Balinese Art

IGNCA Conference

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Contents
Articles
Balinese art 1
Majapahit 10
Ubud 26
Batuan, Bali 29
Mas, Indonesia 35
Kamasan 35
Wayang 35
Natural dye 42
Sanur 53
Pointillism 53
Brahman 56
I Nyoman Ngendon 66
Ida Bagus Made Togog 67
Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai 68
Miguel Covarrubias 69
Arie Smit 72
Penestanan 74
I Ketut Soki 75
Tropenmuseum 76
Puri Lukisan Museum 79
Museum Rudana 83

References
Article Sources and Contributors 86
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 88

Article Licenses
License 90
Balinese art 1

Balinese art
Balinese art is art of Hindu-Javanese origin that grew
from the work of artisans of the Majapahit Kingdom,
with their expansion to Bali in the late 13th century.
From the sixteenth until the twentieth centuries, the
village of Kamasan, Klungkung (East Bali), was the
centre of classical Balinese art. During the first part of
the twentieth century, new varieties of Balinese art
developed. Since the late twentieth century, Ubud and
its neighboring villages established a reputation as the
center of Balinese art. Ubud and Batuan are known for
their paintings, Mas for their woodcarvings, Celuk for
Balinese stone carvings, Ubud.
gold and silver smiths, and Batubulan for their stone
carvings. Covarrubias[1] describes Balinese art as, "... a
highly developed, although informal Baroque folk art that combines the peasant liveliness with the refinement of
classicism of Hinduistic Java, but free of the conservative prejudice and with a new vitality fired by the exuberance
of the demonic spirit of the tropical primitive". Eiseman correctly pointed out that Balinese art is actually carved,
painted, woven, and prepared into objects intended for everyday use rather than as object d 'art.[2]

Recent history
Prior to 1920s, Balinese traditional paintings were restricted to what is now known as the Kamasan or Wayang style.
It is a visual narrative of Hindu-Javanese epics: the Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as a number of indigenous
stories, such as the Panji narrative. These two-dimensional drawings are traditionally drawn on cloth or bark paper
(Ulantaga paper) with natural dyes. The coloring is limited to available natural dyes: red, ochre, black, etc. In
addition, the rendering of the figures and ornamentations must follow strictly prescribed rules, since they are mostly
produced for religious articles and temple hangings. These paintings are produced collaboratively, and therefore
mostly anonymously. For a more complete description of the Kamasan style painting see: The Realm of Balinese
Classical Art Form [3]
There were many experiments with new types of art by Balinese from the late nineteenth century onwards. These
experiments were stimulated by access to new materials (western paper and imported inks and paint), and by the
1930s, new tourist markets stimulated many young Balinese to be involved in new types of art.
In the 1920s, with the arrival of many western artists, Bali became an artist enclave (as Tahiti was for Paul Gauguin)
for avant-garde artists such as Walter Spies (German), Rudolf Bonnet (Dutch), Adrien-Jean Le Mayeur (Belgian),
Arie Smit (Dutch) and Donald Friend (Australian) in more recent years. Most of these western artists had very little
influence on the Balinese until the post-World War Two period, although some accounts over-emphasise the western
presence at the expense of recognising Balinese creativity.
On his first visit to Bali in 1930, the Mexican artist Miguel Covarrubias noted that local paintings served primarily
religious or ceremonial functions. They were used as decorative cloths to be hung in temples and important houses,
or as calendars to determine children's horoscopes. Yet within a few years, he found the art form had undergone a
"liberating revolution." Where they had once been severely restricted by subject (mainly episodes from Hindu
mythology) and style, Balinese artists began to produce scenes from rural life. These painters had developed
increasing individuality.[1]
This groundbreaking period of creativity reached a peak in the late 1930s. A stream of famous visitors, including
Charlie Chaplin and the anthropologists Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead, encouraged the talented locals to
Balinese art 2

create highly original works. During their stay in Bali in mid-1930s, Bateson and Mead collected over 2000
paintings, predominantly from the village of Batuan, but also from the coastal village of Sanur.[4] Among western
artists, Spies and Bonnet are often credited for the modernization of traditional Balinese paintings. From the 1950s
onwards Baliese artists incorporated aspects of perspective and anatomy from these artists.[5] More importantly, they
acted as agents of change by encouraging experimentation, and promoted departures from tradition. The result was
an explosion of individual expression that increased the rate of change in Balinese art. The 1930s styles were
consolidated in the 1950s, and in more recent years have been given the confusing title of "modern traditional
Balinese painting". The Ubud painters, although a minority amongst the artists working in the 1930s, became the
representatives of the new style thanks to the presence of the great artist Gusti Nyoman Lempad in that village, and
to the patronage of the traditional rulers of Ubud. The key points of the Ubud Style included a concentration on the
depiction of daily Bali life and drama; the change of the patron of these artists from the religious temples and royal
houses to western tourists/collectors; shifting the picture composition from multiple to single focus.[6] Despite the
adoption of modern western painting traditions by many Balinese and Indonesian painters, "modern traditional
Balinese painting" is still thriving and continues by descendants/students of the artists of the pre-war modernist era
(1928-1942). The schools of modern traditional Balinese painting include: Ubud, Batuan, Sanur, Young Artist and
Keliki schools of painting.[6]

Fingerprint painting
A Balinese, I Gusti Ngurah Gede Pemecutan makes his paintings by fingerprints. If we use brush technique, we can
brush it off if needed, but the fingerprint technique should placed every dot precisely. His fingerprint paintings have
no signature, but have a lot of his fingerprints. The fingerprint painting technique is regarded as part of the pointilism
painting technique (with the brush).[7]

Modern traditional painting

The pre-War modernisation of Balinese art emanated from three villages: Ubud, where Spies settled, Sanur on the
southern coast, and Batuan, a traditional hub of musicians, dancers, carvers and painters. The artists painted mostly
on paper, though canvas and board were also used. Often, the works featured repetitive clusters of stylized foliage or
waves that conveyed a sense of texture, even perspective. Each village evolved a style of its own. Ubud artists made
more use of open spaces and emphasized human figures. Sanur paintings often featured erotic scenes and animals,
and work from Batuan was less colorful but tended to be busier.[8]

Ubud painting
Balinese art 3

Ubud has been the center of art for centuries, with the surrounding royal houses
and temples as the main patrons. Prior to the 1920s, traditional wayang style
paintings dominated the subject matters, although Jean Couteau[5] believes that
both secular and religious theme paintings have long been co-existing in the form
of the expression of the unity of opposites (Rwabhinneda in Balinese belief
system).

Under the patronage of the Ubud royal family, especially Tjokorda Gde Agung
Sukawati, and with Rudolf Bonnet as a chief consultant, the Pitamaha Art Guild
was founded in 1936 as a way to professionalise Balinese painting. Its mission
was to preserve the quality of Balinese Art in the rush of tourism to Bali. The
board members of Pitamaha met regularly to select paintings submitted by its Mask Dancer, A.A. Gde Anom
members, and to conduct exhibitions throughout Indonesia and abroad. Pitamaha Sukawati (b. 1966), Acrylic on
canvas
was active until the beginning of the second world war in 1942.The subject
matters shifted from religious narration to Balinese daily life. Ubud artists who
were members to Pitamaha came from Ubud and its surrounding villages; Pengosekan, Peliatan and Tebasaya.
Among them were: Ida Bagus Made Kembeng of the village of Tebesaya and his three sons Ida Bagus Wiri, Ida
Bagus Made and Ida Bagus Belawa; Tjokorda Oka of the royal house of Peliatan; Anak Agung Gde Sobrat, Anak
Agung Gde Meregeg, I Dewa Putu Bedil, I Dewa Nyoman Leper, Anak Agung Dana of Padangtegal; I Gusti Ketut
Kobot, I Gusti Made Baret, I Wayan Gedot, Dewa Putu Mokoh of Pengosekan; and I Gusti Nyoman Lempad. Artists
from other areas also participated, including Pan Seken from Kamasan, I Gusti Made Deblog from Denpasar, and
some of the Sanur artists.

