eo rainbows are observed, the Primary and the Secondary rainbows A primary rainbow ie a ctle orate of ciecles, of colored light, inthe sky while itis raining, The circle subeends an angle of 42° at che eyes. Its seen opposite 10 the sun or moon, is centre is onthe line joining the lamitaey and the abserves, The rainbow may form a complete ring when seen from a hil high tower er from anaircralt ‘The bow i due to the double refraction of sun cays, once on. centering the rain drop and second time on leaving te drop, with one tot ntecnal reflection, The coluree otrainbow ate due to refraction of diferent colours VIBGYOR (ce, orange, yellow, {teen bus sdigo, and violet) of the sunlight. There colourison the ourie and violet on the inside, 23AVATION METEOROLOGY “J oe rainbow "igure 10.1 Double Refraction an one Total Sutera Reflection of Sn Rays na Reirop ‘A secondary rainbow, concenti withthe primary is occasionally een whose radius isabout 52°, Itis much less bright than the primary, and with a breadth almost rwice that of che primary. The red is on the inside (radius of the arc 50°) and the violet ‘on the outside (radius of the are 54°), Halo Halo isa circle of light around the sun or moon. Its produced by refraction of light through ice crystals present in Ciccostracus (CS) clouds. The most frequent halo phenomenon, called the Small Hal, is most white luminous ing of 22° radius ‘with the sun or moon at its centce. When well developed, the halo round the sun shows a pure clear red on the outside but other colours are usually difficult to recognize. The presence of a halo signifies she predominance of ice ceystals in the cloud and hence negligible chances of ice accretion. To remember Helo from High cloud CS, The portion of the sky inside the ring is conspicuously darker than the rest of the sky. Sometimes.a circular halo with a radius of 46°, called the Large Halo, is also observed. This halo is less bright, Corona Corona are luminous one or more (Seldom more than three) coloured rings of relatively small cadius, not more than 5°, centred on the sua oF moon, In each ring red appears on the outside and violet or blue on the inside, The colures ae usually dull, Corona are formed due to the diffraction of light, passing through mist, fog for through a thin cloud composed of very small water drops or ice particles {Altostratus clouds), Diffraction is the slight bending of light wave as it moves: ‘along the boundary of an object lke warer drop. Corona indicate moderate icing, ifthe cloud is above the freezing level. OrTICAL PHENOMENA Hilo Gn Girrosrats) Corona Gin Altoseaae) Figure 10.2 Halo and Corona Sometimes corona have a distorted form, due to differences in the size of the particles in various parts of the clouds. Distorted corona of small radins may also ‘be observed around the moon when not full, because of its crescent form. Mirage Light rays are cefraeted (bene) as they travel from onc medium to other of different ensiy. Inthe atmosphere density reduces with aricude. Therefore he light reflected froma distanc chject travelsin 2 curved path, keeping lower density on the convex side of the curve, The rising sun or moon thus appear slightly higher than chey actually are. Mirages are cuz tothe curving of light rays passing through layers of air in which refractive index changes considerably with height due to cifferences in density. Mirages are observed when ce temperature of thé earth's surface differs markedly from that of che ait above. Armitage may occur as lower mirage (Inferior Mirage) over intensely heated water surface, soil, beach, road, ec, (ue when the lapse rate is steep) or as upper mirage (Supetior Mirage) over snow field, cold sea surface, esc (.e when there isinversion). Bishop's Ring ‘cis whitish faint ring, centeed on the sun or moon, with a slightly bluish tinge inside and reddish brown on the omside. Bishop’s rings dne.to the diffraction 95 aAVIATION METEOROLOGY of ig by fie dase pate present inthe high atmosphere, The dust may also be of volcanic origi, The radius ofthe sng is abou Pot, ‘Twilight Colours Yasious colours in the sky ate produced a sunset andl at sunrise by refraction, ‘catering or selective absorption of light rays frm the san Isisation Sometimes ive co dilation of sm gh, colour o bands neatly paralci ro che ‘atgin of the clouds appeae in which pink colowe predominates, One oF more of coloured rings, seen by an ‘observer azound his own shadow on 2 Aloud consisting ofrumerous sual water droples og fog or, very rarely, on dew. The colonred rings are due to the diffraction of light; thei arrangeniencis the same Fe gran. Aitborne observers ofcn set. glory around the, shadow of the aircraft in which they are ying, Crepuscutar Rays These are dak blush streaks which ada fo, 'm the sun. They are the shadows of clouds at or below the horizon, Aucora te Lain aororameans dawn, tnthisphemomenon ise Tights emitted bythe high Too eete a heights varying fom 70 and 100 km, wth peak frequency at about 100 kin. Aurora ars the zhosty displays of igh inthe form ofssreamers rays arches, hands, curtains, draperies, sheets or patches. They appear to shimmer or fic across the sky: Aurora are most common in higher latitude, “They are greenish white or pronounced ted on yellow. 96 OPTICAL PueNowen Figure £03 Aurore Avrora Borealis occur is the N hemisphere (generally over NW Greenland) and wwe called Nother Lights, Aurora Australis occur in the § hemisphere and are called Southern Lights. Atmospheric Flectricity . Precipitation particles pred itt Poste charge towards the ground. Aico giound ign Mahe convey predominantly negative charge to proune. ‘Woes of Lightning: (6) Ground Discharge (Thunderbolts). Its the lightning berween cloud and Sound Ieusualy branches dowvard from adstint a channel (tremk ‘or ribbon lightning). Occasionally a luminous bal, generally between 10 and 20 em diamoter, 's observed soon after a ground discharge, te moves slowly in zhe ait ot ”AVIATION MeYEeROLOGY ‘on the ground and disappears with a violent explosion, isknown as ball lightning. (0) Cloud Discharge (Shes lightning), This ype of lightning takes place within the cloud, 8) Air Discharge. This type of lightning occurs from cloud to tie airand does nor strike the ground. Saint Elno's Fire Somecimes when lying in CU/CB clouds, an azcrafe may experience blvish ox geeersh Juminous discharge due to song electrical eld in the cloud. The continuous lnrinous slow isalso accompanied by cracking sound. Intensity ofthe plow is weak to moderare QUESTIONS ON OPTICAL PHENOMENA QL. Auroca Australis oceur in che (a) S hewsisphere 4) N hemisphere 4e) Equator QR Aurora Austealis called «ase Lights {0} Northers (0) Southern (9 Temperate Q3. Autoca Borentis oscur in the {@) S hemisphere (b) N hemisphere (0) Equator Qh Aurora Borealis ace called «cn Lights (@} Northern (©) Sonchera (0) Temperate QS. Coron OCC fit ene lids a) AS NS (acs Q6. Bishop's ring is due to che dffaction of light by fine particles of () water ©) dust (ake Q7. “The sadius of che Bishop's ring is about @ a2 2° fae QB. Superior Mirage occurs in marked (lapse ©) Isothermal (Inversion Q9. Inferior Mizage occurs when there is (allapse (©) Isothermal (6) Inversion 98 OPTICAL PHENOMENA, Q10. Corona ace formed due (0 thE ennen Of ight €@) Retraction {6) Diffraction (©) Scamering QU. Corona are formed de to light, pasting chrough (@) Mise only (b) Fog. only Ae) small water or ice particles only (€) Any one of all chese Q2, Halo is produced by (@) Refraction 1b) Diffeacsion (0 Scanering QI3. Halo is produced when light passes through (a) water particles (b) ice crystals (©) both 4. Halo occur in the cloud ° (a) as (o) NS 1) 0S QUS. Halo is luminous ring of... cadius . (a) 32° w 22 war outside QU6. Helo round tre sun shows a pure clear... on the out G@) Red (©) Yellow © Violet QI7. Halo signifies predominance in the cloud of (2) Supercooted water drops (b)Iee crystals (¢) Both QIB. The cloud which cause Halo has nn. chances of ice acretion (4) negligible (8) maximum (@mediam Q1P. Sometimes a halo with a cadius of is observed, called Large Helo (a) 32° ) 42 (6) 22 Q20. Halo occurs from loud @) Low () Medium (¢) High ANSWERS Qio2r23 4 $5 6 7 8 > ow BBll. PRECIPITATION Tce crystal Theory 4n Cold clouds, the clouds whose tops extend well above the feeezing level, super Ceoled water drops and ic partic co-exist, Thesruationrapene, ressure being subline ae Movs then over che ice crystal, the water drops evaporte ng >pOUF, without going through the ‘unter supercooled water drops, The ice crystals thus grow to large sizes and rain, which continually freeze on to them, fall out of the cloud base as snow of 100 Preciizarion, Coaslesccnce Theory ‘Theabore theory is unable to explain rainfall from the Warm clouds ie te clouds ‘which do nt reach the freeing level. In ropcal areas showers occur rom cou ich do not extend much above the freezing level and sometimes noteven upto the frcezinglevel. Zo explain che occurrence of rain from such clouds, the cnleseence theory was advanced. Large drops initially form by collision and coalescence ofthe smaller droplesin the loud: Coalescence increases markedly de to verical currents and the drops become larger. As these large drops fall, the pressure falls in theie Wakes and she smaller drops get sucked in and ge attached to the fling drops, Daring flla large drop cllides with the smaller deops oni pth, which also get ‘ntached tot. Ulimately number of large drops form. Giant Nucl-us Theory In the marine areas clouds with eser vertical development can give rain as compared t inland areas. In these areas a large number of salt particle, due vo sak spray, ens in the atmosphere, These gianc hygroscopic nucle ate cased up £0 the cloud in vertical currents. They absorb war vapout and form large water drops and initiate the chain reaction of coalescence. Clouds and Precipitation ‘The type of precipitation from a cloud depends on the stength of the vertical cufrents which sas o overcome, and this in saa depends onthe mechanism by ‘which the loud is formed. The types of precipitation from different clouds ate ‘Types of Clad Precipitation Stratus (ST) Drizzle Alrosratus (AS) Raia and Snow Nimboserare (95) ‘Continuous precipitation Toweting Cimulus (TCU) and Rain, Showers, Hall and Snow arulonimtus (CB) ‘Cumulus (CU) of slight vertical development (fir weather CU), Altecumilas (AC) and igh clouds (Cl, CC) ‘Thick Cierosrans (C5) No precipitation Snow at high to mediom levels ‘Table 11.1 Types of Cloud and Precipitation 101AVIATION Mereonococy Snow and Sleet ‘When the surface temperature is ess than abous 4° Cand the mean temperature between the base ofthe cloud and the surface level i les than 0 G, precipitation ‘may be in the form of sacs or sleet Snowfall is usually in che font of flakes, which are made up of minut icecrystals of various shapes Sets mixture of ain and snow. ‘Cloud Burst and Flash Floods Very heavy showers or rain over an area ina short petiod is called Cloud Burst. Asndden rise in the level of rivers or steams ‘causing floods, iscalled Flash Floods, Rainy Day ‘When the rainfall amoontin a day is 2.5 mim or more, itiscalled a Rainy Day. Terms used to describe Spatial distribution of Rainfall are at ‘Appendix M Diurnal and Seasonal Variation Rainfall Inthe tropics, the afternoon, hours butelsewhere the rainfall is mosdy in the aftemoon an! early part ofthe night. For the same ceason, the rainfall in summer is more than In the cemperate lavitudes the clouds form due to the convergence caused by depressions or frons, which ate frequent in winters "Therelone in these middle latitudes, rain or snowéall is maximum in the precipitation in winters. Atificil Raia Making or Cloud Seeding Cloud seeding isan attempt to stimulate the nucleating agencs ike silver iodide, Spraying of Porassivm Chloride in stall _recipication by injecting into the clouds ‘common salt, slid carbon di oxide cic, Preciecranion loud seedings found weft infighting es, ending daughs, peomoting hares, draining clouds end fog dispersal Fog Dispersal Fox can also be deated for a shore pecio either by increasing the air temperature o by seeding the fog as above, specially ro enable aircraft roland and take off Classification of Rainfall Light < 7.5 mim, Moderate 7 = 35.5 am; Rather Heavy 356 - 64 mms Heavy 65 ~ 84.9 mum; Very Heavy 85 mim. or mote; Exceptionally Heavy 250 mn QUESTIONS ON PRECIPITATION QL. When super cooled water drops and ice parle coesis, the ice ryt grow at the expense of the water drops because (2) Ssturavion vapour pressure over water dcops isles than over the ice cestals (6) Seturation vapour presture over the ie crt less chan ayer water drops (0) The ice ccystals convert into water drops G2 The clouds whose tops extend well above the freezing level ate called (#) Warm Clouds (6) Cold Clouds fe) Moderaie Clonde Q3, The clouds whose cops do nor extend to the freezing level are called {) Warm Clinds (6) Cold Clouds (€} Moderate Clouds Qt. Coalescence Theory explains aceseeence of rainfall from che @) Warm Clouds (b) Cold Clouds (Both types of Clouds QS. lee crystal Theory explains occurrence of rainfall from the (3) Warm Clouds (b) Cold Clouds (©) Both types of Clouds 6. Giant Nucleus Theory explains occurence of rainfall over (@) Mariéme areas (b) Inland areas (Q) Hilly areas 7. Nery heavy precipitation as showers over a shore petid is called (0) Flash foods (6) Cloud Burst (@) Orogeaphie Rain QB. Rain shadow aces is on the of the mountain range @) Top (b) Windward side (e) Leeward side 103AVIATION MereoRoLocy QD. Sheer is a mixcure of (a) Hall & Snow —(b) Rain 8 Snow (@) Frozen Rein QUO. Rainfall in the tropics is more in (@) Winters (©) Summers (@) Post monsoon QUI Rainfall in the tcopics is more in the (8) Morais (©) Afternoon (c) Night (QU2, Reina in the temperate Jaituds is mor @) Winters (By Summers (¢) Spring US, Over J8K and westem Himalayes Rail is more in @) Wimers (b) Summers (@) Post monsoon QU6. Reinsll over coastal ateas is more in the (@) Evening (©) Afternoon (Night & early tnozning US: Ate85 10 ABE af western Ghats of In ae cain shadow areas aw ws WE 16: A sudden ss in the level of svers or seams easing floods is called (9) Cloud Burst (b) Catchments flooding (c) Flash Floods QU7. Artificial rain making is also tetmed as {@) Simulation (8) Cloud seeding (¢) Nucleation U8. Fog con be dispersed fora shor pti by acct simuletion (@) True 0) Fale GUS, Showery precipitacion occues from @) NS () ac (c} CB 20. A day is called Rainy day when zainfll in 24 he is G15 (by 2 25 ANSWERS Qii2ag 5 7 8 9 won 2 43 Ab ob b boc bo bo boa a Qw sw 7 ae i A 12 ICE ACCRETION Formation of ice on an aircrafe in flight is termed as ice accretion or icing, 1B seriously affects the aerodynamics of an aircraft, leading even 10 loss of eentrob Irsa seriousavation hazard. Although siccraft are ted with de-icing deviees, they provide only pac protection. For successfully combatingicing a knowledge of the type ofjcing, conditions for formation and vechniques to avoidicings essential ‘Types of leing: ice accretion is of two types: @) Airfame icing ©) Engine icing Aicframe Icing. Hoar Frost: Hoat frost occurs on aitfame in cleat aie when the temperature of airframe is below