Pitamaha has been by the descendents of the Ubud artists, and has now come to be identified with the period of the
1930s. Important Ubudian Artists are Ida Bagus Sena (nephew of Ida Bagus Made Poleng), A.A Gde Anom
Sukawati (son of A.A Raka Pudja), I Ketut Budiana, I Nyoman Kayun and I Nyoman Meja. Budiana is the artist
with the most impressive Solo-exhibition track record. His paintings are collected by Fukuoka Museum of Arts,
Bentara Budaya Jakarta, Museum Puri Lukisan, Neka Museum and Arma Museum. Ida Bagus Sena also has
developed a very unique style and has a deep understanding of Balinese philosophy in his paintings. Anom Sukawati
is Balinese most successful colorist. I Nyoman Meja developed a style which is closely copy by several of his
students. I Nyoman Kayun received award from Bali Bangkit in 2009.

Batuan painting
The Batuan school of painting is practiced by artists in the village of Batuan, which is situated 10 kilometres (6.2 mi)
to the south of Ubud. The Batuan artisans are gifted dancers, sculptors and painters. Leading artists of the 1930s
included I Nyoman Ngendon, and a number of members of leading brahman families, including Ida Bagus Made
Togog. Other major Batuan artists from the pre-modernist era include I Dewa Nyoman Mura (1877-1950) and I
Dewa Putu Kebes (1874-1962), who were known as sanging; traditional Wayang-style painters for temples'
ceremonial textiles.
The western influence in Batuan did not reach the intensity it had in Ubud.[4] According to Claire Holt, the Batuan
paintings were often dark, crowded representations of either legendary scenes or themes from daily life, but they
portrayed above all fearsome nocturnal moments when grotesque spooks, freakish animal monsters, and witches
accosted people. This is particularly true for paintings collected by Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson during their
field studies in Bali in 1936 to 1939.[4] Gradations of black to white ink washes laid over most of the surface, so as to
create an atmosphere of darkness and gloom. In the later years, the designs covered the entire space, which often
contributed to the crowded nature of these paintings.
Balinese art 4

Among the early Batuan artists, I Ngendon (1903-1946) was

considered the most innovative Batuan School painter.[5] Ngendon was
not only a good painter, but a shrewd business man and political
activist. He encouraged and mobilized his neighbours and friends to
paint for tourist consumption. His ability in portraiture played an
important role in teaching his fellow villagers in Batuan more than
Spies and Bonnet.[5] The major Batuan artists from this period were: I
Patera (1900-1935), I Tombos (b. 1917), Ida Bagus Togog
(1913-1989), Ida Bagus Made Jatasura (1917-1946), Ida Bagus Ketut
The Wheel of Life, I Ketut Murtika (b. 1952),
Gouache on canvas Diding (1914-1990), I Made Djata (1920-2001), and Ida Bagus Widja
(1912-1992). The spirit of the Pitamaha period is still strong and
continues by contemporary Batuan Artists such as I Made Budi, I Wayan Bendi (b. 1950), I Ketut Murtika (b. 1952),
I Made Sujendra (b. 1964), and many others. I Made Budi and I Wayan Bendi paintings capture the influence of
tourism in modern life in Bali. They place tourists with their camera, riding a motorbike or surfing in the midst of
Balinese traditional village activities. The dichotomy of modern and traditional Balinese life are contrasted starkly in
harmony. I Ketut Murtika ( still paints the traditional story of Mahabharata and Ramayana in a painstaking details
with subdued colors. His painting of the Wheel of Life viewed from the Balinese beliefs system shows his mastery
of local legends and painstaking attention to details.[9]

Sanur painting
Unlike Ubud and Batuan which are located in the inland of Bali, Sanur
is a beach resort. Sanur was the home of the well known Belgian artist
Le Mayeur de Mepres, who lived with a Balinese wife (Ni Polok) and
had a beach house in Sanur beach.
Tourists in 1930s came to Bali on cruise ships docked in Sanur and
made side trips to Ubud and neighboring tourist sites. Its prime
location provided the Sanur artist with ready-access to Western tourists Beached Whale, Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai, Ink
who frequented the shop of the Neuhaus Brothers who sold balinese wash on canvas
souvenirs and tropical fishes. Neuhaus brothers became the major art
dealer of Sanur paintings. The beach around Sanur, full of outriggers and open horizon, provided local artists with a
visual environment different from the Ubud and Batuan, which are located in the hinterland.The playful atmosphere
pervades the Sanur paintings, and are not dictated by the religious iconography.[6] It is lighter and airy than those of
Batuan and Ubud with sea creatures, erotic scenery and wild animals drawn in rhythmic patterns; often in an
Escher-like manner.[5] Most early works were black and white ink wash on paper, but at the request of Neuhaus,
latter works were adorned with light pastel colors often added by other artists specializing in coloring a black and
white drawings. Their name code is often found at the margin.

The Sanur school of painting is the most stylized and decorative among all modern Balinese Art. Major artists from
Sanur are I Rundu, Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai, I Soekaria, I Poegoeg, I Rudin, and many others. I Rudin, who started to
paint in mid-1930s, draws simple balinese dancers in the manner of the drawings of Miguel Covarrubias.
Balinese art 5

Young Artist painting

The development of the Young Artist School of painting is attributed
to the Dutch artist Arie Smit, a Dutch soldier who served during the
2nd world war and decided to stay in Bali. In the early 1960s, he came
across children in the village of Penestanan near Tjampuhan drawing
on the sand. He encouraged these children to paint by providing them
with paper and paints.[5]

Their paintings are characterized by "child-like" drawings that lacks

The snake tree, I Wayan Pugur, Gouache on
paper details and bright colors drawn with oil paint on canvas. By 1970s, it
attracted around three hundred peasant painters to produce paintings
for tourists. In 1983, the National Gallery of Malaysia held a major exhibition on the Young Artist paintings from the
collection of Datuk Lim Chong Kit.
The painting by I Wayan Pugur (b. 1945) shown here, was executed when he was 13 years old and was exhibited at
the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art in 1964, as part of a traveling exhibition in the United States in
1964-1965. This early drawing, executed on paper, exhibits the use of bright colors and a balanced composition. The
drawing space is divided into three solid-color areas: dark blue, bright yellow and magenta in between showing the
influence of the Wayang painting tradition. The leaves of the large tree with the snakes show the juxtaposition of
complementary colors. The faces of the figures were drawn with no details, yet the snakes have eyes and long
tongues.
Major artists from the Young Artist School are I Wayan Pugur, I Ketut Soki,[10] I Ngurah KK, I Nyoman Londo, I
Ketut Tagen, M D Djaga, I Nyoman Cakra, Ni Ketut Gampil, I Nyoman Mundik, I Wayan Regog and many others.
Balinese art 6

Keliki miniature painting

In the 1970s, miniature paintings emerged from Keliki, a small village north of
Ubud, led by a local farmer I Ketut Sana.[8] The sizes range from as small as 2 x
3 inch to as large as 10 x 15 in. I Ketut Sana learnt to paint from I Gusti Nyoman
Sudara Lempad from Ubud and from I Wayan Rajin from Batuan. He combined
the line drawing of Lempad and the details of the Batuan school. Every inch of
the space is covered with minute details of Balinese village life and legends
drawn in ink and colored with watercolor. The outcome is a marriage between
the youthfulness of the Ubud school and the details of the Batuan School. The
Keliki artists proud with their patience to paint minute details of every objects
meticulously that occupy the drawing space.

Illustrated on the left is a drawing by I Lunga (c. 1995) depicting the story of
Rajapala. Rajapala is often referred to as the first Balinese voyeur or “peeping
Tom.” According to the story, Rajapala catches sight of a group of celestial
nymphs bathing in a pool. He approaches stealthily, and without their
knowledge, steals the skirt (kamben) of the prettiest, Sulaish. As her clothing
contains magical powers enabling her to fly, the nymph cannot return home.
Rajapala offers to marry her. She accepts on the condition that she will return to
heaven after the birth of a child. With time, she and Rajapala have a healthy
young son. Years pass, and one day, Sulaish accidentally discovers her clothing
Rajapala, I Lunga, Watercolor on
hidden in the kitchen. Understanding that she has been tricked, she takes leave of
paper
her husband and son and goes back to her heavenly abode.

Major artists from the Keliki Artist School are Sang Ketut Mandera (Dolit),[8] I Ketut Sana, I Wayan Surana, I
Lunga, I Wayan Nengah, I Made Ocen, I Made Widi, I Wayan Lanus, I Wayan Lodra,[8] Ida Bagus Putra, Sang
Nyoman Kardiana (Sabuh) and many others.

Wood carving
Like the Balinese painting, Balinese wood carving underwent a similar
transformation during the 1930s and 1940s. The creative outburst emerged
during this transition period is often attributed to western influences. In 2006, an
exhibition at the Nusantara Museum, Delft, the Netherlands Leidelmeijer[11]
traced the Art Deco influence on Balinese wood carving. Leidelmeijer further
conjectured that the Art Deco influence continued well into 1970s.

During the transition years, the Pitamaha Artist Guild was the prime mover not
only for Balinese paintings, but also for the development of modern Balinese
wood carvings. I Tagelan (1902-1935) produced an elongated carving of a
Balinese woman from a long piece of wood that was given by Walter Spies, who
originally requested him to produce two statues.[5] This carving is in the
collection of the Puri Lukisan Museum in Ubud.

Other masters of Balinese modernist woodcarving were: Ida Bagus Nyana,

Woodcarving of an elderly Balinese
Tjokot (1886-1971)[2] and Ida Bagus Tilem. Ida Bagus Nyana was known for
lady (art deco style), c. 1930s experimenting with mass in sculpture. When carving human characters, he
Balinese art 7

shortened some parts of the body and lengthened others, thus bringing an eerie, surreal quality to his work. At the
same time he didn't overwork the wood and adopted simple, naive themes of daily life. He thus avoided the
“baroque” trap, unlike many carvers of his day.
Tjokot gained a reputation for exploiting the expressive quality inherent in the wood. He would go into the forest to
look for strangely shaped trunks and branches and, changing them as little as possible, transforming them into
gnarled spooks and demonic figures.[2]
Ida Bagus Tilem, the son of Nyana, furthered Nyana and Tjokot's innovations both in his working of the wood and in
his choice of themes. Unlike the sculptors from the previous generation, he was daring enough to alter the
proportions of the characters depicted in his carving. He allowed the natural deformations in the wood to guide the
form of his carving, using gnarled logs well suited for representing twisted human bodies. He saw each deformed log
or branch as a medium for expressing human feelings. Instead of depicting myths or scenes of daily life, Tilem took
up “abstract” themes with philosophical or psychological content: using distorted pieces of wood that are endowed
with strong expressive powers.[2] Ida Bagus Tilem, however, was not only an artist, but also a teacher. He trained
dozens of young sculptors from the area around the village of Mas. He taught them how to select wood for its
expressive power, and how to establish dialogue between wood and Man that has become the mainstream of today's
Balinese woodcarving.

Museums holding important Balinese painting collection

There are many museums throughout the world holding a significant collection of Balinese paintings.[12]
• Europe: In the Netherlands, the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam and the Ethnographic Museum in Leiden,
Museum Nusantara in Delft have a large number of paintings from the Wayang period (before 1920s) and the
pre-War period (1920s - 1950s). Notably, the Leiden Ethnographic Museum holds the Rudolf Bonnet and Paul
Spies collection. In Switzerland, the Ethnographic Museum in Basel holds the pre-War Batuan and Sanur
paintings collected by Schlager and the artist Theo Meier. In late 2010, the Ethnographic Museum in Vienna
(Austria) rediscovered the pre-war Balinese paintings collected by Potjewyd in mid-1930s.
• Asia: In Japan, the Asian Art Museum in Fukuoka holds an excellent Balinese collection after the Second World
War. The Singapore National Art Museum has significant collection of pre-War and post-War Balinese paintings.
• Australia: The Australian Museum, Sydney, has a major collection of Kamasan and other traditional paintings
assembled by the Anthropologist Anthony Forge. The National Gallery of Australia in Sydney holds some
Balinese works.
• Indonesia: the Museum Sana Budaya in Yogyakarta and Museum Bentara Budaya in Jakarta. In Bali, pre-war
Balinese drawings are at the holdings of the Bali Museum in Denpasar and Center for Documentation of Balinese
Culture in Denpasar. In addition, there are four major museums in Ubud, Bali, with significant collections:
Museum Puri Lukisan, Agung Rai Museum of Art, Neka Museum and Museum Rudana.
• America: Duke University Museum in Durham, American Museum of Natural History in New York, United
Nations in New York.
Balinese art 8

Notes
[1] Covarrubias, Miguel (1937). Island of Bali. Cassel.
[2] Eiseman, Fred and Margaret (1988). Woodcarving of Bali. Periplus.
[3] http:/ / www. baliwoodresort. com/ kamasanexhibition. htm
[4] Geertz, Hildred (1994). Images of Power: Balinese Paintings Made for Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN 978-0-8248-1679-7.
[5] Couteau, Jean (1999). Catalogue of the Museum Puri Lukisan. Ratna Wartha Foundation (i.e. the Museum Puri Lukisan).
ISBN 979-95713-0-8.
[6] Spanjaard, Helena (December 2007). Pioneers of Balinese Painting (http:/ / www. kit. nl/ smartsite. shtml?ch=FAB& id=8332&
ItemID=2156& RecordTitle=Pioneers of Balinese painting). KIT Publishers. ISBN 978-90-6832-447-1. .
[7] "I Gusti Ngurah Gede Pemecutan: Stamping a legacy with Balinese fingerprint paintings" (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ bali-daily/
2012-07-12/ i-gusti-ngurah-gede-pemecutan-stamping-a-legacy-with-balinese-fingerprint-pain). July 12, 2012. .
[8] Agus Dermawan, Bali Bravo — a Lexicon of 200 years Balinese Traditional Painters, Bali Bangkit, 2006.
[9] Höhn, Klaus (1997). Reflections of Faith: The History of Painting in Batuan, 1834-1994: The Art of Bali. Published by Pictures Publishers
Art Books.
[10] Soki, Ketut. "Pak Soki. Artist from Penestanan, the 'Village of Young Artists'" (http:/ / www. ketutsoki. com/ ). I Ketut Soki. Archived
(http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080617154219/ http:/ / www. ketutsoki. com/ ) from the original on 17 June 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-04.
[11] Frans Leidermeijer, Art Deco beelden van Bali (1930-1970) - van souvenir tot kunstobject, Waanders, 2006, ISBN 90-400-8186-7
[12] Haks, Frans; Kunsthal Rotterdam (1999). Pre-war Balinese Modernists, 1928-1942. Ars et Animatio. ISBN 90-5349-297-6.