the frost point. isa feathery deposic of ce crystals formed due ‘o the sublimation of water vapour on the cold sitframe. Hou fost forms on azeratt Barked on vie tarmac ona cold night. may also form when an aircraft ying at bigh alteade rapidly descends ro lower levels into watm and mois siz Hose howe 130 kmh, and flash floods. Most rornadoes occur from such TS. inAvIBTION METEOROLOGY Favourable Conditions for 1S Formation: TS is an instabilt oat instability phenomenon. The flowing conditions ace essential fr its (@) Steep Lapse Rare: Lape rate steeper than the SALR throughout a layer at Jease 5-6 ki in depth, permitting d ; in depr, permitting development of clouds above 0° Cle © High Humid deqntespoi of mise omtelow sad high uray aloft. Ifthe humidity of the surrounding aris very lo the growth of clout is arrested due to evaporation of rising parcel of ait . (0 Trigger Action: & Lifting mechanism which 8 car in region ofthe steep lapse rate. phe aon she ‘The Tkiggering Mechanisms are: @)__Insolation (local convection) (@) Orographic Lifting (d) Radia: Life Cycle Cumulus Stage Due to triggeting mechanism a it it , nism a parcel of ats lifted, it expands and cook (9.8°C/km) Furchet lifting may cool ittosaruration and thereafer condoned (b) Frontal Lifting {c) Convergence ional ot Katabatic cooling. DISSIPATING MATURE Figure 13.1 Life Cyele of TS az ‘THUNDERSTORM formation of CU cloud. The parcel of arises higher and higher as longas ts warmer than the surcoundings. The CU after growing buildups into a CB cloud. In this tage updraughts prevail throughout che cell, which extend co 6-8 km. The speed of updraughts of 30 misec or 60 ke are not uncommon. The updraughts carry warm ait upwards and also sustain water drops and ie crystal formed in the cloud, The rainy snowfhal particles keep growing inside the cloud tl he updraughts can sustain them. ‘When they become too large and heavy they fall out of the cloud as precipitation. Taflow to the cell (called entrainment) takes place through the sides atall levels and the base of the cloud. The average life ofthis stage is about 15 r0 20 min, ‘Mature Stage Manure stage begins when precipitation teaches che suface. The falling precipitation drags the adjacent air and generates downdraught, Being cold downdraught continues to descend and accelerate. In this stage both up and downdraughts co-exist. The ‘entrained air being drier causes some of the precipitation particles to evaporate. Thiscoolsche downdraughs further Finally at ground the cold downdraughts veach as squall The downdraught close tothe ground spreads outhorizontally. Is leading eadge is called the First Gust, Ie presents an aze shaped surface called Gust Front due to its resemblance with a cold front. The gust may be followed by hezvy sain cor showers. This front undercuts the warm air at the surfaces and lifts ito generate new TS cells. Mature stage lasts for 20 ~ 40 min. Since old cells dissipace and the new cells orm continually, the TS activity may sometimes prolong. Thisisthe most violene stage of a TS and presents serious aviation weather hazards. The following clouds emanate from a CB and approach a station: Roll Cloud, I is an elongated cylindrical dark cloud which appear to rorate slowly aboutits horizontal axis. Ir occurs behind she Fist Gust, buts detached from CB. Ir is seldom associated with severe weather. Shelf Cloud. Iris a wedge shaped elongated cloud having Ala base. It occurs at the edge of Gust Front and beneath and is attached to CB. It form due to the epliftof elie warm air along the Gust Front. Iris associates with Severe weather. Dissipacing Stage In this stage only weak downdraughts exist in the cloud, mainly confined co the riddle and lower levels, Due co no updraughts, further growth of che cloud ceases. 13AVIATION MeTeoROLoGy “The cloud top spreads ro forin anvil, also called False Citrus, The downdraughts spread across the lower portion of the CB, Light tain occurs at the ground and the cloud gradually disipates. Structure of a Severe TS The TS which produce severe weather have adi above, The storm sited due o vertical wind shear. De othe tthe precipitation falls slongside, rather than through the updraugits. The precipitation and downdraughts are thus unable ro cut off the ‘updraughts. This enables the cell to row to gecat heights, lifferent structure than that stated Jet Stream and TS Upper level Je scream is mportant forthe development ofa severe TS, It produces wind shear and tls the updreughts, thus favouting great verccal evelopmene of the cell, Intensity of TS (@) Light. Faint peals of chunder and lightning flashes at long intervals. (©) Moderate. Loud peaks of thunder and frequent ashes of lightning, moderate or heavy showers and light hail. Maximum wind speed generally 15-40 ke. (©) Severe. Almose continuous thunder andlghtning, heavy eairlshowet, may bbe hail, at the station or ics vicinity. Maximum wind may exceed 40 ke, Diurnal and Seasonal Variation Over the plains TS mostly occur during the afternoon and die outin the evening, Over the valley and foothills they genetallyoscuc daring night andeacly morning, ‘Over the sea TS are more frequent ac night, In middle latitudes, TS over the land are most frequent in summers. However, the frontal ype of dhunderstorm are more fequentin winters, duc to frequent Cod F fronts TS and Pressure Marked fluctuations of pressure accompany severe TS. The first gust causes sudden eessure rise 4 TeupeastoRm Aviation Hazarés of TS TS posea variety of hazards to sirerafton ground and inflight. The important ones are: @ ©) «) @ & ‘Turbulznce: Turbulence and icing are the most serious hazards of a TS. ‘Turbulence is caused by gusts and draughts in a CB. Moderate to severe ‘turbulence is more likely onthe boundoriesbeween up and down draughts. ‘Turbulence may also be experienced about 10 km around a CB in the eae aie ‘Wind Sheat. Very strong wind sheat is often associated with CB clouds. ‘The cold strong downdraughe from che base of CB, extends up to about 2000 ft.A shear zone forms berween this ouflow and the warm air above it flowing in the opposite dizection, towards CB, An aircraft attempting to land would experience intially head wind and-then close to ground a tail witd. For most light sirerat the airspeed may go below stalling speed and the landing angle may become dangerously steepet. Squall: The initial downdraught from the cloud spreads all around horizontally on the ground as squall. The speed of squall is normally up +0 40 ke but can be as high as 100 kt. The strongest speeds are ahead of the cloud in the dicection of its movement. Draughts: Within the cloud strong up and down dsaughts occut, Up draughts are often stronger and of greater vertical extent. They can suck inglider, ight aircraft and parachorists up to great heights. The updaaghts may impose sudden strong negative g force, may be greater than the sircraf: can absorb. Downdraughts are stronger from the middle of cloud corthe surface. They can force even powerful jet aicraft on to the ground, if ligh:is beneath the cloud, These cause sudden variations inthe alitude of aircraft, at times to 3-4,000 ft Gusts: Gusts occur all over che CB cloud, However, near the boundary between up and down draughts vigorous eddies form, which travel within the clcud.and cause gusts. Severe bumpiness resulss from the combined effect of gusts and draughts, Gus impose severe load factor, exceed the turbulence penetration speed, and cause abrupt changesin aircraft atiude, Strucsaral failure may occur ifthe pilot attempts to correct these avitude usAvTATION MeteoRoLoGy changes too quickly or hars i oe ly ly. Many accidents are attributed to this (0 ein: ings theserodynamis ofa sta, jams contol ocks Bioreactor. ing worst ihn chee 10,00 sf te freeing lee, dv othe presence of Inge supercooled water ors, where sy clear cforms. Towards the top ofthe cond ve rite ime ice forms. nan individual CB the irra raveneisdlnne hence icing is nota problem buein ese ing oc a problem burn CB clouds slong onal ine it map 8) Hail: A hailstone starts a an ice ts tal. It grows progressively in ih supercooled wate drops while ing tuedopand dows ndacead Gelstone has orion ike serie of akernatslayersofrie and clea, ice forms nearer the freezing level and rime ice above. When, ‘encounter hail in flight sustain serious dams i sctiows damage, The airframes get ba dened windscreens holed, srodomes shattered dle boos toned and fins badly bent. Hait may also oceur in cl a 6 leat aic under the Anvil, leavy Showers: These may reduce visibil actos visibility to very ‘Clouds bases below 1000 fe may ascompanyshowee aces () Lightning: Fora ligheain For a lightning flash o occur a potential dif . Jol minders and 1 10tolx/minclud sequied Sinton, Sele onan aiterafria relatively harmless, butsomeacidents ate atibutes, to it. The bonding of the sireraft prevents any electrical discharge from the horeendous noise of hai striking ai ig airctaft and especii find. screen, can be very itightening, Mote so ina tubule tool ae (1) Darkness and Disorientation : Jn a thi : Jn a thick is which ma lead to disorientation, hence nese Horizon is essential. absolute darkness, hence a constant eye on the Artificial 16 ‘TaynnensToam (0) Instrumental Error: Below the base of growing and mature Ch, there is teduction in pressure. The alimerer will end to over cead {more than actual ight). Hence adequate ground clearance is essential, The pirot tube may be blacked by heavy water ingestion, The AST reading would be misleading [Nomenclirre KBand | XBand | Coad | $ Band | LBand Wavelengths fem) | 086 30 40 10.0 200 “Table 13.1 Radar Detection of Thunderstorms Storm Derection Radars (weather radars) specially designed for TS detection are ‘wed for locating TS and warching theic development, movement and dissipation. ‘They canbe either ground based or airborne. Fo detecting precipitaion wavelenggh in the range 3 to 20 emis suitable. For precipitation measurements wavelength of 10 cm is widely used, For airborne cadats 6 cm wavelength is generally used. The wavelength in various bands are as above ‘Table 13.1. Downburst ‘The downburst is @ local intense downdraught with damaging winds from a TS. Microburst and Macroburst Definition, Microburst (less chan 4 km in diamerre) and Macrobutst (diametre 4 Jem more) atc localised severe downdranghts of great intensity. Causes. One of the most probable causes of microburst could be the deyness of the atmosphecein which falling rain rapidly evaporace (as in Virga}. The evaporation reduces the temperawure of the air column through which rain falls. Consequently the column, being colder than the enviconment, descends and accelerates rowards the ground as a microburst 1d Speeds, Speed of downdraughe may exceed 75 kmh close to ground. Average horizortal wind speed of 90 kml is common (at times it may exceed 200 kml). Systems which produce Microburst (2) CB cloud (about 5% of all TS produce micraburst) (b) Heavy rain (high probability of microburst) (6) Virga (medium probability of microbursi) 7AVIATION Metzonotogy Across, and expand vertically ro over 600 m, Life. Miccobursts dic down in 15-20 minutes, However more than one microburst ‘may be produced by the same system and ity duration may prolong, Aviation Hazards Microburst may be experienced all of @ sudd and how violent it would be ean not be pr niterafe:- len. Where and when it would oceur tedicced, It may be encountered by an {a) Atlevels much above the ground, bya microburst at higher levels, to recover, fan airccafeis pushed suddenly downwards it may still have sufficiene ground clearance {ie tne for recognition and avoidance is as esas 5-15 sec. Hence 1 nce it can b be avoided by not fying below aCB cloud though TDS, hearin andelow Vitga. No take off and taning is advisile duing TS/DS, euch Down ‘Atilade of Ara dung tending Approach Due to Head and Tall Wind Components ‘Microburst Figure 13.2 te Tuuxperstons: Effects on Aircraft () Head Wind Tail Wind Response. An incteasing head wind component ‘would lift che aircrafe and change the angle of attack for landing, The aircraft may over shoot. A tail wind component would do the reverse aid the aircraft would under shoot. (6) Vertical Wind Shear Response. The alternating up and down draughts cause fuctuationsin che angle of arcack of am aircraft, IFsevere hese may cause momentary stick shaking or airframe shuddering and additional strain an the pilots, (6) Cross Wind Shear Response, It causes aircraft co roll and or yavw (8) Turboknce. Turbulence maybe quiceintense. ls effects can make changing airspeed and deiay the recognition of severe downburse, () Rein Effect. Heavy rain may reduce visibility, increase cockpit noise and ‘make ciccrew coordination and concentration difficult. Hence avoid. Dust Storms (D5) or Sand Storms (SS) Inthe Pre Monsoon season, che surface temperanates ate very high (35° Cor mote) over N ladia, The atmospiere ishighly unstable over the desert or semi-arid areas, ‘With a small amoune of moisture incursion conditions become favourable for the formation of CB clouds, As the humidity aloft isnot high, the convective clouds do not build up to great heights, However, such clouds can still eause storms iftheit tops extend co asuffcient height above the freezing level. These loca storms raise loose dust of sand from the ground up to lieghts of over 10,000 ft. They ate therefore called Dnstsorms or Sandstozts. They affect visibilcy badly, which may reduce 20 50 mar less. In N India these storms ate called Andhi (blinding scorms), Duststorms form in the same way as che TS, The vertical growth of the clouds is restricted due tow humidity aloft, The precipitation from the cloud evaporates completely before xeaching the ground due othe prevailing high temperacre nd ‘ow hummidiry: The updraughts in the cloud ate so vigorous thar huey carry the dust or sand up to great heights.in and outside the cloud. A duststorm approaches like a very high wall of dust. {E the humidity alofeis high, the DS is followed by light showers and visibilry ‘improves. The life cycle of DS is shotcr than that of TS, Squall associated with 119‘AVIAvION Metéonciccy DS are artimes severe. DS mostly occur in the afternoons of the summer months, ‘They can be detected by weather cadars but the echoes are less intense than active TS echoes. hssitication of DS [Wad Vasily Light DS apo 2 kt 50010 < 1000 m ‘| Woderre 05 Bek 200% < 500 m Severe DS > 40k < 200 m “Table 132 ‘The aviation hazards associated wich DS/SS are almost the same as of TS, In addition, ground visibility is very ow in DS(SS. If no rain follows the visibility temains poor for a long afver the DS has moved away. Moderate to severe wind shear may alsobe experienced during take-off or landing when DSSS is approaching Norwesters Daring the Pre Monsoon period (March ro May), West Bengal, Bihar, Chbattisgach, Jharkhand (Chotanagpur),North-cast States and Bangladesh ae affected by violent ‘TS. These cause considerable damage tothe life and property. These storms ate called Norwesters because they often approach from North West, Norwesters commence in March and continue with increased frequency tll the monsoon establishes over NE India, Locally they are knowa as