References
• Peasant Painters from the Penestanan Ubud Bali — Paintings from the Collection of Datuk Lim Chong Keat,
National Art Gallery Kuala Lumpur (1983)
• Agus Dermawan, "Bali Bravo — A Lexicon of 200-years Balinese Traditional Painters," Bali Bangkit (2006)
• Anak Agung Djelantik, " Balinese Paintings," Oxford University Press (1990)
• Christopher Hill, "Survival and Change: Three Generations of Balinese Painters," Pandanus Books (2006)
• Jean Couteau, Museum Puri Lukisan Catalog, Bali, Indonesia (1999)
• Joseph Fischer, "Problems and Realities of Modern Balinese Art," in Modern Indonesian Art: Three Generations
of Tradition and Change 1945-1990, Joseph Fischer, editor (1990)
• Haks, F., Ubbens J., Vickers, Adrian, Haks, Leo. and Maris, G., "Pre-War Balinese Modernists," Ars et Animatio
(1999)
• Helena Spanjaard, Pioneers of Balinese Painting (http://www.kit.nl/smartsite.shtml?ch=FAB&id=8332&
ItemID=2156&RecordTitle=Pioneers of Balinese painting), KIT Publishers (2007). For USA and Canada follow
this link, Stylus Publishers (http://styluspub.com/books/BookDetail.aspx?productID=164311)
• Hildred Geertz, Images of Power: Balinese Paintings Made for Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead, University
of Hawaii Press (1994)
• McGowan, Kaja; Adrian Vickers, Soemantri Widagdo, Benedict Anderson (July 2008). Ida Bagus Made — The
Art of Devotion (http://books.google.com/books?id=8BsblLai3lkC&dq=Ida+Bagus+Made+the+art+of+
devotion&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=UudH1O5R_t&sig=aUp2wuytoPRdt4I6vZL9rLo0GLU&
hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result). Museum Puri Lukisan. ISBN 978-1-60585-983-5.
• Klaus D. Höhn, The Art of Bali: Reflections of Faith: the History of Painting in Batuan, 1834-1994, Pictures
Publishers Art Books (1997)
• Moerdowo, "Reflections on Balinese Traditional and Modern Arts," Balai Pustaka (1983)
• Neka, Sutedja and Kam, Garrett, "The Development of Painting in Bali — Selections from the Neka Art
Museum," 2nd edition, Museum Neka Dharma Seni Foundation (2000)
• Rhodius, Hans and Darling, John, "Walter Spies and Balinese Art," Terra, Zutphen (1980)
• Ruddick, Abby, "Selected Paintings form the Collection of the Agung Rai Fine Art Gallery," The Agung Rai Fine
Art Gallery (1992)
• Taylor, Alison, "Living Traditions in Balinese Painting," The Agung Rai Gallery of Fine Art (1991)
• Mann,Richard I., "Classical Balinese Painting, Nyoman Gunarsa Museum", Book, Illustrated - 2006.
Balinese art 9

External links
• Balinese Painting and Woodcarving (http://www.balinesefineart.com/) - Fine examples of Balinese paintings
and woodcarvings
• Development of Balinese Art over the past 100 years (http://www.museumpurilukisan.com/exhibitions.html) -
A historic exhibition to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the Puri Lukisan Museum, Ubud, Bali, Indonesia.
• Walter Spies Painting (http://homepages.shu.ac.uk/~scsgcg/spies/) - Paintings from Balinese and European
period
• Museum Puri Lukisan (http://www.museumpurilukisan.com/) - The home of the finest collection of pre-war
Balinese paintings and woodcarvings in Bali
• Agung Rai Museum of Art (ARMA) (http://www.armamuseum.com/collections_painting.php) - The only
museum in Bali with an original work of Walter Spies
• Neka Museum (http://www.museumneka.com/) - Works of foreign artists who lived in Bali, Arie Smit, I Gusti
Njoman Lempad
• KIT (http://www.kit.nl/smartsite.shtml?ch=FAB&id=1710) - Indonesian works of art at the Tropenmuseum
Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
• Foreign Artists in Bali (http://baliwww.com/bali/arts/foreign.htm) - Short biography of foreign artists who
worked in Bali, including: W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, C.L Dake, P.A.J. Mooijen, Willem Dooijewaard, Rolland
Strasser, John Sten, Walter Spies, Rudolf Bonnet, Miguel Covarrubias, Isaac Israel, Adrien-Jean Le Mayeur de
Mepres, Theo Meier, Willem and Maria Hofker, Emilio Ambron, Auke Sonnega, Romuldo Locatelli, Lee Man
Fong, Antonio Blanco, Arie Smit, Donald Friend
• Crossing Boundaries Exhibition (http://www.aev.vic.edu.au/online_resources/crossing_boundaries.html)
Bali: A window to the 20th century Indonesian Art — an exhibition organized by Asia Society AustralAsia
Center
• Bali: Art, Ritual, Performance (http://www.asianart.org/Bali.htm) An exhibition of Balinese art at the Asian
Art Museum of San Francisco
• Official website of the Keliki Painting School (http://dolit-keliki-painting-school.wifeo.com/) - A school for to
learn the miniature traditional painting of Bali.
• Balinese Painting group on facebook (http://www.facebook.com/pages/Balinese-Painting/
169298223083202?sk=wall) - A group discussion for balinese art.
• Balinese Art from 1800 - 2012 (http://www.tuttlepublishing.com/book/?GCOI=48053103326400) - Adrian
Vickers' book Balinese Art Paintings and Drawings of Bali 1800 - 2010
Majapahit 10

Majapahit
Majapahit Empire
Karaton Mojopahit
Kerajaan Majapahit

← 1293–1527
→

Surya Majapahit¹

[1]
Extent of Majapahit influence based on the Nagarakertagama; the notion of such Javanese depictions is considered conceptual.
Capital Majapahit, Wilwatikta (modern Trowulan)

Languages Old Javanese (main), Sanskrit (religious)

Religion Kejawen, Hinduism, Buddhism, Animism

Government Monarchy

Raja

- 1295–1309 Kertarajasa Jayawardhana

- 1478–1527 Girindrawardhana

History

- Coronation November 10, 1293

- Demak takeover 1527

Currency Native gold and silver coins, Kepeng (coins imported from China and
[2]
later produced locally )

¹ Surya Majapahit (The Sun of Majapahit) is the emblem commonly found in Majapahit ruins. It served as the symbol of the Majapahit empire

Majapahit was a vast thalassocratic archipelagic empire based on the island of Java (modern-day Indonesia) from
1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to
1389 marked by conquest which extended through Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his prime
minister, Gajah Mada. According to the Nagarakretagama (Desawarñana) written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire
Majapahit 11

of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea;[3] consisting of present day Indonesia, Singapore,
Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, the Philippines, and East Timor, although the true nature of Majapahit sphere
of influence is still the subject of studies among historians.
Majapahit was one of the last major empires of the region and is considered to be one of the greatest and most
powerful empires in the history of Indonesia and Southeast Asia, one that is sometimes seen as the precedent for
Indonesia's modern boundaries.[4] Its influence extended beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the
subject of many studies.[5] German orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of
an Indonesian tree.[6]

Historiography
Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains,[7] and some details of the history are rather abstract.[8] The main
sources used by historians are: the Pararaton ('Book of Kings') written in the Kawi language and Nagarakertagama
in Old Javanese.[9] Pararaton is focused upon Ken Arok (the founder of Singhasari) but includes a number of shorter
narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. Nagarakertagama, is an old Javanese epic poem written
during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk after which some events are covered
narratively.[8] There are also some inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese.
The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C. Berg, a Dutch
nationalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by
which the future can be determined.[10] Despite Berg's approach, most scholars do not accept this view, as the
historical record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and
details of the state structure show no sign of being invented.[8]
Ming Dynasty admiral Zheng He visited Majapahit. Zheng He's translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description
about Majapahit and where the king of Java lived.[11] New findings in April 2011, indicate the Majapahit capital was
much larger than previously believed after some artifacts were uncovered.[12]
Majapahit 12

History

Formation
After defeating the Melayu Kingdom[13] in Sumatra in 1290, Singhasari became
the most powerful kingdom in the region. Kublai Khan, the Great Khan of the
Mongol Empire and the Emperor of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, challenged
Singhasari by sending emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanegara, the last ruler
of Singhasari, refused to pay the tribute, insulted the Mongol envoy and
challenged the Khan instead. As the response, in 1293, Kublai Khan sent a
massive expedition of 1,000 ships to Java.