Kalbaishalhi, because of their demon like destructive character, Most ofthe Norwesters are accompanied by strong squalls and sometimes by hail. On rare occasions even tornado may accompany them, lying through Nozwescers can be extremely dangerous as they have the most violent fearores of thunderstorms sometimes even sccompaniedby tomado, Under favourable conditions the Norwesters regenerate TS inane ike Line Squals. Cccumnavigaing (or penetrating these may be disastrous. The safest way is co avoid them, ‘Tornado {ris a rorating funnel sir sucked up from below the base of a CB, The strong ‘otational wind is produced when an existing circulation of air below a CB is drawn 0 THUNDERSTORN into its base through convergence, The rotation may also be caused by low level wind shear below she CB, The rotation is lifted at one end by the updraught. The speed of rorating winds inside a tornado in excess of 150 kt have been recorded, The pressus inthe core may drop hundreds of HP andthe fll in temperarare makes tornado visible due to condensation, The diameter of aromnado is from a few mectes ‘to about 209 m and life a few minutes to more than an hour. Small scale tornadoes (dust devils or willy ~ willy) develop in hot arid regions in dry season, The very low pressure at the core causes devastation, in a narrow path. Tornadoes uptoot trees, objects, articles, explode buildings etc and suck them ingo the ait. The ‘occurrence of tornado in India is very rate. In April 1978, a tornado struck New Delhi and caused severe damage tothe life and propery. Tornado is strong instabilcy phenomena, Frjita Damage Scale Number for Tornadie Winds is at Appendix K Figure 13.3 Tornado ‘Water Spout A tornado over the sea is called Water Spout. The funnel sucks up sea water and sometimes rain of Fish is observed over the adjoining coastal ares. Dust Devil During horsumaet months sometimes local surface winds converge towards a hot spor. They start rotating about a vertical axis and a whitl of dust raising wind rises fom grourd, known as Dust Devil Vertically it may reach up to 2 ket and may have diameter of about 10 m, cisashor lived phenomena. eis capable of ifing light loose articles, like paper. ata. @ @. ue ws. QB. qy. ws. AVIATION. METEOROLOGY QUESTIONS ON THUNDERSTORM ‘The condition necessaty for che formation of a thunderstorm ace: (a) Steep lapse rat, stcong winds {b) shallow lapse rate, adequare supply of moisture (Sweep lapse cate, adequate supply of moistre and trigger action Hail is mose likely to fall from a cloud (Having layers {) Composed of Ice cryscals (©) Having song verical development Norwesters ate {@) The western disturbances which affece NW Indian () Severe thunderstorins which occur over NE India during hot weather peciod {e) Severe thunderstorms which cecur over Peninsula daring liot weather period Dusistorm usually ocenrs over NW fain ding {a} Pos-monsoon —_(b) Winter (9) Pre-Monsoon Amature thunderstorm has (3) A sttong updraft only (0) Stcong downdraft only {4 Strong updrafts and downdrats Aircraft icing is most favoured in the cloud which have cemperatures sanging beoween 9) ~ 20° C and ~ 40°C (b) 0° C and - 20°C {below ~ 40° C A short duration, showery precipitation is associated with (@) ST (b) AS fo) CB Hil is (8) Solid precipitation which commonly occurs over the mounesinous regions ring winter (}) Frozen or partly fcozen sin fang from sheet sype of clouds {© Solid peciitacon falling feom a deep convective cloud m2 THUNDERSTORM Q9. The most hazardous clond for aviation is (cB wou (ONS QO, The life of a Cb cell s usualy (@) 7 10 8 bis (6) 3 104 his (4-1 he QUL. Generally the severest activity of a CB clouds is for (@) 2 hes () 30 t0 45 min (0) 3 t04 he QU2. Norwessees occur during (a) JowFeb (6) MarMay fe} fumeSep———(¢) Oct - De QU3. Nonwestes occur daring (a) Winter (b) Hot weather (@ Monsoon —_{@) Post Monscon QU, Norwesters affect (@) N india {b) Bengal, Bikir, Orissa and Assam (© Central India QUIS. The tigger action may take place due to {) Clear night sky, no wind (©) Crographi: Sifting (c) Divergence due to high pressure QUG, Nonwesters normally occur during (@) Mocnings (b) Afternoons 0 Nights U7. Norwesters originates over (8) Chota-Nagpoc bill (b) Deccan Plato (0) Khasi bills QU, Acchi (blinding storms) occur generally over (@) $ India ()N Inia (o) NE India U9. Wind speed in Light DS is (0) 25 ie (0) 30 ke up 21 kt Q20, The diametre of Microburst is (a) less than 4-km (6) fess chan 2 km QQ4. The diametce of and Mecrobuest <4 km (0) 4 km or more (6 less than 6 km (> 8 km v3AviArION MerEoRoLCGy (22. For dessin pesipation » Radar wavelength in he eange (2) 30 co 200 mm (b} 400-500 min Q23. For sitborne radars wavelength generally used (@) 20 mm wis suitable, (©) 600-700 mm © 40 mm (9 60 mm ' G24, The wavelength of TS detection X band radar is fa) 10 mam ) 20 mm_ () 30 mm 2S. The wavelength of storm detection $ band radar is 42) 50 mm ©) 100 oom (© 200 mmave. 26, Over plains TS mostly occue during the (@) afternoon (6) igh (6 early moening 27. Over valley and foot Hills TS generally occur duxing {@) afternoon (0) night & early morning QS. Over the sea TS are more frequent (2) afternoon (b) night (© early moming 29. The life of Mesoscale Convective Complex TS is a) 2.3 he (3-4 br (2) 6 00 24 he 030. Loud peas of chundes, frequent Rashes of lightning, moderate or heavy showers ‘sceompanied by light hail with maximum wind speed 15-40 ke ie classified as * (0) Ligh TS (0) Moderate Ts (6) Severe TS G34. For a severe TS one of the requirements is sttong wind shear (@} Horizontal (©) Weetcat (6) Slane QB2. Severe TS cell at tiled (@) in vertical ©) to the South (0 0 the Notch ANSWERS: 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 wt fs be ¢ b ec ec a eh ER Q A Q 4 1s 16 17 ay 19 200 21 22 23 24 25 a6 A Q A a 27 28 29 30 3 32 bob oe bo ob G 124 . 14 a AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WESTERN DISTURBANCES Definition Air mass is lange body of sic coving an area of thousands of square ‘clometrin whic the horizontal end vertical distribution of temperate (density) and moisture are nearly uniform, Air masses move with the wind and cary thei properties. The weather associated with air masses depends on their properties and interplay with other air masses, ‘The characteristics of ar masses difer wit their origin and travel. Doring travel they gee modified, Source Regio. An si mas forms when a lrg body ofr stagnate for along peiod over an ateahavingfinly uniform temperarure and moisture concent. High pressure atcas which av slack pressure gradienrs and hence light winds ar che most suitable Sure egions for air mass formation. Accordingly the main source egions ate poles and sub-tropical highs. The stagnation over these regions enables a lacge body of ai ro acquire properties of the underlying surface. Classification of Air Masses ‘Temperature (density) and humidity are the ro main characterise which distinguish air masses. The ternperatute characteristics is determined by the latitude zone of the source region of che ait mas. The moisture characteristic depends on whether ‘he source region is over continental area or over maritime are. Thus, fron the 125AVIATION: METEOROLOGY temperature characteristics we have Polar air mass and Tropical ac mass and from the moisture characteristic, Continental air mass and the Maritime air mass, ‘Types of Air Masses ‘These ace six main types of air masses, whose names, symbols, places of origin and properties in brief are as follows: ‘Aicmass | Symbol [Pee of origin Tropes ‘Arctic [ A” | Polarregions Buareme low tmp, low bundy in winters, bur humidity increnses in summers. Polar Subspolarcontnenral | Low vemperazures which intense Continental | Pe | seat ‘wih movement cowards lover laude, Lov humdi, Polar [Pm | Subspolar and Arcie | Low tomperatures which increase Marine ocean aeat ‘with movement cowards lower Jacmide, high humid. Tropical Te | Subtropical High | High vemperarres, low humidicy Coutinentet Pressure land area Tropes! [Tin | Southern border of | Moderately high emperors, Maritime ‘cearicsubaropical_ | high humidiy. ighs Bguatrial | Em | Equatorial and igh temperate, High bumidny (Maritine) rropicl seas (SW Monsoon is Eo aie mss), Table 44 Modification of Aic Masses ‘When an air mass bodily moves, its temperature and moisture characteristics get modified according co the nature of the area over which it moves. Air Masses in Indian Sub-Continent ‘Tropical Maritime Ait (Trn): Ths ai mass originates in the subtcopical highs of the north Pacifc ocean and arrives over India duting the monsoon season, after ccavel over SE Asian councres, [thas high resapetatute, high relative humidity and high dew point. 16 AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WeSteaN DisruRsances ‘The air mass is characterised by excellent visbilin, a fairly high diuenal range of remperature and cumaliform clouds causing showers or thunderstorms in some places. ‘Tropical Continental Air (Te): This is the most common air mass over India, particulatly in the winter season. [coriginavesin the Siberian high and moves over India as a cold dry cuctent wish fair weather and poor visibility conditions. Equatorial Morisime Air (Em): This oir mass originates over the Indian Ocean and has along cravel over water, Em prevails over India to che south of 25° N during. the monsoon season. It has high humidity content, hence causes sultry weather, Visibility is good except in showers. The divenal range of temperature in the mass is small. {In winters India is over-ran by Teair mass. Inthe extceme south theres occasional incursion of Fm air from the south of the equator (in India Tm aie arriving from the southern hemisphere across the equator is known as Em air or equatorial smaitime ait). The Western Disturbances which affect northern india draw Tm air feom Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal. After the passage of a WD, some times in ‘winters there isan incursion of Pe air moss, which causes Cold Wave conditions. In che summer months the equatorial low moves northwards and by June gets established over the Gangetic plains as Monsoon ‘Tiough. To the south ofthis trough is the Em sic from the southern hemisphere. To the north of it there may be eo. types of aie mases. In northwest India chee is usually Te ai, while in norcheast India and along the Himalayan ranges there is Tm air which originates in the sub- tropical high of -he Pacific Ocean. This air mass gets modified in its land travel over the countries of southease Asia and has different characteristics than the Em air which comes from the southern hemisphere FRONTS. Front, A Frontisa narrow zone of transition berween two air masses of contrasting densities, The contrasting densities are due to different temperatures and humidivy of the air masses, Aca front there is change in temperature, wind, clouding and precipitation. 27‘AVIATION METEOROLOGY Frontal, Sua ia Figure 14.1 From ana Frontal Surface Frontal Surface. Frontal Surfaces the sloping surface along which the two aie masses ‘xistand Fronts the place where this frontal surface meets the ground, Froncogenesis. In a front weather occurs only when there isa significa contrast between the two ait masses. If density contrast is insignificant passes off unnoticed except for some change in winds. Ifthe density contrast increases the front becomes active. The formation or strengthening of a front i¢ called Frontogenesis int density the front Frontolysis. Weakening of font with time and dissipation of frontal weathers called Frontolysis. ‘TYPES OF FRONTS Cold Front . risa demarcation zone berween cold air overtaking warm ar. Th cold aie provides 8 wedge on which watm air glides, Most ofthe cald fronts are associated with CU and CB clouds. Theslope at the interactions step, 1:80 10 1:120, which becomes shallower at higher levels. There ate two types of cold fronts (9) Kata Type Cold Front. It has ashallow slope of 1:120 and speed is about 20k. Theres general sinking of warm air ahigh levels (crm kata denotes ‘atabatic). Duc to this the vertical cloud developmentis restricted, It has stratform (ST, NS, AS) and CU, CB clouds. The precipitation is widespread, Showery precipitation oceursin advance and juscbehind surface front, due ‘OCB. Further behind precipitation is from NS and AS, Sometimes thefrone 128 AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WESTERN. Distussancrs moves very fast causing fine squall to develop 100 - 300 km ahead of the front. ; (b) Ana Type Cold Front. Ithasa steep slope of 1:50 to 1:80 and speed exceeds 30 ke. There is insabiliy and rising warm ait ax high levels erm ana denotes anabatic). Main clouds are CU, CE clouds. Violent TS, hail and showers of short duration areits basic features, confined to 100-150 km, Aer the passage sky clears rapidly. Behind the frone there may be CU, CB clouds and isolated showers. 10819 sha kn 100% 200m Figure 14.2} Cold Front ‘Warm Front ir ove ir. Its slopeis shallow, Iisa demarcation zone between warm air overtaking cold ; 1:150 to 1:180 and speed is about 10-15 kt, Ifthe advancing warm airis sable, Stratiform and cumuliform clouds would form. Ifthe warm air is stable and air si st higher levels, clouds are mainly stratiform. Stable warm fronts are called Kata Type ar ‘unstable Ana Type warm Fronts. ks isi by C1,CS, abour 1000 km Kata Type Warm Front, Approach is indicated by Open eon nen clog tiken and NS, AS clouds appear 400-500 9(by AVIATION Mertorowogy et Figure 14.2 (bj Warm Fant 4k from front, Precipitation gradualy becomes hea adua wy and persists, Just abead ofthe wactn fone there is dial, low status and someting tee called frontal fog. After the passage of warm front, fog dissipates, sky becomes partially cleat, with warmer and humid weather Precpitaion, Just ahead ofthe front dizle may the passage of the front fog dissipates and skies practically clear. (Note: For weather with Cold and Warm Fronts Refer ‘Apendix -1) Occluded Front Acold front normally moves at twie forms when a cold front catches up ‘ypes: a) the speed ofa warm front, An oceluded front ‘witha warm front. Occluded fronts are oftwo Cold Occlusion If he sir mass of the advancing cold froneis colder than the cool air mass of the warm front, che advancing cold feont undercuts ‘mand cool air masses ofthe warm front. The weather 'sinsally warm frone ype bue during the passage of on t, Showery weather of cold front occurs. This occlusion is common in sunmere, 130 AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WESTERN DISToRBANCES (b) Warm Occlusion. When the air mass behind the advancing cold front is less colder (cool) than the cold air mass of the warm front ahead, the advancing cold front overrides the warm froncahead. The weather in such ®@ case is similar to that of warm front, This type of occlusion occurs in winters and is less common. WARMAIR RRNA coo coo coo coun Figure 14.3 Cold and Warm Occhusions Stationary Front A stationary front is one thar exhibits almost no movement, On either side of the frome there are two contrasting air masses, Winds on either side blow parallel to the front but in opposite direction. Polar front is an example of stationary front. Fronts of the World (2) Polar Front: Polar Fronts 2 transition zone between polar easterlies and mid latitude westerlies, It is located around latitude 60°. The polar front is not continuous, It is active only in segments, () Arctic Front: This isthe boundary between arccic and polar air masses Ir lies normally further north than the polar front but is often displaced’ southwards into temperate laccudes in wincers, (6) Mediterranean Front: This isthe boundary berween the Pear from Europe sand the air ftom North Aftia, Irextends roughly from wes-to cast over the Mediterranean ia winter. Fronts In India India is not affecred by fronts, except in the extreme NW India. The Westeca Disturbances whica affect NW India are of frontal origin. However, when they reach India they are in the occluded stage. BIAVIATION MeTtonoxogy WESTERN DISTURBANCES (WD) WDsare lows oc troughs which move from W to E, N of 20°N and cause weather, ‘Whenever the iow has two ox more closed isobacs, at 2 hPa interval, tis vermed as Wesieen Depression, The troughs above $00 hPa level ae called Troughs in ‘Westerlies. Saellce Imagery of WD at Appendix B) ‘These weathee disurbances are noiced as cyclonic circulation/trough in the mid and lower tropospheric levels ors low pressure area om the surface, which occur ‘nmidale latitude westeties and originate over the Militerranean Sea, Caspian Sea and Biack Sea and move eastwards across north India. ‘WDs belong to extra tropical eylone family. Over India they are in occluded state and cause warmycald fron ype of clouding and weather They incesify over NW Inclia due to orography and moisture feed from the Arabian sea, Induced Low and Induced Cyclonic Circulation Under the influence ofthe WD, sometimes low develops tothe south ofthe system as induced ow and sometimes a cyclonic circulation developed co the south of the system as induced cyclonic circulation . ‘The average frequency of WDs i 5-7 per month in winters, which subsequently decreases to Nil in monsoon months, They ceappeat from Oct onwards, Movement. From Pakistar/Rejasthan they move NE towards W Himalayas. Some of them subsequently glide along foothill cowards , Afew WDs move E towards ‘UME Bihar and subsequenly reach up o NE India, The rate of movementis sous 250-300 km per day Teather. In about 5096 cases, weather is confined to JK, HP, Punjab, Haryana, ‘Utarancha, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal. Ia remaining cases weathers afecred ovec UR ME Biba and adjoining states, Ocissa, WB and NE India, The aren of maximum cluding and prespitationis abvaysalongche foo hills. Widespread fog and cold waves are common after the passage of WD. Foi up by forenoon bus sometimes it persists for a few days. ‘Aviation Hazards. Low clouds, poor visi, can, TS, hil, icing ace the main hatards during approaclpasage and afer the passage, widespread fog, Daring 132 ‘AIR MASSES FRONTS awD WESTERN Distunsances premonsoanof widespreed dust haze and dust storm are experienced over NW India under the influenceWDs. Trough in Weseles, A sels of ough in upper se westerlies keep moving from W to E, Sometimes these have large amplitudes. They cause upper air divergence ahead of them, Whenever chese troughs lie on the rear of a surface system, the ‘weather activity enhances considerably. Severe TS/DS, Norwesters and heavy cains ate associated with these tzoughs, QUESTIONS ON AIR MASSES, FRONTS AND WD QL. The amas which originaes at sea in high Lauds is called (@) Tolar marine (b) Tropical continental ("Tropical maritime ‘The alrmass which originates over equatorial region is ° {@) Warm & dry (8) Warm & Moise (6) Cold & dey QB. If the advancing cold font is colder than the cool ait miss of the warm frome, the zdvancing cold front undercuts and lifts both the warm and cool air masses of the warm front. This is (@) Worm Occlusion) Cold Occlusion QA. The aitmass which originated over land area located in polar region: (o) Warm 8 dry () Warm & Moise (Cold & dry QS. Ifa waem sicmass overakes a cold ai mass, ic is called (0) Cold Front = (b) Warm Front (9 Occluded eon Q6. Ar warm frone (a] Warm air overtakes the cold air (&) Cold ait undereurs the wernt sir QZ. The conditions are always unstable at (a) Cold fron: ib) Warm front Q8._ Line squall occurs about 100-300 kam ahead of (a) Warm front) Cold front Q9. Precipitation occurs over a belt of 30 - $0 km on both side of front (@) Cold front (b) Wie front QUO. Cold frome moves at .. che speed of a warm frome moves (@) Same () Double (6) Hale 133AVIATION METEOROLOGY QU Line Squalls oceur .... of Cold front (al Ahead (0) Behind © Ate Q12, Fronts are associated wich {4) Tropical eyclone (4) Monsoon Depression (6) Bxe-topieal Cyclones QU3. CB, Rolleype clouds, SC, AC with embedded CB ane associated (@) Cold front (©) Wace front QU4. The Surface of discontinuity berveen the Polar Easterles and Westerles i called (6) Equatorial Front (6) Tropopause the temperate (©) Polar Front QUS. The air mass which origizates fom sea atea located in lower Lat is {a) Warm & Dry (b) Warm & Moise (©) Cold 8 Moise QU6. WD approach India as (@) Cols (b) Occhuded Fronts (9 Highs Q17, Maximum WDs occur in (6) Summers {b) Post Monsoon (6) Winters QUE. Ahead of a warm front che surface wind {a) Backs & weakens (o) Veers & strengthens QU9. On approach of a Warm Front tempecatire @) Ball (6) Rise (0 Backs & strengthens (6) Remain same QUO. Cl, CS, AS, NS, ST in sequence are asociaed with the fone {@) Warm ) Cold (©) Occluded QU. During the passage of a Cold Front winds (@) Suddenly become squally (b) Back and weaken (2) Veer and ate of moderate strength 2, Visibility is poor ia a Warm Front (3) Ahead (6) Ahead 8 Dating (9 Afver 8 Ducing (23. Fog occurs in Cold Front (@) Ahead (©) Daning (©) Alter 134 AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WeSTERN DisruReances QDs. WD isa front {6} Cold (0) Warm (6 Occluded 25. FZRA and FZFG occ of a wate front (a) Abead ) During (0) After Q26, Precipitation ceases after the passage of « front (2) Cold () Worm (© Occhuded QU?. During the approach of a Warm Front wind (a) Backs (b) Veers Q28. AWD with two or more closed isobars, at 2 hPa interval, ie is cermed as (0) Does not change (a) Troughs in Westetlis (b) Western Depression e) Western Cyclone Q29. AWD originate over {2} Baluchistan (4) Caspian sea Black Seas 30. induced Sows develop to the (© Mediterranean, Caspian and. GN bs (©) NE ANSWERS Q1 23 4 5 «6 Bo 8 nw Aja bo bo © b a a bo a ¢ a Q 4 1s 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25-6 Ac bo bo ¢ boa a boc ¢ a b Q 27 28 9 30 Aa bo oe b 1351S JET STREAMS Jet seam isa strong narrow current of winds along.a semi horizontal axis inthe “upper troposphere. Ichas strong vertical and horizontal: wind shears, It features one or more velocity maxima, Normally a jet steam is thousands of fan in length hundreds of km in wideh and some kein depch. The vertical wind sheac is abou Svs per km. The arbitrary lower limic of jet core velacity has been ass sori jet core velocity has been assigned as Inajerseream, the path ofthe maximum speeds known ashe axis and the ubolar volume immediately surrounding itis known asthe cove, The wind specd along the ais is not ahvays uniform. These are distinct maxima slongthe axis. The speed ofthese maxima is much lower than the wind speed isl Ascetrain places the maxima speed reduces below 60 kt consteuting breaks in the jer stream. Sometimes the axis branches into two jet stream jc igsoear So i sand rejoins further ‘Along the axis ofa jet seam thereat cates of high sped winds called Jesceaks (incl maxi} with weaker winds in between, Jetstreaks retain thee strength bot ‘move slower, by up to 25 kt, than the jet stream, In a wavy jet they are located ‘over of near the ridge, “Types of Jo Steams: There are four types of jet steams inthe moposphece: (©) Atecic Jet Stream (AD) te a westerly jer steam a€7 to 8 km height over the Arctic region, close to polar torpopouse. 136 Jer StReans (0) Polar Front Jet Streams (PED) Itis a westerly jet stream in middle latinudes, aboveche surface polar front, at about 9.0 km close to the midale-laritude tropopause. The PFJ migeats in wincer co 30° N an in summers 10 70° IN. The core speeds are stronger in winters than in summers. The main 64 ke), violent squalls and corrental rains under long, thick dark clouds, called Eye Wall Wall Clouds, The eye wall is che most dangerous patt of the cyclone. In shi region pressure gradient is very. steep, Some of the intense TC exhibit concentric eye walls. (©) Outer Storm Area, Outside the core isthe ouxer storm area, extending to about 400 kr, in which winds of gale force (€”34 ke) and occasional squalls occur. Winds decrease outwards. There are spiral bands of clouds, (@) Edge of the Storm. This is the outermost region of the storm where the winds are weak and clouding diminishes. Extent and Movement. TCisa vast violent whiel of 150 10 800 km, spialing around a centre. If move over the sea at a tate of 300 to S00 km a day at 15 — 20 km. Generally TC move westwards up to about 25° NYS and then recurve and move E. Pressure, The central pressure in a'TC is between 1000-900 hPa . On an average the central pressure is 5 to 6 hPa below the surcounding pressure and in extreme ‘cases may be about 70 hPa less, The pressure gradient is very steep up toa rads ‘of 100 km Worse Weather. The worst weather and winds ina cyclone are to the right forward seetor in the N- hemisphere and left forward seccor in the S ~ hemisphere. Upper Air Circulation ‘The cyclonic creulation in « TC may extend ro 40,000 fe. The axis of cizeulation is almost vertical. In the inner storm area winds of hurricarc force persist up 0 about 7000 ft. Thereafter, winds weaken. 187AVIATION MzrronoLocr Wind speeds at surface andin the upper ait are stronger inthe right al of acycone than in the left half. The difference being almost rwice the speed of the cyclone, “Tropical Storms over India The sie of 2 TC over Indian seas vases from 50 -2000 km cadius, with an average ‘of 300 ~ 600 ka, Winds in a TC rotate counterclockwise in the Northern and 700 km (@) > 900 ken ANSWERS: Q A Qn BM 1 6 7 1B 19 20 2 22 A 23 a4 2 26 27 W 29 30 MM 32 33 Q A Qu NM 3 7 B 39 40 . a 16819 a CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA he climate of india is dominated by the monsocn circulation. ‘The term Monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word “Musi” It ig the seasonal revecsal of Winds and the rainfall. As the sun oscillates berween the ‘Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the region of maxim heating (theemal equator) also moves N and 5, ‘Thiscauses the annual oscillation of empetanite, winds, pressure, cloudiness cain ‘The differential heating of land and oceans causes varincions uma tor and hence replona vacaions inthe intensey Prominent monsoon region are Aftics,S Asa and N Austra [RE monsoon (Cal seson, Winey re-mionsoon (Hot Season) [SW monsoon (Rainy Season) [Post- monsoon (Coal: ‘Season) January “February March - May October - December Table 19.1 hematin scasonsin India se: the SW Monsoon the NE Monsoon, Intermediate between these are the ‘yo transition seasons: the Pre- ‘monsoon and the Post- monsoon seasons, as discussed inthe following patageaphys. NE Monsoon Pressure Disteibution. During this season on the surface thercis an extensive belt of high pressure from Sahata to Siberia, The high is centered a¢ 45° N and 105° 164 Cunurology oF Inia E Indiais are somhezn periphery of thishigh. Accordingly, there is High pressure over N India and Low pressure over the Indian ocean, On the surface isobaric chart, about four isobars (1012-1018 hPa), at2 hPa interval, cover the country. The 1013. IP soba ends fom Arabian ss islands ro Andaman area and the 1018 hPa isobar over Pakistan and JcK. A shallow ough extends from Kerala co Gujarat along che West Coast and a shallow ridge over the Gangetic plains, Under tis pressure distribution, NWly winds prevail over N India and NEly winds over the Stadia These Ny wind acute moire over he Bay of Bengal and ease ais over Tamil Neda. The season is therefore termed as NE Monsoon. Atthesame time ins Sacer aT Sc TOL ITS py Cerrone ery ine Bek te TYNAN S ‘Meau Presore (hs) and winds at sutace Tavel aNUARY) Fig 19.2 Se Level Pressure and Winds January 165AMTION MeTzoRo.ocy dey and cold weather prevails over the rest ofthe county. The season isalso termed 25 Cold Weather Season or Winter Season. Sucface Temperatures, The avecage surface temperatures in winters range from UA G over N India to 27°C over $ India. Ove most paris ofthe country the diurnal ange of emperatureisabout 13°C, is about 10°C over the constal sens and 5° C over Tamil Nada due to clouding and rain, utfae Winds, Sutfce winds are lig, mainly NEly south of 25° N, NUMy over N India winds and Ely over Assam. . Upper Winds. Up to about 10,000 tthe winds are NWly over N and the Concral {ndisand are NEly over Indi. Thereafter Wy winds prevail aloft whichatrengrhen Wich height and spread S wards upto th tp of Peninsula. The Sub Trop et Stream (ST) prevails over N India: -ata height of about 12 km and. 27°N, with strong ‘Westerly winds of 80-100 ke, maximum being 200 ke. Synoptic Systems, About 5-7 Western Disurbances (Ws) alfeceN India per month, ‘The WDs ative from the W as Lows and move NB or E watds. Mos. uf the WDs {nove to Wescern Himalayas and cause weather over J&K and hills of Punjab, Haryana, Himanchal Pradesh and Utraranchal. A few of them move E wards upto ‘Upper reaches of Assam anda few of them ro Cental India. few Cyclone Storms and Easterly Waves affect § Indi, Weather {nN India, clear skies, poo visi, dry wether, low humidity and low temperatures ae the normal features. The dey spells ate broken by the passage of WDs, which xe mostly Occladed Front of extratropical origin, Under the influence of WD, ‘Warm Front weather is experienced fist, which is followed by the of Cold From Weather, The Watm Front type weather sequences, backing of wind fom NWly {o SW SEly rise in temperature, fallin pressuze, appearance of Cl clouds and {fen thickening and lowering of clouds to AS, NS and ST DZ and RA may occur, ‘This is followed by the Gold Front typeof weather, ie. che appearance of Cl and CB, risen pressure and occurence of TS. As the WD passes off the skies become ig and cold dry continental N-NWly winds ser in, Widespread Radiation Fog and Cold Waves (temperature 4.0°C or more below minimum normal follow. The cold ‘ave conditions may last for 2-3 days. When maximum temperatue is less than or equal to 16°C in Plains itis declared as a Cold Day, 16 Cuisiarotoy OF INDIA Cold Waves are common in Jan and Feb ia W India N of 20°. J8CK, Rajasthan, West MP and Gujarat are mest affected regions. Panjab receives compacatvely lesser number of seere cold waves. {In the § tndis, the moisture laden NEly winds from the Bay of Bengal cause rains and TS activity over Tamil Nadu and other parts of§ Peninsule, Sometimes cyclonic storms cause heavy rains over Tamil Nadu Aviation weather Hezards Poor visibility isthe main aviation weather hazard duriag the season, specially over NiIndia. Fog, mist and hare are common all over the country in the morning and {evening hours. Smoke from industries and automobiles causes reduction in visibility Low level inversion farther favours reduction invisibility. Conditions become most favourable for radiation fog after the passage of a WD, over NW India, Uttar Pradesh, Biba, Central Indi, N Bengal and Assam (patclalyS banks ofBrahmaputca tiver) Sometimes the fog prolongs, disrupting aie waffc adversely, especially ovee Polluted aisfields tike Palam (Delhi). On such occasions, there may be litle Improvement in visiblity to 1000-2000 m ducing noon, bu ie may again deteriorate in the evening and night. Such conditions sometimes may last fora few days, Adveetion fog occurs over coastal areas and where large water bodies ate present, ‘The fog generally lifts by 1000-1100 hr IST. CAT is experienced over NE India and inthe vicinity of ST]. Mountain waves are also common ducing this period over high cerrain over Nand Ef Teing. During the season the freezing level lowers, Hence ice accretion may be experienced at lower levels, Pre-Monsoon, Pressure Distribution, This sa transition season when winter pattern commences to change over to che monsoon Pattera, There is continuous rise in cemperature: and fallin pressure over che country. There is weak pressure gradient over the country. Only two isobars (1006 ancl 1008 hPa) cover the entire counery. These ‘sobars run parallel almost along the Indian coast line, There isa trough over the Peninsula with is axis along 78° E longinude. This trough shifes to 79° E along Chennai coast by Mzy. A weak low lies over Pakistan (upper Sindh) and a weak ‘rough over E UP and Bitar. Alow lies over Myanmar and a closed high ovee the E Central Bay, W of Bay Islands, 167 wereAVIATION. METEOROLOGY Surface Temperatures, Deco che N wards march ofthe su, theland progesively sets heated up after January. By April, the tempecatuces ae of che order 0f 30-35° Cover the central peninsula. The mean maximurn temperatures are about 40-42° ‘Cover the councty. The day temiperacures are highest in May. In Andamans they. a highest in April n Saorshor in Jun and in Rajasthan and Kashmir in July. The ‘maximum diurnal range of 18° C is over Gujarat, Saurashtra and MB Along the Coasts is abaue 6° C, Sometimes heat wave conditions (4° C or more above the normal maximum) ate also experienced, Also when maximus temperatures 45°C oF more heat wave is declaced, we Mean Presure (hPa) and winds at surface lavel (APRIL) igure 19.3 Sua Level Pressure and Wids Apri 168 Cunarowoey oF inors Surface Winds, In March N of 17°1N the surface winds are Wly and Bly to the § of it. In April chey are N-NWly up co E Utat Pradesh (UP) and eastwards to NE India. In May SWly prevail over Rajasthan and Ely extend from Assam co E UR Over Orissa, WB, Bihar, harkhand and Chhattisgarh, chey are Sly. In rest of the country NWh to SWly winds prevail. In June Ely winds prevail ofthe lin joing Lahore, Allahnbad and Silchar, Over West Benga! winds ate Sly and are W-SW 10. 15 ke over ree ofthe countey. On cectain dost laden over che Gangetic plans. Dust Raising Winds (DRW) mostly starcsrabout 0900 hr and continue up ro 1700 hr. Thereafter they weaken. Visi ‘occasions reduces considerably over a large area, Upper Winds. April Wly secengthen wich height over N India and Peninsula. At 300 hfs maximum speeds are 40 kt and at 200 hPa, 60 kt N of 22°N. The wind ‘weakens slowiy aloft. In May Wly belt shifts ro 30° N end Ely 15-20 ke establish over the Penirsula, In June winds ace Wly up to 700 hPa and Ely alofe$ of 25° N, which strengtien with height co 50 ke at 100 hPa, Synoptic Systems and Weather ‘Theseason is characterised by widespread dust haze and extremely high cemperatuces over N India. Thece are dust storms over N India and Kalbaisokhi (Norwesters) ‘over Elndia, These ate riggered by the WDs. few tropical cylonesstrike Bengal coast and move NW. The ST] weakens and moves North wards, This isthe most hazardous season for flying. The main aviation weather hazaeds axe TS/DS, Dust Heze, Squall, High temperatures, Dust Raising Winds, Nocwestrs, Andhi ete. Aviation weather Hazards, (a) TSand Ds Activity. Violent ‘TS ate common duting this season with eit all actendant hazards. DS arc common over Rajasthan and NW India, Nocwesters affect Eastern parts of the cowatry Line squall rype of developmeat also reported by he aircrew. Poor visibily deo ssidespread dust haze is experienced over entie N India, Dust haae may extend to 7- 8 km lof (©) Dust Raising Winds. trong surface winds of 30-50 kr may he experienced betwe:n 0900 t0 1700b. The vsibiley may reduce co few hundred metres, 169AVIATION: Mertonotogy SW Monsoon Pressure Pattern. A Tow pressure area lies over Baluchiscan (994 hi), A trough called, Monsoon Trough (MT), lies over N India with its axis extending from Stigaaganagat to the Head Bay through Allahabad. A high pressure lies over § Hemisphere, centered at 30° § 60° E, Pressure gradually decreases cowards India fcom this High. Weak ridges lie over Arabian Sea off the West Coast of Inia, in the Bay of Bengal off Tenasserim Coast and over Myanmar. A veak trough lies off the E coast in § Peninsula, The pressure gradiontis steep along the west coast. Seven. ‘sobors at2 hPa interval (994 hPa aver Baluchistan ad 1008 hPa over $ Peninsula) ‘Mean Prosuce (hPa) and winds at surface lave QULY) Figure 19-4 Sea Level Pressure and Winds July 170 Cumatotocy oF Inpia stretch across the country, A shallow low lies over extreme NE India (Arunachal Pradesh) and another over adjoining Myanmar. Surface Wind. Ely te SEly winds prevall 1 the N of the MT and SW eo Wly alsewhere, They have more of Sly component ovee West Bengal. NWly winds prevail over Malabar coast. The wind speed over the land is about 5-10 kt and over the seas 1Skt. Srength 0 monsoon depends on the strength of these winds Suoface Temperature. Temperatures over che southern part of the country ate about 26° Cand over Rajastian 31° C. The spatial range over India is about 9° Cand the Auenal range is aboue 4° C to 09° C. Temperacues rise during the break monsoon, Upper Winds, Up to sbout 10000 fethe winds are W-$Wly to the $ ofthe MT and to che N chey are SEly From 500 hPa upwards Ely winds prevail over almost entite Inia, At 200 hPa and alofe an anticyclone les over Tet and another over Baluchistan, ‘The winds are about 20 kt over central India and 40 kt to the South At 100 Pa they strengthen 0 40 kt and 60 et respectively. Ely et stream (Tropical Jet ream) prevails at 15-16 km with speed of 70-80 ke (max, 150 ke) roughly along 13 N. Advance of Monsoon The southwest monsoon current advances in two distinet branches — the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch, The former moves to Kerala and the latter to Myanmar, Bangla Desh and Bengal, Normal date for Ons of southwest monsoon are: South Andaman Sea: 20 May Kerala:01 June, Mumbai: 10 Sune, New Delhi: 29 June, Entire country: 15 July. Normal date of Withdrawal from extreme west Rajasthan is 15 September, With the withdrawal of manson from the N and central India and the N Peninsula by the first halfof the Octobe, the lower level wind pattern rapidly changes from SWy to NBly and hence the term Northeast Monsoon is used to describe the period October to December. This isthe major period of rainfall in S peninsula. fn Tamil Nadu, thsi the mainrainy season, and accounts for nearly 60% of annual rainfall in che coastal districts, Flying in monsoon clouds is tclatively smooth, 3s they are stratiform type and visibility is exceptionally good, except in precipitation, Clouds are in different fayers and there are clear gaps in between various layers of clouds. Hence one imAVIATION MeTeoROLOGY con most finda suitable cloud fee level for lying except when affected bya depression. Axis of Monsoon ‘Frongh (MT}. The normal Position of che monsoon, trough on sea level chare passes through Ganganagar-Allahabad-Kolkata to Head Bay. The ‘urogh luuernates NS ofits normal positon and accordingly goveens the rainfall ‘To the N of this trough lies the Bay branch and to the S, Arabian sea branch, This trough more or les coincides wth ITCZ. The MT slopes southwards with height, At 10000 ft (700 hPa) it lies almost parallel to 22°N from Gujarac co Orissa and 500 hPa ic can be seen around 10-15° N acess § peninsula, Thereafter iti not traceable, ‘Break Monsoon. Monsoon trough shifts northwards and runs close to foo hills of Himalayas, resulting in drastic reduction in rainfall over the countty outside the foot hills and southernmost Peninsula . During this period pressure rises over the country. Heavy rains occur over foot hills of Himalayas, particularly over Sub Himalayan West Bengal, Nepal and Bhotan esuling in floods over NE India and Bihar. Very strong Wiy surface winds are also experienced over Bas UP Bihat and ‘ding states, Dating this phase the weathers of re monsoon pe wit wideprend dust haze of moderate intensity Subtropical (Mid tropespheic) Cylone. Sometimes during SW monsoon acclonic sitcalacon establishes ac Lat/Long 60-808 and 18-28 N, between levels $00 and 700 hPa, and trough ar che surface. Heavy cainfal in western India and NE Arabian sen ate most ateibuted to this system, Bven the very heavy unprecedented rains inthe yenr 2005 over MR Maharashtra, especially Mumbai were atribuved tothe Prolonged presence of sch asystem over the area. The heavy ainall isd to hick Staiform clouds in which CB clouds are embeded, Such heavy buildup and eanfall Occur is mainly to the W and SW of the subsropical eyclone centre Fiing Normal Date of Monsoon, comparison sade withthe esinfall of previous {rothree pencads (A year is divided imo 72 pentads, of five days each, commenciog A Jan. Normals ate prepared for each of she pentads). If there i a sigafiant increase in rainfall, che mi date of the penta is declared as the dave of onset of monsoon, provided the increase in rainfalls maintained thereafte, Strength of Monsoon. The swength of monsoon i described in terms of winds ar Sea and rainfall over che land, as follows: 172 Cumarorogy oF INpiA 500hPa Fie 19.5 Subtropical Cyclone over Cnjat and adjoining arens ‘Wind speed oversea Rainfall over Land ‘Weak Monsoon up to 12 ke << 1/2 simes the normal Medezate Mensoan B-2ke W210 1 times the normal Strong Monsoon 23-32 ke 16 104 times the nos ‘Vigorous Mosscon Sake > times dhe nornal ‘Sirength of Monsoon ‘Table 19.2 ELNino/Southern Oscillation (ESNO) ‘The term El Nino was applied by fishermen ro period of reduced fish cach de {osuppression of upweling (ringing of nutrient rch bottom waters tothe scace) by the warm surface coastal current. During this period there isa rise in sca surface femperature off che coast of Ecuador and N Peru, It is an annual event around Gristmas, hence che name, El Nino is the Spanish equivaienc of Christ Chil, During El Niro, a warm coastal Ocean current rans southwards along the coast of Feta, Extremely warm sea surface rempecatare anotales ocene once in every few years which are accompanied by weather extremes over widely separated ropions of che world. About seven ESNO have occurred in the recene rims, The 1972 ESNO was a year of large deficiency in summer rains in India. This lead to 13AVIATION MeTEOROLOGY Postulat thar theresa link between El Nino and monsoon rainfall ver India, The ESNO of 1982-83 was probably the moscintense. I displaced storm tracks hundteds of em to SE, and occurrence of leary rains in California, worst flooding of Ecuador, severe drought in Australia, Indonesia, $ Aftica exc, were noticed " ) > teuctr ‘Figure 19,6 Warm Coastal Ocean Curent along the coast of Ecvador Southern Oscillation. Ins the ait pressure gradient between the eastern and western ‘copical Paci, Ie was discovered by Gilbert Walker, who noted thatthe pressure at Darwin, Australia, is inversely proportional to the pressure in Tait, a south Tacific island, E Nino begins when the air pressure gradient between the castern and western tropical Pacific starts to weaken. La Nino. Iris a period of strong trade winds and unusually low sea sucface ‘emperaturesin the central and east equatorial Pacific, La Nino is accompanied by weather extremes that are usually opposite those of an El Nino. using intense ESNO tte SE ly Trades become Wly and drive warm waters asewaeds and cause dry weather over a large area, Then du to high sea surface cemtperatutes off the coast ofS America, which is atid. A heavy convective activity: ‘and rainfall occur, 174 CusaToLogy oF $wo1a Aviation weather Hazards {2} Low Clouds. Very low clouds (150 t0 200 m agi) and strong surface winds are common ducing the strong monsoon conditions and passage of Monsoon Depressions. (©) Poor Visibility. Generally visibility is good. However, ic may deteriorate during precipitation. Dust haze inthe north during Break in Monsoon and ‘monsoon haze along the west coast reduces vi (6) CAT. CAT is likely inthe vicinity of TJ. (TS Activiy, Duting the onset of monsoon TS activity of longer duration isa common featare, with its attendant hazards. During Break and then daring revival of monsoon also TS are experienced. to acertain extent Post Monsoon The monsoon star's withdcawing fcom NW india by September. The withdrawal proceedsin sages, eastward and southwards Ie withdraws from NE Jndia by middle October and from she ence country by December. The period ietherefore referred as Retreating Monsoon. Pressure Patter, Duting this season the summer pressure and wind patternsundergo slow but steady modification to finally change ro the winter pattern, One isobar (1010 bP) surtounds the entire country including Bay Islands, Pakistan and parts ‘of Myanmar. The monsoon trough shifts to the Bay of Bengal with its axis along 13° N. The presstre field is flat aver the country. A weak low (1008 hPa) lies off ‘Chennai coast and another over Baluchistan. Surface Wind. Due to a flat pressure distribution over the country, the sucface winds are light and variable. The sea breete effet is pronounced along the coasts inthe afternoon hours and is felc up to 160 km inland, Surface Temperature. Temperatures are nearly uniform, 18° C, aver the country. ‘The diurnal rangeis 6-7° C, over the country. The temperatures stat falling allover the country and by October. Its cool and pleasant at most ofthe places. Fence ic is also known 2s Cool Season. ‘Upper Winds. Gradually Wly winds start establishing at all levels and the pattern changes to that of Winters. The STJ reappears over J&K, Above 500 hPa level Ely remain confined 10 extreme S of the country, which weaken co 20 ke. wsAMATION MeTzoROLCGY ls is 10} see Nv nyse oy iy ons ae ep ae Mean Presare (ha) and winds at yee lavel (OCTOBER) Figure 19.7 Sea Levol Pressure and Winds October Weather Dering this season Tamil Nadu gers its maximum exifal, A few (1-2 per month) WDsatteccN, ountey. They i pita ae Paap parts of the country. The 'y cause clouding and precipitation over J&K ‘This isthe bs eto for Shing except over southern Inn. Good vs lear skies are the main fearutes during she period, few topical stonms fort the contal Bay and the Arabian sea and cause weather over the coastal ane and over tes 28, laximum cyclonic storms (CS) occur in October over the i a7 we Bay of Bengal and in ‘November over the Arabian sea, Severe cyclonic storms ate more inNoverther than 176 Cumarotoay oF INDIA in October. They