By that time, Jayakatwang, the Adipati (Duke) of Kediri, a vassal state of

Singhasari, had usurped and killed Kertanagara. After being pardoned by
Jayakatwang with the aid of Madura's regent, Arya Wiraraja; Raden Wijaya,
Kertanegara's son-in-law, was given the land of Tarik timberland. He then
opened that vast timberland and built a new village there. The village was named
Majapahit, which was taken from a fruit name that had a bitter taste in that
timberland (maja is the fruit name and pahit means bitter). When the Mongolian
Yuan army sent by Kublai Khan arrived, Wijaya allied himself with the army to
fight against Jayakatwang. Once Jayakatwang was destroyed, Raden Wijaya
The statue of Harihara, the god forced his allies to withdraw from Java by launching a surprise attack.[14] Yuan's
combination of Shiva and Vishnu. It army had to withdraw in confusion as they were in hostile territory. It was also
was the mortuary deified portrayal of
their last chance to catch the monsoon winds home; otherwise, they would have
Kertarajasa. Originally located at
Candi Simping, Blitar and the statue had to wait for another six months on a hostile island.
is now preserved at the National
In 1293, Raden Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit. The
Museum of Indonesia.
exact date used as the birth of the Majapahit kingdom is the day of his
coronation, the 15th of Kartika month in the year 1215 using the Javanese çaka
calendar, which equates to November 10, 1293. During his coronation he was given formal name Kertarajasa
Jayawardhana. The new kingdom faced challenges. Some of Kertarajasa's most trusted men, including Ranggalawe,
Sora, and Nambi rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It was suspected that the mahapati (equal with prime
minister) Halayudha set the conspiracy to overthrow all of the king's opponents, to gain the highest position in the
government. However, following the death of the last rebel Kuti, Halayudha was captured and jailed for his tricks,
and then sentenced to death.[14] Wijaya himself died in 1309.

According to tradition, Wijaya's son and successor, Jayanegara was notorious for immorality. One of his sinful acts
was his desire on taking his own stepsisters as wives. He was entitled Kala Gemet, or "weak villain". Approximately
during Jayanegara's reign, the Italian Friar Odoric of Pordenone visited Majapahit court in Java. In 1328, Jayanegara
was murdered by his doctor, Tanca. His stepmother, Gayatri Rajapatni, was supposed to replace him, but Rajapatni
retired from court to become a Bhikkhuni. Rajapatni appointed her daughter, Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi, or
known in her formal name as Tribhuwannottungadewi Jayawishnuwardhani, as the queen of Majapahit under
Rajapatni's auspices. Tribhuwana appointed Gajah Mada as the Prime Minister in 1336. During his inauguration
Gajah Mada declared his Sumpah Palapa, revealing his plan to expand Majapahit realm and building an empire.
During Tribhuwana’s rule, the Majapahit kingdom grew much larger and became famous in the area. Tribhuwana
ruled Majapahit until the death of her mother in 1350. She abdicated the throne in favour of her son, Hayam Wuruk.
Majapahit
Golden age
The graceful Bidadari Majapahit,
golden celestial apsara in Majapahit
style perfectly describes Majapahit as
"the golden age" of the archipelago.
The terracotta portrait of Gajah Mada. Collection
of Trowulan Museum.
to the end of the Srivijayan kingdom. Gajah Mada's other renowned general was Adityawarman, known for his
conquest in Minangkabau.
The nature of the Majapahit empire and its extent is subject to debate. It may have had limited or entirely notional
influence over some of the tributary states in included Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and eastern
13
Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara, ruled Majapahit in
1350–1389. During this period, Majapahit attained its peak with the
help of prime minister, Gajah Mada. Under Gajah Mada's command
(1313–1364), Majapahit conquered more territories and become the
regional power. According to the book of Nagarakertagama pupuh
(canto) XIII and XIV mentioned several states in Sumatra, Malay
Peninsula, Borneo, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara islands, Maluku, New
Guinea, and some parts of Philippines islands as under Majapahit
realm of power. This source mentioned of Majapahit expansions has
marked the greatest extent of Majapahit empire.This empire also serve
as one of the most influential empires in the Indonesian history.It is
considered as a commercial trading empire in the civilization of Asia.
Next to launching naval and military expeditions, the expansion of
Majapahit Empire also involved diplomacy and alliance. Hayam
Wuruk decided, probably for political reasons, to take princess Citra
Rashmi (Pitaloka) of neighboring Sunda Kingdom as his consort.[15]
The Sundanese took this proposal as an alliance agreement. In 1357 the
Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit, to accompany and
marry his daughter with Hayam Wuruk. However Gajah Mada saw this
event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's submission to Majapahit
overlordship. The skirmish between the Sunda royal family and the
Majapahit troops on Bubat square were unevitable. Despite the
courageous resistance, the royal family were overwhelmed and
decimated. Almost whole of the Sundanese royal party were viciously
massacred.[16] Tradition mentioned that the heartbroken Princess
committed suicide to defend the honour of her country.[17] The Battle
of Bubat or Pasunda Bubat tragedy become the main theme of Kidung
Sunda, also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan and Pararaton, however
it was never mentioned in Nagarakretagama.
The Nagarakertagama, written in 1365 depict a sophisticated court
with refined taste in art and literature, and a complex system of
religious rituals. The poet describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge
mandala extending from New Guinea and Maluku to Sumatra and
Malay Peninsula. Local traditions in many parts of Indonesia retain
accounts in more or less legendary form from 14th-century Majapahit's
power. Majapahit's direct administration did not extend beyond east
Java and Bali, but challenges to Majapahit's claim to overlordship in
outer islands drew forceful responses.[18]
In 1377, a few years after Gajah Mada's death, Majapahit sent a
punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang,[4] contributing
Majapahit 14

Indonesia over which of authority was claimed in the Nagarakertagama.[19] Geographical and economic constraints
suggest that rather than a regular centralised authority, the outer states were most likely to have been connected
mainly by trade connections, which was probably a royal monopoly.[4] It also claimed relationships with Champa,
Cambodia, Siam, southern Burma, and Vietnam, and even sent missions to China.[4]
Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighboring kingdoms, their
focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the
archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytizers began entering the area.