usually form near Andaman seas and move towards Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Orissa, The CS normally stike Tamil Nadu const, Some of them move ‘Nand strike West Bengal or Bangla Desh Coasts, A fow of item aftr erasing over the peninsula emerge over the Arabian Sea, revive, recurve and sctike Maharashtra and Gujarar coasts. Aviation weather Hazards (@) Poor Visibility. Generally isibilcy is good. However, as che season progresses visisilcy tarts deteriorating near industial ateas during dawn and dusk, After te passage of a WD there may be fog or mist, In che South poor visibility is during precipication, {b) Low Clouds, Low clouds, very strong winds, heavy cain and TS activity js experienced during the passage of a CS. (CAT. CAT may be experienced due to ST] in the north, ROUTE WINDS ‘The genecal pattern of winds over various routes in India is summerised below: From Oct to May (8 months) 1, Above 3km : Winds all over india ace Wly. They becoming stronger with height. STJ (WLy/80-150 ke) over DLH- CAL Route at 12 kam. Below 3 km: NW. Wly over N India and NEly over $ India From June to September (4 months) 2 Above ékm = Ely becoming stronger wich height, TJ (Ely 60-100 kt) over MDS lat. at 15 ko Below G km: W - SWly over $ India and SEly N India QUESTIONS ON CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA QL. Daring winters (@] Advection fog occurs over northern: & central part of India (6) Radiation fog occurs in sours pare of countey (@ Activiey of Radiation fog increases after the passage of a WD over N India wwAVIATION MeTeoROLocy 2. Low Temperanices and low humidity (@) Fost Monsoon (b) Hot weather Q}. Hor weather period is (a) Jan-Feb (0) Mer-May QA During hor weather (ah WDs cause TS J DS over 1 (6) No WD affect N-pares of couneey {€) Track of WD is southern mose QS. The monsoon cusremt over the @ sw, (b) SBly Q6. Monsoon period is (2) Jan to Feb (8) March to May QF. The monsoon advances with {a) Bay of Bengal current only () Arabian Sea cuscent only is the characteristic of (6) Monsoon (4) Winter months (© JunSepe (4) Oce-Dee ranjab 8 Rejaschan West coast of India is (©) NEly (9 June co Sep (4) Oct ro Dee (6) Bay of Benga! and Arabian sea currents QS. The rainfatt over India durin {@) Low over Pakistan (©) Depression over Bay of Bengal monsoon depends (0 The postion of the axis of Mousoon ‘Trough. snl occurs al! ore the cou G@) Axis of MT isin its noems (b) Axis of MT is along Himalayas (0) Depression hes formed over Bay of Qf Breakin monsoon occurs when FG) Axis of monsoon cou (6) Axis of monsoon tron (6) Depression over Bay of Benga. QL. With « depression over she hea {) Assara () W Bengal Q12, Monsoon is atso called (9) NE monsoon} SW monsoon 178 ery doing, monsoon when wl position along Gangetic plains Bengal igh Ts along Gangetic plains ih is along foot hills of Himalayas d Bry fai weather during monsoon occurs over (© Orissa (6) SE monsoon Cunarotogy oF Inola 13. Post monsoon weather period is (©) Mar to May (6) Jun to Sept (€) Oce Dec) Jan t0 Feb Qld, During post monsoon, pressure gradient over India is (a) weak () seep (6) same as winters QIS. During monsnon petiod, low pressure lies over (@) Bay of Bengal (6) NE India) Central India (€) Pakistan QI6. During vigorous orsoon petiod the presure gradient over west coast it (a) Weak (&) Steep (6) Normal QU7. An sireraft fying in Monsoon sesson fom Chennai to Kofkara ac 14 km will ‘experience winds (a) Baseerly (b) Westecly fo Ny (@) Southerly QUB. An airccafe fying in Winter season from Chemai to Kolkara at 12 km will experience winds (a) Ely () Wly (Ny (a Sly QUS. An airccaft fying in Pre monsoon season from Delhi to Kolkata at 10 km will experience winds (0) Easterly (0) Westerly (6) Northerly“ (d) Southerly (20. An aircraft ing in Monsoon season from Mumbai to Ahmedabad at 03 km will experience winds (0) Sly (b) sWly (Ny (a) Nuwly Q21, An altceate ying in winter season ftom Deli co Kolkata ar 06 km will experience winds (a) SEly (by SWly © Ny (NW wy (22, An aircafe lying in winter season from Delhi ro Kolkata at 06 km will experience (a) Port dri: (&) Starboard drift (@) Tail wind) Head wind 23. An siteraft ying in winter season from Kolkata co Nagpur at 02 km wil expericuce : (ah Pore dri (b) Starboard drift (¢) Thil wind (@) Head wind (Q24, Daring break monsoon the pressures all over the country (@) Rise (6) Fall (2 Do not change 119AvlariON MeTtoROLoGY (US. Daring break monsoon sometimes surface winds over East ‘UP and Bikar are (a) very strong (b) weak (2) normal Q26. Mid tropospheric cyclone occurs during (2) Pre monsoon —(b) Winters (© Post monsoon (d) SW monsoon G27, Mid eeopospherie cyclone during monsoon form over 4) Orissa © Punjab (© Gojacat (@) Cheon 28. E| Nino episode is aplied by fishermen (of Etador-and N Per) co a Petiod of reduced fish catch due to suppression of upwelling @) warm surface coastal cureene (©) Why surface coastal current (0 Cold surface coasral current QS. Maximum cyclones occur over India in (2) Pee monsoon —() Winters (€) Post monsoon (4) SW monsoon 230. Tropical Jee steam eccurs in India during @) Pre monsoon (6) Winters (2 Post monsoon (d} SW monsoon (Q5t- Pressure gratiens over Wese Coos of Indi is seep during G) Pre monsoon (6) Winters (0 Pose monsoon (4) SW monsoon QB2. During break in monsoon rain occurs (©) along foor hills (b) NW India (e) § India ANSWERS Qi 2 3 4 $9 pn wp A cod bo a a ¢ © 2 boa be Q 14 15 6 47 4g 19° 200 21 22 23 m4 25 26 Aa boa b bob do a gy a aid QM we» 0 an 9 Ae a eod d a 180 20 GENERAL CIRCULATION ‘Thesucface and upper sit charts show systems like highs, lows, cyclonic citeulation tc., which change position and intensity with time, These systems are associated with distines ypes of weather. The weather changes when these systems affect a locality stady of the behaviour of these systems, known 35 Synoptic Meteorology, is of great importance in weather forecasting ‘These moving systems are components of che large sca, stati of semi-permanent, pressure and wind pattcns over che globe, The knowledge ofthese provide an useful background in Aviation and Synoptic Meteorology. ‘The large scale, static or semi-permanent, pressure and wind patterns on the globe are termed as General Circulation, which is as a result from the following: (@) Energy balance (6) Transport processes Energy Balance, The Earth receives its energy from the sun as incoming short wave radiation and tooses energy through the outgoing long wave radiation, Over the lobe, whenaveraged over a year, he incoming energy nearly balances the outgoing ‘energy. Latiudinally, che average radiation is surplus in the erapics and deficie in the polar regions (where the outgoing radiation is ore than the incoming radiasion, ‘Transport Processes. The surplus an deficit energy in different regions of the globe istanspored and r-distrbuted equally around the eath by she atmospheric winds and oceanic currents, 181AVIATION. MErEoROLOGY ‘Three Cell Model of General Circulation This model represents the average circulation of the atmosphere and describes the atmospheric energy transport, Over the globe the energy balance is described in terms of three cells 25 follows, Hadley Cell ‘The intense incoming solar radiation in the equatorial region heat up the surface and cans ic rorise. The rising ait forms convective clouds and heavy precipitation in the region. This area is called the Inter‘Tropicel Convergence Zone (TTCZ). In this zone NE Trades from the N hemisphere and SE Tiades from $ hemisphere converge, hence che name, ITCZ moves north and south flloiog the sun dating the year. Due to solar heating the heated aie rises up co tropopause and, then stratosphere being stable region can not rise forcher up, instead it moves polewacds. By she time this air reaches about 30 N it becomes a westecly wind due to the Coriolis force: These winds are known as the Zonal Westeties. Because of aie iy, Max (Mercury) thermomeier “Temp. TT) _| Min (Aleoho thermometer Degree Celts °C [> [Dew Pine | Diy & Wer bulb (ereunp [Temp (TéTd) | thermomeress a |Renive 4. Dry & wet bulb thermometer Hunidiy |b, Hygromeres Percentage (4) 3) © Hygrograph (Self recording) 4. Psycheomerer [>| Humidny Mixing Rovio | Hygrogaph eke asin) [6 |Pespiion | 2. Raingauge Rain b.Selteecording rin gauge ‘amt of em & Hyecogeaph [Seow 2. Snowenuge epth, smonne (by _ meking) 204 MED Insraustenrs Bement] Tstromens Used hit of Measure Ino | Br Tsucace Direction in degre fom ‘ Wind 4. Wind Vane (for Dizceion) “eae Nox in elakwise (Ciecdon 8 |b, Anemamerer Speedin kos (KD, Spee) -Anemogroph Selé-ecording) Jf (Cloud Base |. Seach ight fhaser beam 5. Cellometer Csilogreph Feet (f9 or m «. Ceiling Balloon 4. Nephoscope i e. Alidade e AVRA, Tansmissometer or i Scopograph m up 0 1500 | Forward ennecomeer Manually = Visibility Lidaris | mer kin ; H0 [Upper "Winds | a. Qptical Theodolite Direction: in degrees 4 Hiirogen filled Pilot Balloon | Speed: Knoss (KT) «. Radio Wind (RAIN o i fem pec hour (KM, a pet sec (MES) 12 [Upper air Peesmre, | Radio Sonde Heceopascl (hs) Hemp asd Degres Genigrde Hun % i |Ciowds Weather Solltes, RADAR 205i StaON MoDEL MEANING OF SYMBOLS \\_wind Direcion and Speed Cy, Tipe of High Clouds TE Temperarac in? C Cy, Tipe of Medium Clouds 24 TT, Dew Bone Tempszamre in ® C GC, Tipe of Low Clouds YW Visiifiry in Code 90 - 99 N Total Cloud Amonne sw Present Weather ia Symbols Nh Amount of Low/Medium Clouds STATION MODEL W,.W, ase Weather in Symbols hh Height of bate of C, or Cy, PP Sea Level Presse QFE P,P, Presse Change in 24 hy | RRR Rain singe 03 UTC in Code a Pressure Tendency Symbol Pp Pressure Change in 3 he 1/10 of hPa, Average Speod of Ship(kt in 3 he STATION MODELS tty, Duration of Precipitation GG Time of obseevation (full He UTC) Taal Fun Sor TT, Difference n Sea Sunfcetempersure and TT ia °C pad Pin Sion aval Sa 5 : Causal raion ahi 5 Why Hy Height offise Wave well (epee for subsequene waves) Pg, Py, Period of fist Wave in Second (repeated for subsequens waves) a Cw G, MAIN SYMBOLS - ww TT Cy Pre Tr \G PPP TT\ Cy PPP - RA ue RERS w + be ~ Bane we Pitas | Wow PusPae | Wow YO ppa om seems “rox are panna TH GC ww Pan GO wm fa EO wy mevnm , mommase were | ox ree fee y Ben ~ le Ramee Ze RST , RR s ' HH, Bee omy vene gD re OEE tty DEST STORM PLHw < s+ oF 1 3 gomnang . To y X itt 106 ' 207AVIATION MttEoROLOGy STATION MODEL Example: ‘Symbols of Low, Medium and High Clouds as plotted in the Station Model: cs a 8 Be 15 7 sh CLOUDS AND THEIR SYMBOLS ™ Code] Kind of Low |Symbo!] Kind of medium) Symboll Kind of high Symbol] Fig | Clond (CH) Cloud (CM) ‘Cloud (CH) Interpretation of above Staion Models : O Je low stows eee Ne Fit coud ‘Wind Direction and Speed 330/15 Ia ' 1 Jie wescher CU | ca [Thin a5. ZL |ecireas in titaonenes | “Temperature 34° C ‘pe of Low Clouds Facto Siranus 2 |CUof arg vere | ym Ethic AS o NS |e | Demie Cines ~ [Vil Sit tat aor To ms — Anan allow Gage ————| eepmene Dense Cl smmsat | Present Weather Fog Height of base of Low Clouds 100-199 mm , 3 [CB witkowr anvil | GO /AC at single Heel] xr | of dissipated CB Dew Point Temperance 27° G Sea level Proswuee QEF 599.8 hPa fi 4 Beak cowie | gy. [MC sien |g YE coming denser] 7 ‘ype of High Clouds Cr Preware change in 26 by 15 Wa [AC bards roesiey | 2 Tipe of Medium Clouds AS) NS Pas Neath in Symbols Fog. $ | Stesrocumolas ~~ eae mt fe eine Toa! Cloud Amoune 8/8 Rainfall since 03 UTC Trace JST of fic weather | lac resting from yay [CL amd CS 2 ne! pcg of CO” freeiey Pat Wate (WA) W, for igh eater cole and w, for lower wonhen cos IAC with AS or mos of sky God] Oo] 2 3] * [ste] 7 baqs 7 [st of Bad wender | nn [RE Somme | ae “1 LC 0 My ele Vik * VGstd (AE fisher oer, oe Cloud | Cloud | Cloud 9 | vik anvid FB [AC inchaoticsty/ Cy OC Predominare |] 2, ie ne, tharos) | FO | Pe] Ray sw] su] as Tible243 tL Table4.2 C Cloud corstage > 4/8, port of period © Cloud coverage > 48, throughout * Senseo = Fat Die @ tar Lsnow TY shower [7 Moersoem 208 208,AVANION Mertorotocy StanOW Monet ‘Meanings of Codes b, RRR, and VV Symbols for ww h RRR | Rain Amounel] wT Vistitny Clout Base mm Heode 2 code om code 0 Gas) %0 <50 ‘VERY THICK FOG F999 0 tase PST aoe exe aa Foc 2 00499 | sor989] 0309" S200 3KT e.g. 270¥050 + Wind 2 100 KT eg 240100KT is reporced as: 24 0D99KT tb) Vesbiliy is is reported in steps of: 50 m when visibility is 0 to 800 meg. 50, 100, 150, 750, 800 m + 100:m when visibilcy is 800 m to S000 m eg, +1 km when visibility is 5000 m to 9000m eg, + Visibliy is reported as 9999 900, 1000, 1100... 4900, $000 m 6000, 7000, 8000, 9000 km exe when it is 10 km or more (c) RVR: Runway Visual Range observations, for Touch Down Zone, are made when visibility or RVR is < 1500 m, [tis reported in steps of: 25m when RVR is 000 m to 400m 50m when RVR is 400 m t0 800m. 100m when RVR is 800 m to 2000 m RVR 1500 to 200m is eported under RMK and noe dessiminated internationally. (G Cloud base is reported in steps of: 30 m up to 3000 m and 300 m above 3000 m (@) Clouds: For reporting clouds che ‘Terms used are: FEW (1 - 2 Okta), SCT. (3-4 Okta), BRN (5 -7 Okta), OVC (8 Okta) and SKC (clear sky). 218 AVIATION WEATHER REFORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPECI AND TREKD Lowest layers reported regardless of amount (FEW, SCT, BKN or OVC). ‘Next layer reported when clond amoune is 3/8 or more (SCT, BKN or ova. Next layer is reported when cloud amountis 5/8 or more ( BKN or OVC). (i) In addition CB is epored whenever observed. {f) Temperature involving 0.5°C are rounded up to next higher value e.g. + 25°C reported as 3°C and - 2.5°C as MO2°C, (© Pressure is rounded down to the nearest whole hectopascal lower value e.g. QNH 996.6 hPa s reported as QNH 996 hPa. In inches exact valucis reported, (Range of pressure over the world is 0850 hPa - 1100 hPa) (h) Fog (FG) isrepored when visibility is < 1000 m due to water drops or iecrystals or both, except when prefixed by MI, BC, PR or VC. (Mise (BR) is ceported when visibility is 1900 m but not more than 5000 mi. {i) HZ, SA, DU, FU, VA are reparced when visibility is $000 m or less, except $A when specified by DR (Low Drifting). (k) Presenc Weather Drizzle (DZ), Rain (RA), Snow(SN), Snow Grain(SG), Ice Pallet(PE), Ice (IC), Hil (diametre $ aim or more) (GR) Hail diametre <5 msm} (G5), Fog (FG), ‘Mist (BR), Sand (SA), Dust (DU}, Haze (HZ), Smoke (FU), Volcanic Ash (VA), Dust Devil (PO), Squall (5), Fennel Cloud (FC), Dust Storm (DS), Sandstorm (SS), Shower (SH), Thunderstorm (TS), (1) Supplementary Information. Recenc significant weather information is also included in abbreviated plain language e.g. WIND 320/10 KT, WIND AT 60 M 360/25 KT IN APCH OR MOD TURB AND ICE INC IN CLIMOUT, WS RWY 12, (ni) CAVOK, CAVOK signifies Visibility, Cloud Ceiling and Present Weather better than the prescribed values or conditions ( pronounced as KAV-OH-KAY). Itis issued when the following conditions oceue simultaneously: () Visibility 10 km or more, {i) No cloudsbelow 1500 m or below the highest minimum sector altitude, which ever is greater and no cumlonimbus. (ii) No weather of significance. 