Decline
Following Hayam Wuruk's death in 1389, Majapahit power entered a period of decline with conflict over succession.
Hayam Wuruk was succeeded by the crown princess Kusumawardhani, who married a relative, Prince
Wikramawardhana. Hayam Wuruk also had a son from his previous marriage, crown prince Wirabhumi, who also
claimed the throne. A civil war, called Paregreg, is thought to have occurred from 1405 to 1406,[8] of which
Wikramawardhana was victorious and Wirabhumi was caught and decapitated. The civil war has weakened
Majapahit grip on its outer vassals and colonies.
During the reign of Wikramawardhana, the series of Ming armada naval expeditions led by Zheng He, a Muslim
Chinese admiral, arrived in Java for several times spanned the period from 1405 to 1433. By 1430 Zheng He's
expeditions has established Muslim Chinese and Arab communities in northern ports of Java such as in Semarang,
Demak, Tuban, and Ampel, thus Islam began to gain foothold on Java's northern coast.
Wikramawardhana ruled to 1426 and was succeeded by his daughter Suhita, who ruled from 1426 to 1447. She was
the second child of Wikramawardhana by a concubine who was the daughter of Wirabhumi. In 1447, Suhita died and
was succeeded by Kertawijaya, her brother. He ruled until 1451. After Kertawijaya died, Bhre Pamotan became a
king with formal name Rajasawardhana and ruled at Kahuripan. He died in 1453. A three-year kingless period was
possibly the result of a succession crisis. Girisawardhana, son of Kertawijaya, came to power 1456. He died in 1466
and was succeeded by Singhawikramawardhana. In 1468 Prince Kertabhumi rebelled against
Singhawikramawardhana promoting himself king of Majapahit.
In western part of the crumbling empire, Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of
Malacca that in the mid-15th century began to gain effective control of Malacca strait and expands its influence to
Sumatra. Several other former Majapahit vassals and colonies began to released themself from Majapahit domination
and suzerainty.
Singhawikramawardhana moved the Kingdom’s capital further inland
to Daha (the former capital of Kediri kingdom) and continued his rule
until he was succeeded by his son Ranawijaya in 1474. In 1478 he
defeated Kertabhumi and reunited Majapahit as one Kingdom.
Ranawijaya ruled from 1474 to 1519 with the formal name
Girindrawardhana. Nevertheless, Majapahit's power had declined
through these dynastic conflicts and the growing power of the
north-coastal kingdoms in Java.

Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 (that is, The model of Majapahit ship display in Muzium
1400 Saka, the ends of centuries being considered a time when changes Negara, Kuala Lumpur.
of dynasty or courts normally ended[20]) to 1527. The year is marked
among Javanese today with candrasengkala "sirna ilang kertaning bumi" (the wealth of earth disappeared and
diminished) (sirna = 0, ilang = 0, kerta = 4, bumi = 1). According Jiyu and Petak inscription, Ranawijaya claimed
that he already defeat Kertabhumi [21] and move capital to Daha. This event to led the war between Sultanate of
Majapahit 15

Demak and Daha, since Demak ruler was the descendants of Kertabhumi. The battle was won by Demak in 1527.[22]
A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali. The
refugees probably fled to avoid Demak retribution for their support for Ranawijaya against Kertabhumi.
With the fall of Daha crushed by Demak in 1527, the Muslim emerging forces finally defeated the remnants of the
Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[23] Demak under the leadership of Raden (later crowned as Sultan)
Patah (Arabic name: Fatah) was acknowledged as the legitimate successor of Majapahit. According to Babad Tanah
Jawi and Demak tradition, the source of Patah's legitimacy was because their first sultan, Raden Patah, was the son
of Majapahit king Brawijaya V with a Chinese concubine. Another argument supports Demak as the successor of
Majapahit; the rising Demak sultanate was easily accepted as the nominal regional ruler, as Demak was the former
Majapahit vassal and located near the former Majapahit realm in Eastern Java.
Demak established itself as the regional power and the first Islamic sultanate in Java. After the fall of Majapahit, the
Hindu kingdoms in Java only remained in Blambangan on eastern edge and Pajajaran in western part. Gradually
Hindu communities began to retreat to mountain ranges in East Java and also to neighboring island of Bali. A small
enclave of Hindu communities still remain in Tengger mountain range.

Culture, art and architecture

"Of all the buildings, none lack pillars, bearing fine carvings and coloured"
[Within the wall compounds] "there were elegant pavilions roofed with
aren fibre, like the scene in a painting... The petals of the katangga were
sprinkled over the roofs for they had fallen in the wind. The roofs were
like maidens with flowers arranged in their hair, delighting those who saw
them".

— Description of the Majapahit capital from the Old Javanese epic poem
Nagarakertagama. The main event of the administrative calendar took
place on the first day of the month of Caitra (March–April) when
representatives from all territories paying tax or tribute to Majapahit came
to the capital to pay court. Majapahit's territories were roughly divided into
three types: the palace and its vicinity; the areas of east Java and Bali
Wringin Lawang, the 15.5 meter tall
red brick split gate. Located at
which were directly administered by officials appointed by the king; and
Trowulan. Believed to be the the outer dependencies which enjoyed substantial internal autonomy.[24]
entrance of an important compound The capital (Trowulan) was grand and known for its great annual
in Majapahit capital.
festivities. Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism were all practiced, and
the king was regarded as the incarnation of the three. The
Nagarakertagama does not mention Islam, but there were certainly Muslim courtiers by this time.[4]
Majapahit 16

Although brick had been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it
was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered
it.[25] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a
strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu
temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo, and
Surawana temple near Kediri. Some of the temples are dated from earlier
period but renovated and expanded during Majapahit era, such as
Penataran, the largest temple in East Java dated back to Kediri era. This
temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported
being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across East
Java. Some of typical architectural style are believed to be developed
during Majapahit era; such as tall and slender roofed red brick gate
commonly called as kori agung or paduraksa, and also split gate of candi
Jabung temple near Paiton,
bentar. The large split gate of Wringin Lawang located at Jatipasar,
Probolinggo, East Java, dated from
Majapahit period.
Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java, is one of the oldest and the largest
surviving candi bentar dated from Majapahit era. The candi bentar took
shape of typical Majapahit temple structure — consists of three parts; foot, body and tall roof — evenly split
into two mirroring structures to make a passage in the center for people to walk through. This type of split gate
has no doors and provides no real defensive purpose but narrowing the passage. It was probably only serve the
ceremonial and aesthetic purpose, to create the sense of grandeur, before entering the next compound through
tall roof paduraksa gate with enclosed door. The example of kori agung or paduraksa style gate is the elegant
Bajang Ratu gate richly decorated with Kala demon, cyclops and also the bas-relief telling the story of Sri
Tanjung. Those typical Majapahit architectural style has deeply influenced the Javanese and Balinese
architecture of later period. Clay pottery and brick masonry are popular feature in Majapahit art and
architecture. The Majapahit Terracotta art also flourished in this period. Significant numbers of terracotta
artifacts were discovered in Trowulan. The artifacts ranges from human and animal figurines, jars, vessels,
water containers, piggy banks, bas reliefs, architectural ornaments, roof pinnacles, floor tiles, to pipes and roof
tiles. One of the most interesting findings is Majapahit piggy bank. Several boar-shaped piggy banks has been
discovered in Trowulan. It is probably the origin of Javanese-Indonesian word to refer for saving or money
container. The word celengan in Javanese and Indonesian means both "savings" and "piggy bank". It was
derived from the word celeng which means "wild boar", the suffix "-an" was added to denote its likeness. One
important specimen is stored in National Museum of Indonesia, it has been reconstructed since this large piggy
bank has been found broken to pieces. Terracotta money boxes also has been found in different shapes, such as
tubular or boxes, with slits to slip coins. Another important terracotta artifact is the head figurine of a man
popularly thought to be the depiction of Gajah Mada, although it is not certain about who was depicted in
these figurines.