219AVISTION METEOROLOGY CAVOK replaces information on Visibility, RVR, Present weather and Clouds in METAR. ‘Minimum Sector Altitude ‘The lowest alizade which may be used which will provide a minimum clearance ‘of 300 m (1000 f) above all objects located in the area contained within a sector of a circle of 46km (25NM) radius centezed on a radio aid to Criteria for issue of SPECI navigation, SPECI isissued when any of the following changes tke place from che last report, SPECI for deterioration is reported immediately and for improvement after 10 mines, (a) Surface Wind (Change in wind direction by 2 60° and speed before and ater change is 210k, {il)_ Mean speed has changed by > 10 kr (i) Variation from mean speed by > 10 kr and speed before and after change 21S ke (©) Visibility: When passes (©) RVR changes or passes 800, 1500, 3000 or $000 m. 150m, 350m, 600 or 800 m, (A) esear Weather Onset, cessation or change in intensity of: FZ precipitation, FZEG, MOP ox HVY precipitation, drifting and blowing sno, sand, dst, DS, 7, SS, squall and funnel clouds (tornado ot waterspout), (e) Clouds . ()_ BKN or OVC base at 30, 60, 150, 300, 450 m {] Cloud amount below 450 m changes: From SKC/FEW/ SCT to BEN / OVC From BKN/OVC to SKC/ FEW/ SCT. (0) When sky is obscured and vertca visibility changes or passes 30, 60, 150 or 300 m (100, 200, 300, 1000 fy, where taser ceilomerer is installed, (@) When surface temperature has increased by 2° observation. C or more from the last 20 ASITION WEATHER REPORTS AND CODES OF METAR StfCt ab TREND SPECIAL {n addition othe SPECI, Special Report (in abevited plain language) are issued for Height of Base of Clouds and Visibility in India as follows. These ate passed to ATC ofl for heir local ue and not disseminated beyond the aerodrome ofr 4G) Visibility 2000 oF 4000 m (ii) Cloud base 90 of 120 m, where Ceilograph/Cellometer exist Explanation of various groups of METAR and SPECI code: Code ‘Meanings Coded As METAR or SPECT [Code Name METAR identification lor SPECI JGroups CCC [ICAO location Indicator VIP (Delhi CG gz. Date and cime (UTC) of lesni30z, lobversation \Wind 27010KT_ lz7ot0Kr dddstGimim | aviable 2 XT: IVARBO2KT KT/MPSKMEL [Cale looncoxT face Wind Wind 32020 gusting 45KT: lscoz0casKT Direction and ‘240100KT: |240P99KT peed Direction varying between dada Vexdvals 1170 deg and 050 deg }270v050 Wwbe ‘Min. Visibliy 6000 m in Souk —[oouns VaVieveVxDy | Visibility <1500 in one ection and >S0C0 in other cheas|1400SW-6000E silty — | Or Direction variation Dy N, NE, NW, 000N, Visibility 10 km oF more: ‘9999 cavok CAVOK: ‘caVOK RD,DYV,V,V.¥yi [R- RVR, D,D, - Runway, i+ eendeney of RVR. in ast 10 mia i as N= il as D - decressed, 15 U -inceased JRunvay RVR 1200m, ROY 27, Decreased: |R27/12000 Visnal Rarge | RDDYV,VY,V, RVR >1500m as creased: |RP7PIS00K if avaiable} RVR betow the value assessable RDDLV_V-¥aVei {6g 150m) by the instrament [xavimors 21AVIATION MeTzORaLOGy Cole Meanings Coded as Present ve Heavy Shower + SHRA [Weather Shallow Fog MIG [Clovds NON,N/AR A, [Cloud Amount and Base FEWSCIBKN, ove, 3/8 ac 1550 fe scTo1s lor 1-28 CB sc 2000 fe FEwa20cB 3408 a 10000 fe BRIO fuereal Vis. | vir When Sky is Obscureds will jor Oo ISKC ot NSC | SKC or NSC sky Clear o No Sig. Cloud SKG oe NSC [AiTemmp 8 | TTT) [Temp 2433 G, Dew Paine 42,7 © |2anton [Dew Point Pressire | QP,DP,P, Rounded dows ro whote Number (QNH Or 999.9 hPa 0999 ADP,PaP 30.05 inches (reported as such}: | A308 [Recent Wx | RE ww Recent Rain; Recent TS RERA; RETS [Winde Shear | WS RWPYD,D, or |Wind Shear Runway 09: WwsRWyo9 WS ALL RWY | Wind Shear All Runway. Ws ALLRWY [Sea Surfce | (WT,T, $5) Sea Surface Temp. 19 and Sea | Wiss [Temp & Scace State: Modezate: [me of) (RRLE,C e848, (RIY covered wih So its jRWY ‘depth ecc information) Ace end ofthe repore RMK (Remarks) may be sdded “Table 25.1 TREND FORECAST (LANDING FORECAST) TREND forecastisa statement of expected significant changes in any one or more ‘of the weather elements: surface wind, vistbiliy, weather and clouds. In the TREND 22 AVIATION WEATHER REFORTS aND CODES OF METAR SPECI ant TREND) forecast only those elements are included for which significant change is expected. ‘When 10 significant change is expected to occur itis indicated by the abbreviation NOSIG. "TREND forecasts appended to 2 METAR or SPECI and is valid for TWO hours. Note: In case of significant change (SPECI criteria) in respect of: (@) Clouds, All cloud groups, including cloud groups expected to change and those not expected to change are included in the TREND. (b) _Visibilty. Phenomena causing reduction of vsibiliy is also indicated in the TREND. ‘TREND Code: ‘TIFTT of NOSIG TTGGge ddalfGimimkT/MPS/KMH VVVV or CAVOK wa" or NSW NN, Ny hy hy yor Vifor SKC or NSC (RMR) Explanation of various groups of TREND (Landing Forecast) Change TREND ‘Code Name Group vrrTT TITTTT BECMG(Becoming), TEMPO o (Temporary change of 1 hi o¢ les) (Becoming - gradual and permanent change) NOSIG No Significant Change Tine of | TTGGag ‘TE: FM (From), TL (Unc, AT (A) expected occurrence of GGigg: Time in He and Min eg 0430, 0600 change BECMG FM1230 TL.1300 TEMPO FM0600 Surface Wind 23010KT OR Direction and | dddtiGfnin 27OLOGAOKT,; G for Gusting KTIMPSIKMEL WWW or Visibility 4000 m in Rain and Showers: 4000 RASH ‘cAVOK CAVOK: os in METAR Weather We or FZRAFZEG, Mod to Heavy (RASH), Phenomena | NSW (no sig wx) DS,S5,75,8Q, FC, BLDUISASN 233AMIATION MeTz0ROLOGr ‘Raanion WeartsR RENORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPECI AND TREND ‘Clouds NNN, Ah hy | eg BECMG TL1230 ovCoOs Explanation of hshishs Code: eg BECMG AT1030 OVCOi0 Le x 2 NCO th 0000 Ome OCOD Nest wir ‘When sky obscured: Vip Cole Visbtiy | or sty CodBwem <0 0 0 1 390 2970 SKCorNsC | skCornsc | NSC. NOS ‘Tables Table 25.2 ‘Not: TEMPO change ass for lessthan one hove and the aggregate of such Tepested changes Exampk of SPECI: i ess than hal the period indicated by Gocaee * Sopct ibe 23130023001 5625KT 270VER0200NW ONS RI7EAS00 SHE BECMG (Becoming) iss gradual permanent change, starsat. UTC and complets FEW020 FEWO25CB SCT100 BKN250 34/27 Qi004 RERA WS at aw UTC. Interpretation: W’W Significant Present and Forecast Weather: SPECI VIDP Aviation Selected Speciat weather Report for Palam alr apron cipiion | ObarNion 7 (New Delhi) r eh ae eae aay 2303007 for 23cd day of 300 UTC seh wallow | DZ Drizzle [aR Mine ro Da sooIscesKT Surlse Wind 300/15 KF gang 35 KF Moderate BCParches | RARain |p Fog (cust desi z7ovonn Fae eee ooo odm in the [mo quatier) —lndam 1200NW 60005 Visibifry 1200 m in NW dizeetion and 6000m in Jorge) SN Snow FUSmoke —— |5Q Squall South fhan 1500 Ltn, (el Pa 5 Snow Gin fin he 2771500 Runway Visual Range for RAV 27 mote than 100m: Jdustisand whiel, | coverage) " = Ash mee Gone +SHRA ‘Weather ~ Heavy shower and Rain. i348 at lust devi, funnel |DR IC lee Crysals, (Toenado FEWO2)FEWO25CB Clouds 1-2/8 at 2000 fr, 1-2/8 CB at 2500 fe, tous Low Drifting | Diamond dust’ [DUWidespread | or SCT100 BKN250 10,000 fe and 5-718 025,000 fe Dust | Weter Spout) 3407 ‘Temperacure 34° C and Dew Point 27° C Lecce BL Blowing | toe Paes aioe QNH 1004 hPa Minty ISH Shower [GR Hail [sa sand | Sandstor ERA Recent Rain lnorstsaien |S on Ws RUY27 Wind Shear Warning for RAW 27 Jbut within & ko Thunderstorm | GS Small Hail HZ Haze DS Duststorm FZ Freesing Example of TREND: Note: FZ (spec cooled water doples or 00 Drecipiration) is used only with RA and DZ; ‘TEMPO FM0830 TL090024025G45KT 2000 RATS FEW020 FEWCBO25 SCT11 DR is used with DUSA, of SN cased by wind to < 2 ten We , BKN2S00 BECMG FM0930 27005KT 6000 NSW. BL is used with DU,SA or SN cased by wind to > 2 my " ML BC atd PR are wed with FG only. BCEG, IFO PREG TREND foe: Fron0890UTC Uni 900 UTCSre Wid 24025 KT Gasing Table25.3 to 4SKT Visibiliey 200m in Rain and Thunder Shower, Clouds 1-2/8 at . 24 25AVIATION METEOROLOGY 1-48 CB ar 2500 f,3-4/8 at10000 ft, 5-718 at 25,000 ft, Becoming from 0830 urc, ‘Wind 270/05 KT Visibility 6000 m and No Significant weather. Examples of METAR with appended TREND: METAR VIAM 2115002 33010KT 6000 FEWo4 FEWOSOCB 29/25 Quo04 NOSIG = METAR VEGK 16002 01 1004 NosIG METAR VIJO 12307 24015G28KT O00OKT 6000 LT FEWO10 FEWo20CB sCro2s 24/29 P301SKT 5000 SA SKC 37/18 QuoO4 TEMPO 1314 METAR VIAS 13002 25015KT 2500 HZ SKC 39/19 Qu001 BECMG AT1400 25015G30KT 2000 = METAR VABB 02102 00000KT 3000 HZ SCTo15 24/22.Q1011 TEMPO TLO310 1400BR, Examples of METAR and SPECI for various Weather elements with tcond 1. Surface wind ‘METAR VIDP 09002 23015KT 8000 SCTOLS FEWo20CB SCT10032/18 Qi010 BECMG M0930 28025G35KT SPECI VIDP 09457,27025G40KT 0800 TSSH SCTO10 SCTO2OCR BKN100-28/ 24 Q1012 BECMG FM1130 27010KT 8000 FEWO25 2. Visibiy METAR VAPO 0130Z 00000KT 6000 SCTO15 26/24 1008 TEMPO TLo300 2000 BR SPECI VAPO 02252 15005KT 4000 HZ SCTO25.27/24 1008 BECMG AT 0300 2000BR 3. Present weather SPECI VABB 0845Z,32015KT 3000 TSRA SCTO15 SCro20CB BKNI20 26/25, QU016 BECMG FM1000 NSW 4. Clouds METAR VOMM 03402, 30005KT 6000 BKNO12 OVC100 24/21 Quo0s TEMPO. RA BKNO08 OVC 100 226 AVIATION LEATHER REPORTS AND CODES OF METAR SoEct AND TREND SPECI VOTY 04002.30005KT 6000 -RA BKNOO8 OVC100 24/22 Q1008 TEMPO 4000 + RA International Station Code Names are at Appendix L QUESTIONS ON AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS METAR SPECI AND TREND aR FEWO20 ‘METAR VIDP 1602302.30005KT 290050 1500S S000N R1S/P!1500UBI FEWO25CBSCT120 BKN300 32/29 Q1003 REFG TEMPO FM0330 22015G25KT. 3000 + TSRA FEN?010 SCTO25CB BKN150 BECMG ATO415 27008KT CAVOK= QL. The METAR has been issued 09 nasa. day a) 1st (0) 16h, @ i7h 2. The METAR has been issued at 8 (@) 0630 BT (hy O230UTC——@) 0230 IST 3. The surface wind speed is 8 @) 26 ke (b) 3-7 ke 046 ke M4. Wind dlrewion is varying feons Oy Boe tbe (8) 050 «0 290° (4200 to 050° QS. Visibiligy 1500 m is towards aN ys (6 All over the sipoce 6. Visibility cowards N is ° (@) 1500m (6) 5000 m (9 3000 m 7. Height of base of low clouds above station fevel is @) 2000 m ) 2500 fe (9 2500 im 8. Ranveay Visual range is ° (@) 1500 m1 (0) >1500.m (9) < 1500 m 9. Runway Visual ange has ; OF Detect") ineaed Rend ne QUO. The poor si due to the Present weather, which is (a) Fog (b) Brown Dust {q) Mist 27AVIATION MetEoROLOGY QU. Amount of lowest cloud is A228 () 2-48 (5-78 QU2 Amoune of CB cloud is Qa 248 (9 5.718 QI. Height of base of CB is (a) 2500 m {b) 3000 fr (6 2500 QUA. The heighe of topmost layer of cloud is (@) 3000 m = .4).30000 m ——(¢) 30000 fe US, The landing forecast appended :o any METAR is valid fo (@) the (b) 2he (3 he ° QU6. The wind in TREND from 0330 UTC is valid up to {0400 () 0430 (2 04s U7. Expected visibility after 0425 UTC is (2) 6000 m + (b) 10 km (92 10 kn QUE, The group Q1003 in the METAR indicates f@) QFE (6) QEF (9 QNH QU9. The difference between TT and iis ‘TATA is 3° C. The etme i (a) Very Dey (b) Moist © Seared ie Q20. Just before the METAR was issued the weather was (@) Rain © Mise “(0 Fog Q2L. The range of press. tre reported is G@) 1002.5 to 1003.5 hPa mans (b) 1003.0 ro 1003.9 hPa {c) 1003.1 to 1003.5 hPa Q22. The range of temperature ey are Feported as 32 is (a) 3s to 324° C () 32.1 co 324°C (©) 315 to 324°C Genoral Questions on METAR and SPECT 3. Visibility is reported in steps of $0 m when visi (4) 00 m 10 $000 m 6) Oe 50 ee iy is 0 ro 800 m (©) $000 m to 10 km 228 a AvisTION WEATHER REFORTS AND CoDsS OF METAR SPECI AND TrewD (QUA, Visibility is reported in steps of 100 m shen vsibiliy is {2} 800 m to 5000 m {b) 0 to 800 m &) 5000 m to 10 km 025. Visiblity is reported in steps of 1000 mm when visibility is {@) 890 m to $000 m (o) 0 10 800 m (€) S00 m ro 9999 Q26. Visibilny is ceported 9999 when visibly Is {) 800 m to $000 m {b) 9200 ro 9999 in {6),10 km or more U7, Temperature + 2.5°C is reported as (a 4C @) °C (9.25 QE. Temperate ~ 125°C is reported as 12 -B Mn Q29, Presse is rounded down to the nearest whole sumber in heetopaseal (@) exace value (b) upper value (6) lower value 030, QNH 1002.6 hPa is eeported as @) 1002 (oQ1003 to Qu002.6 31. QNH 29.92 inches is reported as (@) 92900 (& Anse (@ A 3000 (Q32. Fog is reported when visibly is G@)< 100m — (6) 1000 m (© > 1000 m QQ3. Min is reported when visibility is {@) € 1000 m co 2000m (b) 1000 go 5000m (e) >1000 m Q34, CAVOK signifies Visbilty, Cloud son and present weather bertr chan the presctibed values or conditions (a) ceiling (b) base (2 amount QBS. CAVOK iis issued when visibiiry is G@) 9-10 km (8). 10 km or more {c) 10 km: only QB6. CAVOK is issued when {i} Visbility 10 km or more (ii) No weather of significance. 4iil)No clouds below 1500 m or below the highest minimum seeror altiude, ‘which ever is greater and no cansulonimbos. . {a) Any one condition (b) Any ovo conditions (c) All the three conditions 29AVATION MatzoxoLooy 87, SPECT is issued when (i) Change in wind dicecton is» €0® and speed before and after change ® 10 kr, (Gi) Mean speed has changed by > 10 kr Si) acon from mean speed by 210 kr and speed before andl after change 2 15 ke @) Any «wo conditions (b) Any ose condition (88. SPECK is issued when Clouds ate {BRN or OVC base at 30, 60, 150, 300, 450 m (i) Cloud amount below 450 m changes: From SKC! FEW/ SCT to BKN J OVC OR From BKNY OVC to SREY FENW? Scr. {9 Any une condition (b) Any two condtions (cA the above conditions (QB9. SPECT is issued for vertical vi obscured ) True () Fale 240. SPECT issued! when surface temperarice has increased by. the lost observacion. ware marc QU. WSRWY28 indicates thot che (@) cake off path (6) a (OAM the theee conditions ‘sly, by stations having Ceilogeaph, when sy is oF mote fromm ere Wind shear has been reporced for ROW 28 in weroach path (€) both tke off and approach paths (42, R26/MO1SO in 2 METAR indicates chat (@) maximum RVR is 150 m . 