"....the King [of Java] has subject to himself seven crowned kings. [Yet] his island is populous, and is
the second best of all island that exist.... The king of this island has a palace which is truly marvelous.
For it is very great, the stairs and palace interior were coated with gold and silver, even the roof were
gilded with gold. Now the Great Khan of China many a time engaged in war with this king; but this king
always vanquished and get the better of him."
— Description of Majapahit by Mattiussi (Friar Odoric of Pordenone).[26] The first European record
about Majapahit came from the travel log of the Italian Mattiussi, a Franciscan monk. In his book:
"Travels of Friar Odoric of Pordenone", he visited several places in today's Indonesia: Sumatra, Java,
and Banjarmasin in Borneo, between 1318–1330. He was sent by the Pope to launch a misson into the
Asian interiors. In 1318 he departed from Padua, crossed the Black Sea into Persia, all the way across
Majapahit 17

Calcutta, Madras, and Srilanka. He then headed to Nicobar island all the way to Sumatra, before visiting
Java and Banjarmasin. He returned to Italy by land through Vietnam, China, all the way through the
silkroad to Europe in 1330. In his book he mentioned that he visited Java without explaining the exact
place he had visited. He said that king of Java ruled over seven other kings (vassals). He also mentioned
that in this island was found a lot of clove, cubeb, nutmeg and many other spices. He mentioned that the
King of Java had an impressive, grand, and luxurious palace. The stairs and palace interior were coated
with gold and silver, and even the roof were gilded. He also recorded that the kings of the Mongol has
repeatedly tried to attack Java, but always ended up in failure and managed to be sent back to the
mainland. The Javanese kingdom mentioned in this record is Majapahit, and the time of his visit is
between 1318–1330 during the reign of Jayanegara. In later period near the fall of Majapahit, the art and
architecture of Majapahit witnessed the revival of indigenous native Austronesian megalithic
architectural elements, such as Sukuh and Cetho temples on western slopes of Mount Lawu. Unlike
previous Majapahit temples that demonstrate typical Hindu architecture of high-rise towering structure,
the shape of these temples are step pyramid, quite similar to Mesoamerican pyramids. The stepped
pyramid structure called Punden Berundak (stepped mounds) is a common megalithic structure during
Indonesian prehistoric era before the adoption of Hindu-Buddhist culture.

Economy
Taxes and fines were paid in cash. Javanese economy had been partly
monetised since the late 8th century, using gold and silver coins.
Previously, the 9th century Wonoboyo hoard discovered in Central
Java shows that ancient Javan gold coins was seed-shaped, similar to
corn, while the silver coins was similar to buttons. In about the year
1300, in the reign of Majapahit's first king, an important change took
place: the indigenous coinage was completely replaced by imported
Chinese copper cash. About 10,388 ancient Chinese coins weighing
about 40 kg were even unearthed from the backyard of a local
commoner in Sidoarjo in November 2008. Indonesian Ancient Relics
Conservation Bureau (BP3) of East Java verified that those coins dated
as early as Majapahit era.[27] The reason for using foreign currency is Majapahit Terracotta Piggy Bank, 14th–15th
not given in any source, but most scholars assume it was due to the century Trowulan, East Java. (Collection of
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta)
increasing complexity of Javanese economy and a desire for a currency
system that used much smaller denominations suitable for use in
everyday market transactions. This was a role for which gold and silver are not well suited.[24] These kepeng Chinese
coins were thin rounded copper coins with square hole in the center of it. The hole was meant to tie together the
money in a string of coins. These small changes — the imported Chinese copper coins — enabled Majapahit further
invention, a method of savings by using a slitted earthenware coin containers. These are commonly found in
Majapahit ruins, the slit is the small opening to put the coins in. The most popular shape is boar-shaped celengan
(piggy bank).

Some idea of scale of the internal economy can be gathered from scattered data in inscriptions. The Canggu
inscriptions dated 1358 mentions 78 ferry crossings in the country (mandala Java).[24] Majapahit inscriptions
mention a large number of occupational specialities, ranging from gold and silver smiths to drink vendors and
butchers. Although many of these occupations had existed in earlier times, the proportion of the population earning
an income from non-agrarian pursuits seems to have become even greater during the Majapahit era.
Majapahit 18

The great prosperity of Majapahit was probably due to two factors. Firstly, the northeast lowlands of Java were
suitable for rice cultivation, and during Majapahit's prime numerous irrigation projects were undertaken, some with
government assistance. Secondly, Majapahit's ports on the north coast were probably significant stations along the
route to obtain the spices of Maluku, and as the spices passed through Java they would have provided an important
source of income for Majapahit.[24]
The Nagarakertagama states that the fame ruler of Wilwatikta (a synonym for Majapahit) attracted foreign merchants
from far and wide, including Indians, Khmers, Siamese, and Chinese among others. A special tax was levied against
some foreigners, possibly those who had taken up semi-permanent residence in Java and conducted some type of
enterprise other than foreign trade. The Majapahit Empire had trading links with Chinese Ming dynasty, Siamese
Ayutthayan, Champa and Annam kingdoms in today Vietnam, and the south Indian Vijayanagara Empire.

Administration
During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit employed a
well-organized bureaucratic structure for administrative purposes. The
hierarchy and structure relatively remain intact and unchanged
throughout Majapahit history.[28] The king is the paramount ruler, as
the chakravartin he is considered as the universal ruler and believed to
be the living god on earth. The king holds the highest political
authority and legitimacy.

Bureaucracy officials
Pair of door guardians from a temple, Eastern
During his daily administration, the king is assisted by bureaucratic Java, 14th century (Museum of Asian Art, San
Francisco)
state officials that also included the close relatives of the kings that
hold certain esteemed titles. The royal order or edict usually
transmitted from the king to the high officials well to their
subordinates. The officials in Majapahit courts are:
• Rakryan Mahamantri Katrini, usually reserved for the king's heir
• Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran, the board of ministers that
conduct the daily administration
• Dharmmadhyaksa, the officials of laws, state laws as well as
religious laws
• Dharmma-upapatti, the officials concerning religious affairs
Within the ministers of Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran there is the
most important and the highest minister titled Rakryan Mapatih or
Patih Hamangkubhumi. This position is analogous to prime minister,
and together with king, they determine the important state policies,
including war or peace. Among the Dharmmadhyaksa officials there is
Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan (State's highest Hindu Shivaist priest)
and Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan (State's highest Buddhist
priest), both are the religious laws authorities of each dharmic faiths.
There is also the board of advisors consist of the elders within royal The statue of Parvati as mortuary
family called Bhattara Saptaprabhu. deified portrayal of
Tribhuwanottunggadewi, queen of
Majapahit, mother of Hayam Wuruk.
Majapahit 19

Territorial division
Majapahit recognize the hierarchy classifications of lands within its realm:
1. Bhumi: the kingdom, ruled by the king
2. Nagara: the province, ruled by the rajya (governor), or natha (lord), or
bhre (prince or duke)
3. Watek: the regency, administered by wiyasa,
4. Kuwu: the district, administered by lurah,
5. Wanua: the village, administered by thani,
6. Kabuyutan: the hamlet or sanctuary place.
During its formation, Majapahit traditional realm only consists of lesser vassal
kingdoms (provinces) in eastern and central Java. This region is ruled by
provincial kings called Paduka Bhattara with the title Bhre. This title is the
highest position below the monarch and similar to duke or duchess. Usually this
position reserved for the close relatives of the king. Their duty is to administer The elegant 16.5 metres tall Bajang
their own provinces, collect taxes, send annual tributes to the capital, and manage Ratu gate, at Trowulan, echoed the
grandeur of Majapahit.
the defenses of their borders.