4) minimum RVR is 150m (©) 150 mis the loves RVR iescaument can measure and RVR i 150 m ANSWERS oto 2 3 4 5 6 7 5g 4 ou a2 a3 ah eb a kb ba ng aoa QS 6 ey moo pb Bom as 26 Ac bo ce ec © boc boa eg 27 B82 2 ow ey 3738 39 Abe ea et © ob a a Q 4 4 42 Ac ee 230 26 AVIATION WEATHER FORECASTS (CODES OF AERODROME FORECAST, AREA FORECAST AND ROUTE FORECAST) 1 AERODROME FORECAST (TAR) ‘Code Form: TAF cece WGGe2 ¥,Y,6,6,0,7,6,6, ddd (GE f,KTEMFUMPS YW or CAVOK Ww or SSW NNN, or WH oF SKC of NSC PROB CC, Goce, TITIT GoGG, ORT I, G,GZ TNT! 66,2) o THGCgg ‘Meaning of retms used are similar co those of METAR except for: "TAF is the name of the code for an Aerodrome Forecast. TAF are valid foraleas 9 he anda maximum of 30 hr, TAF valid for 9 r are issued every 3 hr and of 2 +30 he validijevery 6 hy, commencing ar 0000 UTC. 9 hr TAF isnot tsenina internationally buc used for domestic flights and in VOLMET broadcast. BIAVIATION METEOROLOGY YNGG%Y,6,6, Vlid on dae Y,Y rom time GG, t0 date ¥,Y,simeG,G, UTC For example: 1200/1306 (TAPvalid from day12 time 0000 today13 time 0600 UTC} V6Q6/1615 CTAF valid on day 16 time 0600 to time 0600 UTC). PROD CC; Probability of occurrence 30% ot 4095 : PROB3O or PROBAD TIGGIYG.G, Change likly ro occur benween tnings GG and GG, (0808/1812 indiates change on 18th berseen 00900 and 1500 UTC), (IXT,T,IG,G,Z TNTT,/G,G,Z) Maximum temperature (TXT,T,) and minimum obetarares (INT, to occur atthe time G,G, TX42 /10Z (Max temperature 42°C a 10002) TNOS / 012 (Min temperature 05° C at 01007). ‘Amended TAF is idemtified by TAE AMD Jnhe TAFsthe date and time of isu of TAF included afer CCCC group, Lets 7 isan indicator for tne of issu in UTC and KT for wind speed. Example TAP VECC 102002 1100/1109 o9012KT 2500 BR FEWO40SCT150 BECMG 0204 1601SKT. 6000 TEMPO 1107/1109 FEWO30CB = Interpretation: TAR AERODROME FORECAST vecc FORKOLKATA 1021002 ISSUED ON 10" Day AT 2100UTC, ‘L1G009, VALID FOR 117" Day. FROM 0000 TO 0900 UTC 09012KT SURFACE WIND 09012 KT 2500 BR VISIBILITY 2500 m DUE TO MST FEWO40SCT150 CLOUDS 1-2/8 AT 4000 FT, 3-4/8 AT 15000 FT. BECMG 0204 BECOMING FROM 0200 TILL. 0400 UTC 1601SKT 6000 SURFACE WIND 160/15 KT, VISIBILITY £000 m TEMPO 0709 ‘TEMPORARILY FROM 0700 TILL 0900 UTC FEW 030CB 1-2/8 CB AT 3000 FT m2 TARVILK 0621002 07000709 27005Kr 0500 FG TEMPO 0304408 3s010c25Kr 1500 DU FEWO40 BECMG FaMogoo FEWwo30CB = TAF VOHS 0309002 0312/0418 o7o10Kr 5000 HZ. NSC TEMPO o4g0/0403 1500 BRFEW020 SCT200 BECMG 0405/0406 o9010KT 6000 scro20 $€T200 BECMG 0415/0416 o900SKT 3000 HZNsc= TAP VABB 2512002 2515/2524 o700sKT 6000 SCTo15 SCTO20 BKN100 TEMPO 1: 2545/2518 4000 -TSRA'RA SCTO15 FEWO20CR OVCo80 BECMC: 00000KT 4000 Hz= MG 25 16/2817 TAF VID? 0309002 0512/0418 VRBOSKT 3000 HZ NSC BECMG 0316/0318 20000KT 1500 BR BECMC o400/0402.0800 FG BECMG 0403/0404 vRBOsKT 1000BR FeW020 BECMG n4a4jo496 33005KT 3000 HZ BECMG osog/o410 4000 HZ NSc BECMG 041270414 vRBoaKT 3000 HZ BECMG = TAP VEV2 2506007, 2509/2518 12010KT 5 BECMG 2516/2517 VRBOSKT 4000 H2= (000 2. FEWO18 SCT250 PROBSO 2624 3000 SCTO9g SCTO12 BKNOSO= 233AVIATION MeTtoRoLocy ‘TAF VOCI 251500Z 2518/2624 ODO0OKT 3000 HZ SCT012 FEWOLSCB BKN100 TEMPO 2600/2603 1500 RABR SCT010 FEWO25CB OVCO80 BECMG 2604/2605 27010KY 6000 TEMPO 2610/2615 2000 TSRA SCTO12 FEW025CB BKNO90 BECMG 2615/2616 QO00OKT 3000 HZ= TAF VOCL 1415002 1418/1524 00000KT DZ/HZ SCTOLS FEWO25CB BKNO80 ‘TEMPO 1421/1503 1500 RA/BR SCTO10SCTO15 FEWO25CB OVCO80 BECMG 1505/1506 07005KT 7000 TEMPO 1508/1515 2000 TSRA SCTO08 FEWO25CB BKN080 BECMG 1516/1517 O000OKT 4000 HZ = QUESTIONS ON TAF TAF VILK 2418002 2500/2509 09008KT 0800 FG BECMG 2504/2505 0901SKT 6000 SCT008 BKN120 TEMPO 2506/2508 12015G30KT 3000 TSRA FEWO12 FEW025CB BKN100 BECMG AT 25/0800 09010KT 7000 FEW030 SCT120 BKN280 = QL, The TAP has been issued of cea day @) 23rd ) 18h (9 24h QR. The TAF has been isued at @ 2330 1ST) 1830 UTC 24 UTC QB. The expected surface wind speed is (9) 09 ke ©) 06 ke (6) 08 ke QU. Initially expected wind direction is () 120° (6) 0902 (a 050" Q5. TAF is Valid for Date (8) 23rd () 24th (9 2h Q6. Lowest forecast visibility in TAP is (@) 150m (6) 0800 m (9 0200 m QZ. Height of base of lowese clouds in TAF is &) 1000 m (6) 1000 fe (0 0800 fe QS. Weather TSRA is expected after (0600 UTC) 0600 IST 800 UTC 234 AvaTION Weartien FoRscasts 9. Dicecton of gusty wind is (a) 090° (b) 100° to 120° QUO. Expected weather up to 25/0400UTC is (a) Fog (b) TSRA (9 Mist QU. Amount of lowest cloud is (@ 128 (b) 3-4/8 @ 5-78 Q12. Amount of CB clond is @ 128 (b) 2.4/8 (0 5-78 QU3, Height of base of CB is (@) 2500 fe (b) 3000 m (9 2500 m Q14, The height of topmost layer of cloud is (@) 2800 m (8) 28000 mm () 28000 fe QUS. Reriod of validity of TAF is {@) 23 cc 00 IST (b) 00 t0 09 UTC () 20 v0 12 UTC ANSWERS Qi 2 4 5 6 7 8 © oR Aca b boc a a aoa Qos Ac ob 235i i AVIATION METEOROLOGY 2. AREA FORECAST FOR AVIATION (ARFOR) 'ARFOR: Ik is the name of the code for an Aviation Forecast in figure code for a specific Area, SECTION 1 ARFOR —(YYGGagZ)Y4,6,6,6,6, IKMH oc KT or MES] AAAMA ow) (WCChhor Wil or SKC or NSC) ThARBAN, —STBAN SBbyhghys GOAT, Qk) HLT, 7) SECTION 2 (111 QLLLE, ff) SECTION 3 (22222, Bh 6, (2.4, VY) SECTION 4 —Siginn Explanation of terms: + |AAAA~ Description of area in plain langoage, eg. VECC AND SO NM AROUND. WWW - Forecast visibility ¢p 6000 (9. CChyh.h,or Wl or SKC or NSC) Cloud Group eg 2/8 ACat 10000fe reporsed as 2AC100 Criteria of reporting clouds: 18 Group: The lowest layer (N, 18 oF more) 2 Group: The next higher layer (8, 38 or moxe) 344 Group: The nexe higher layer AN, 5/8 or more) In addition CB if not already included Tobby, 7 Indicator for altitude bh Alritude of cloud layer hy, Altieude of Freezing Level . Siabhs, 6 Indicator for Icing, 1, Type of icing, hfe -Alsinude of fecings 1, - ‘Thickness SB 5 Indicator for Turbulence ahyh,bT,T, 4 Indicator for Wind and Temperature hy, hy, 1,1, 2 Indicator for Teopopause level pressure and remperatare 236 AvATION Weavitk FORecasts 8 | pe of Turbulence |, Type of Icing W,W,W, {Reported as 0 [Ni oli THY [Thunderstorm 15) 1 [Ligke {Lies 222 | Tropieal eyelone(TRS} 2 | Moderate CAT OCNL2|Light Icing in Cloud 333 Severe Line Squall (LSQ) 3 {Moderate CAT [3 [Lighe Ting in fase [eit HAN) Frequent Predpiaton 4 [Moderate in Cloud [4] ModersteTeing [585 | Marked Mounrin Occasional Waves ATI) [5 [Moderate in Cloud [5Fraderac Icing in [666 | Widespread Fequent Cloud Sandconin SAND} 6 |sewere CAT OGNL [6 |ModsraeIengin 777 | Widespread Oecasional Pccipcation Dossrorm (DUST) 7 [Serece CAT FREQ [7 [Severe lang 355 _[ Freeing Rain 2A) § [Severe in Cloud 8 [Severe Icing in Cloud “ OOK Severe oul FREQ Seve Ting fr Precip Code Figoes and their Measings for Turbulence eng and W,W2W, Table26.2 Examy ARFCR VIDP 091400 AREA FCST UPTO FL460 VALID 100000 FOR AREA ‘28N72E 30N80E 20N90E 1 SN7SE 28N72E SYNOPSIS TC CENTRED 23N74E AT 0300UTC MOV NW 20KT INTSF= Interpetation ARFOR VIDP AREA FORECAST ISSUED BY DELHI PALAM 0914€OUPTOFL460 ON O9TH DAY AT 1400 UTC AREA FCST UPTO FL460 100000, VALID ON 10TH DAY FROM 0000 UTC TO NEXT DAY 0000 UTC FOR AREA 28N72E 30NSOE 20NDOE 15N75E 28N72E SYNCPSIS ‘TC CENTRED AT 23N 74E AT 0300UTC. “MOVE, INTSE MOVE NW, SPBED 20 KT, AND INTENSIFY 237AvisTION MiTEOROLOGY 28 Weather Symbols Used in Forecasts OH | Widespread Haze Widespread Blowing Snow TiC | Widespread Smoke @ | Freeing Precipitation = | Widespread Mist Vp Thamaerstom Widespread Fog & | Tropical Gyclone Freeing Fog Severe Line xe | squat | Towre Sandor Dust Hoze A_ | Moderate Turbulence Widespread Duststorm oF AL [severe Sandstorm, Turbulence Draale 980 hPa G4t0 BS kts 410 $ feet 2 (Moderate) 965 c097PhPa F109 kts to B Leer 3 (Extensive) 945 10.964hPa 97 to 113 kts 9 t0 12 feer 4 (Extreme) 92010 944 HPa—t14c0 135 kts 13 to 18 feet 5 (Catastrophic) < 920 hPa > BS kes > 18 feet ‘T Classification of Cyclonic Storms Cyclonic Disturbance LD DD cs SCS SCS suse TCL Number TLS 20 TRS 13.0 TBS T4060 165-8.0 276 Appendix -L INTERNATIONAL STATION CODE NAME Agartala EAT Jama vu Agra VIAG Jodhpur VIJO Ahmedabad VAAH Khajuraho VAKY Allahabad VIAL, Kochi vor Amritsar VIAR Kolkata ECC Aurangabad VAAU Kerhikode — VOCL Bangilore — VOBL Leh VILH Baroda ABO Lucknow -VILK Bhopal VABP Madurai VOMD ‘Bhubaneswar EBS Male VRMM Bhuj-Rudea —VABy ‘Mohanbai — VEMN ‘Chandigarh VICG Mumbai VABB Chennai YOMM ‘Nagpur VANP Coimbatore OCB Patna ‘VEPT Colombo ——-VCBL Pune varo Delhi vipe Ranchi VERG Gauhati ‘VEGT Siliguri, EBD Goa VAGO, SriNager VISR. Gorakhpur VEGK Hyderabad © VOHS ‘ipo vp a7Appendis-M Miscellaneous Terms ‘Teems for Spatial distribution of Rainfalt Most places 76-100% Many Places 51-75% Ata Few Places 26-50% Maioly dey Very light rain Dry No tain Part of the Day Early hours 0000 - 0400 hes. IST Morning 0400 = 0800 hrs. IST Forenoon 0800 ~ 1200 hrs. IST Afternoon 1200 ~ 1600 lars. IST Evening 1600 ~ 2000 hes. IST Night 2000-2400 hrs. 1ST Description of CBYTS in Forecasts Isolated (ISOL} Individual feérure which affects less than $0% area Occasional (OCNL) + Wellseparated facies which covet 50-750 ofacea Frequent (FREQ): Area of‘TS/CB withltte or noseparation between adjacent cells, wish coverage of more than 75% area 278 Appendix -N- Meteorological Seales ‘The weather producing systems can be expressed in the scales of time (hours and days) and space (in km and areas covered). These are : Microscale. Thenomena of 1 km ot les, e., Individual TS, clouds, local turbulence, ere ‘Mesoscale. Mesoscale systems range horizontally from $ to S00 km and have lifetime of a day or les. Por example ‘TS, squall lines, fronts, precipitation bands in tropical and excratropical cyclones, mountain waves and land && sea breezes. Synoptic Seale. Synoptic scale generally coves large area, e-, extratropical eyclones, troughs and ridges, frontal zones, and jet streams Global Scale. Global scale metcorology is study of weather patterns related to che franspore of heat from the tropics co the poles. Also, very large scale oscillations are of importance, Those osilations have rime petiods typically longer than a full annual seasonal cycle, such as ENSO, ITCZ, Rossby Waves et. Meteorological Sub-Divisions of India ‘Northwest India : Jammu &Kashmir(J&K), Himanchal Pradesh. (HP), Punjab, Haryana , Delhi, Bast & West Uttar Pradesh (UP), Rajasthan, Uttaralchand East India : Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal (WB) and Sikkim ‘NouthesstIndi: Arunachal Pradesh; Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tipura Assam, Meghalaya ‘South India: Tamil Nadu (TN), Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar ‘Mest India : Konkan &¢ Goa, Madhya Maharashtra, Marathawada, Gujarat, Snucashera & Kucch Cental Indic: Madhya Radesh (MP), Chhawtsgarh, Vidarbha my280 Abb:eviations ‘CAO, 262 Weather Bulletins, 260 Adicbaie/ Isothermal Process, 85 Air (2 Air Masses, 125 AIRER, 190. Albedo, 31 Alion/D Value 15 Altimeter, 17 Altiyetry QNH,QFE,QNH,QNE, 18 Anatatic, Karabatic Winds, 54 Anerometer, Anemograph, 45 Antigylone, High, 21 Anvi: Cloud, Faise Citrus, 113 ARFOR, 231 Artificial Rain Making, 102 Atmesphere, 1-11 Composion, 1 Hemosphere, Hetrosphere,2 84,7 Iss Mesosphere, 6 Stratosphere, 6 ‘Thermosphere Tropospherc, 4 INDEX Atmospheric Electricity, 97 Aurora Austcaliy Borealis, 96.97 Aviation Weather Forecasts ARFOR, 191, 236 AIRMET, 193 Flight Forecast, 250, GAMET, 193 Locaf, 192 ROFOR, 192 ROBEX, 194 SIGMET, 192 TAR, 191 TREND, 223, ‘YOLMET, 194 WINTEM, 191 Aviation Weather Reports METAR, SPECI, SPECIAL, 109, 217 Copar, 191 RARER, 244 ATIS, 194 AVRA, 68 Backing, 46 BECMG, 224 BKN, 80 Baromecer, 15 Barograph, 204 281Ball Lightning, 98 Beaufort Scale, 59 Bishops Ring ,95 Bora, 59 Breeze, 55 Buys Ballots Law, 46 AT, 143 CAVOK, 219 Ceilometer, 205 Chinook Wind, 60 Clouds, 75 Alticude of, 79 Amount, Ceiling, 80 Anvil Clond, 113 Burst, 102 Condensation Tails, 82 Echoes ~ Radar, 200 Low, Medium, High, 77 Necreous! Mother of Pearl, 78 Noctucent, 78 Vesticaly Developing, 78 Roll Clonds, 113 Rotor Clouds, 146, 147 Seeding of Clouds, 102 Shelf Clouds, 113 Species, 81 CODAR, 191 Condensation, 28 Conditional Instabiiry, 87 Conduction, 28 Condensation Trails, $1 Contour, 16 Convection, 28, 74 Convergence, 74 Coriolis Force, 47 Corona ~ Oprical, 94 Iwosx Cyclonic Storm, 154, 155 Frequency, 159 Density, 3639 Density Alriude, 36 Dew Poin, 41 Divergence, 75 Down Burst, 117 Dol-Drums, 60 DALR, SALR, ELR, 86 Dust Devit, 121 Dost Storm, 119 Easterly Waves, 151 EL Nino ~ Southern Oscillation, 173 Equatorial Trough, 151 Evaporation, 28 Eye, Eye wall, 157 FEW 80 Flash Floods, 102 Fohn Wind, 53 Fog, 70, 219 Forecast, 191 “Now casting, 191 Short Range Forecast, 191 FREQ 279 Friction, Effect on Surface Wind, 51 Layes, 54 Froncs, 127-131 Frontogencsis, 128 Frontolysi, 128 Farions Fifties, Crying Sixties, 60 Fujita Damage Scale “Tornado, 121 Goneral Circulation, 181 Glory, 96 282 Green House Effect, 30 Green House Gasss, 3 Gust Front, 113 Haboob, 60 Hadley Cell, 182 Hail, 116 Harmattan, 60 Halo (Optical), 94 Heat, Latent, Specific, 27 ‘Hear Transfer, Conduction, Convection, Radiation, 28 Horse Latiaade, 184 Homidiry, 40 Huridicy Mixing Ratio, 41 Hurricane, 156 Hyetograph, 204 Hygcomerer, Hygeegraph 41 lee Accretion (icing), 105 lee Crystal Theory, 100 Jncttial Wind, 50 International Standard Atmosphere, 7 International Sta Code Name, 226, aw Itc, 150 Taseabilgy, 86-88 Inversion, 5, 86 Irisation, 96 Jsallobas, 17 SOL , 279 Ibolines 265 Jee Steeams, 136 Inore Causes, 140 Core, Streaks, 136 Subiropieal, 139 ‘Tropical, 139 Jet Standard Atmosphere, # Katabatic wind, 54 Low, 21 Depression, Cyclone, 154 Lightning, 97 Macroburst , Microburst, 117 Mesoscale Convective Complex, 111 Mesoscale Systems, 111 ‘Mex Scales, 22, 280 Mid ‘Tropospheric Cyclone, 172 ‘Mintrs, Mexeca, Drytea Levels, 82 Mirages, 95 Micellaneous Terms RFF, Parts of Day, BITS Forecast, 279 Mise 66, 219 Mistral, 60 ‘Monsoon, 165 Break, ‘Trough, 172 ! ‘Monsoon Depression, 154 ‘MountainWave, 145 Mule Cell, 111 Nephoscope, 205 Normand Theorem, 90 Northern Lights, 97 Notification, 189 Now Casting, 191 283Occluded Front, 130 OCNL, 279 OVE - Overcasr, 80 Pilot Balloon, 205 Precipitation, 100 Ice Crystal Theory, 100 Coalescence Theory, 101 Giant Nucleus Theory, 101 from Clouds, 101 Pressure, 12, Aleimade, 12,417 Semi Diurnal Variation, 14 Gradienc of Pressure, 16 Tendency, 17 woe Severe TS 114 Shea Line, 153 Short Waves, 29 Sheet Lightning, 98, Single Cell, 111 SaffirSimpson Scale, 160 SKC ~ Sky clear, 80 Sect, 102, Southern Lights, 97 Squall, 46 Squall ine, 133 Suabilty?Instabilcy, 85 Station Model, 206 Scandard Isobarie Levels, 19 Stefan Bolamann Lov, 29 Pressure Patterns 1, H, Trough, Ridge, Sublimation, 100 Col 21,22 Radar, 198, 200 Echoss, 200 Radiation Laws of, 29 Nocrurnal, Terrestrial, Solar, 30 IR, UY, Visible, 30 Radiosonde, 205 RAFC, 189 Rainbows, 93 + Raingauge, 204 RAWIN, 45 Relative Humidiry, 41 Roaring Forties, 60 Route Winds in India, 177 Ssine Elmo's Fire, 98 Satelices, 201 Scales of Met, 280 SCT ~ Scattered, 80 Seasons, 164 Sensible Heat, 4 Subsidence, 76 Subtcopical High, 182 Super Cell, m1 Super Cyelone, 154 Sacge, 153 Synoptic Scale Systems, 111 Temperatuze, 26 « Diucnat Variation, 31 ‘Teams Miceliancousi RUF 102, Parts of Day, CB/TS Forecast 279 Thermal Eddies, §2 ‘Theemosphere, 7 Thunder Bok, 97 ‘Thunderstorm, 110 Hazards, 114 Life Cyele, 111 Lightning Super Cell, 113 Tornado, 120 ‘Tphigcam, 89 Trade Wind, 60 284 Transition Alsitude, Level, Layer, 17 Teansmissometer, 68 ‘Tropical Cyclones, 155 Tropopause, $ “Troposphere, 4 Troughs In Weseerlies, 132 1 Easterlies, 151 ‘Tornado, Fujita Damage Scale, 121 T Scale Cyclones, 160 Turbulence, 51,52 ‘Twilight Colours, 96 Veering, 46 Ving 117 Visi, 65 Causes of, 66 RVR, 66 Vooriciny, 5B Warm and Cold Advection, 58 Warerspout, 121 ‘Weather Chars Synoptic, 257, 267 Upper Air, 268 +270 Contour, 270 Prognostic, 272 Wind, 44 woes Anemometer, Anemograph, 45Backing, Veering, 46 Effect of Friction, 51 Forces causing wind, 47 Wind Cross, 45 Cyclostrophic, 50 Cale, 46 Geostrophic, 48 Gradient, 50 Gust, Lull, 45 Kerabatic/Anabatic, $4 Inertial, 50 Isailobaric, $0 Seafland breeze, 55 Shear, 53 Squall, 46 Surface, 47 Thermal, 56 Vane, 45 WAFC,WARS, 188 Warning Aerodrome, 193 Wind shear 193 ‘Western Disturbances, 132 ‘Wer Bulb Temperaruze ,41 WMO, WW, 188 285Y REFERENCES India Meteorological Department Publications Froccasting Manual Part 1 Climatology of India and Neighbourhood By YP Rao and KS Ramamuery Froeeasting Manoa act IM Winter ~ Westerly Jetsreams and Troughs in Upper Wescerlies By George Alexander and Srinivasan Meceorological Services for Air Navigation Aviation Weather Codes 2004 Surface Weather Code ‘Monsoons By PK Das Climatological Alas for Airmen Meteorology for Airmen ICAO Publications ‘Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation ‘Meteorological Services for International Ait Navigation WMO Publications ‘Technical Notes Manuals Compendium on Mereorology International Cloud Atlas 286