During the reign of Hayam Wuruk (1350 to 1389) there were 12 provinces of Majapahit, administered by king's
close relatives:

Provinces Titles Rulers Relation to the King

Kahuripan (or Janggala, today Surabaya) Bhre Kahuripan Tribhuwanatunggadewi queen mother

Daha (former capital of Kediri) Bhre Daha Rajadewi Maharajasa aunt and also mother in-law

Tumapel (former capital of Singhasari) Bhre Tumapel Kertawardhana father

Wengker (today Ponorogo) Bhre Wengker Wijayarajasa uncle and also father in-law

Matahun (today Bojonegoro) Bhre Matahun Rajasawardhana husband of the duchess of Lasem, king's cousin

Wirabhumi (Blambangan) Bhre Wirabhumi Bhre Wirabhumi1 son

Paguhan Bhre Paguhan Singhawardhana brother in-law

Kabalan Bhre Kabalan daughter

Kusumawardhani2

Pawanuan Bhre Pawanuan Surawardhani niece

Lasem (a coastal town in Central Java) Bhre Lasem Rajasaduhita Indudewi cousin

Pajang (today Surakarta) Bhre Pajang Rajasaduhita Iswari sister

Mataram (today Yogyakarta) Bhre Mataram nephew

Wikramawardhana2

1
Bhre Wirabhumi is actually the title: the Duke of Wirabhumi (Blambangan), the real name is unknown and he
referred as Bhre Wirabhumi in Pararaton. He married to Nagawardhani, the king's niece.
2
Kusumawardhani (king's daughter) married to Wikramawardhana (king's nephew), the couple become the heir.
When Majapahit entered the thalassocratic imperial phase during the administration of Gajah Mada, several overseas
vassal states were included within the Majapahit sphere of influence, as the result the new larger territorial concept
was defined:
• Negara Agung, or the Grand State, the core kingdom. The traditional or initial area of Majapahit during its
formation before entering the imperial phase. This includes the capital city and the surrounding areas where the
king effectively exercises his government. This area covered the eastern half of Java, with all its provinces ruled
by the Bhres (dukes), the king's close relatives.
Majapahit 20

• Mancanegara, areas surrounding Negara Agung. These areas are directly influenced by Javanese culture, and
obliged to pay annual tributes. However these areas usually possess their own native rulers or kings, that might
foster alliance or intermarried with the Majapahit royal family. Majapahit stationed their officials and officers in
these places and regulate their foreign trade activities and collect taxes, yet they enjoyed substantial internal
autonomy. This includes the rest of Java island, Madura, Bali, as well as Dharmasraya, Pagaruyung, Lampung
and Palembang in Sumatra.
• Nusantara, areas which do not reflect Javanese culture, but are included as colonies and they had to pay annual
tribute. They enjoyed substantial autonomy and internal freedom, and Majapahit did not necessarily station their
officials or military officers here; however, any challenges on Majapahit oversight might draw severe response.
These areas such as the vassal kingdoms and colonies in Maluku, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, Borneo, and
Malay peninsula.
All of those three categories were within the sphere of influence of the Majapahit empire, however Majapahit also
recognize the fourth realm that defines its foreign diplomatic relations:
• Mitreka Satata, literary means "partners with common order". It refer to independent foreign states that is
considered as Majapahit's equals, not the subject of Majapahit powers. According to Nagarakretagama canto 15,
the foreign states are Syangkayodhyapura (Ayutthaya of Siam), Dharmmanagari (Nakhon Si Thammarat
Kingdom), Marutma, Rajapura and Sinhanagari (kingdoms in Myanmar), Champa, Kamboja (Cambodia), and
Yawana (Annam).[29] Mitreka Satata can be considered as Majapahit's allies, since other foreign kingdoms in
China and India was not included in this category, although Majapahit known has conducted foreign relations
with these nations.
The model of political formations and power difussion from its core in Majapahit capital city that radiates through its
overseas possessions, was later identified by historians as "mandala" model. The term mandala derived from Sanskrit
"circle" to explain the typical ancient Southeast Asian polity that was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries,
and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration.[30] The
territories belongs within Majapahit Mandala sphere of influence were those categorized as Mancanegara and
Nusantara. These areas usually have their own indigenous rulers, enjoy substantial autonomy and have their own
political institution intact without further integration into Majapahit administration. The same mandala model also
applied on previous empires; Srivijaya and Angkor, and also Majapahit's neighboring mandalas; Ayutthaya and
Champa.
In later period, Majapahit's hold on its overseas possessions began to waned. According to Wingun Pitu inscription
(dated 1447) it was mentioned that Majapahit was consist of 14 provinces, that administrated by the ruler titled
Bhre.[31] The provinces or vassal areas are:

• Daha (former capital • Kahuripan (or Janggala, • Kembang Jenar • Singhapura • Wengker (today
of Kediri) modern Surabaya) • Matahun (today • Tanjungpura Ponorogo)
• Jagaraga • Keling Bojonegoro) • Tumapel (former capital • Wirabhumi (today
• Kabalan • Kelinggapura • Pajang (today of Singhasari) Blambangan)
Surakarta)
Majapahit 21

Legacy
In sum, Majapahit was the largest empire ever to form in Southeast
Asia.[24] Although its political power beyond the core area in east Java
was diffuse, constituting mainly ceremonial recognition of suzerainty,
Majapahit society developed a high degree of sophistication in both
commercial and artistic activities. Its capital was inhabited by a
cosmopolitan population among whom literature and art flourished.[24]

Numbers of local legends and folklores in the region had mentioned

about the Majapahit kingdom. Most of them mentioned about the
incoming Javanese forces to their land, which was probably a local Pura Maospahit ("Majapahit Temple") in
testament of the empire's expansive nature that once dominating the Denpasar, Bali, demonstrate the typical
archipelago. The legend of Minangkabau mentioned an invading Majapahit red brick architecture.

foreign prince — associated with Javanese Majapahit kingdom — that

being defeated on buffalo fight. Others than Javanese sources, some
regional legends mentioning Majapahit kingdom or its general Gajah
Mada, also can be found; from Aceh, Minangkabau, Palembang, Malay
Peninsula, Sunda, Brunei, Bali to Sumbawa.

Several Javanese legends were originated or become popular during

Majapahit period. The Panji cycles, the tale of Sri Tanjung, and the
epic of Damarwulan, are popular tales in Javanese and Balinese
literatures. The tales of Panji was dated from older period during
The Majapahit style minaret of Kudus Mosque.
Kediri kingdom, while the tale of Sri Tanjung and the epic of
Damarwulan took place during Majapahit period. These tales has
remain a popular theme in Javanese culture of later period during Mataram Sultanate, and often become the source of
inspiration for wayang shadow puppet performance, ketoprak and topeng dance drama.

Majapahit had a momentous and lasting influence on Indonesian architecture. The descriptions of the architecture of
the capital's pavilions (pendopo) in the Nagarakertagama invoke the Javanese Kraton also the Balinese temples and
palace compounds of today. The Majapahit architectural style that often employs terracotta and red brick had heavily
influenced the architecture of Java and Bali in the later period. The Majapahit style candi bentar split gate, the kori
or paduraksa towering red brick gate, and also pendopo pavilion has become ubiquitous in Javanese and Balinese
architectural features, as evidence in Menara Kudus Mosque, Keraton Kasepuhan and Sunyaragi park in Cirebon,
Mataram Sultanate royal cemetery in Kota Gede, Yogyakarta, and various palaces and temples in Bali.
The vivid, rich and festive Balinese culture is considered as one of
Majapahit legacy. The Javanese Hindu civilization since the era of
Airlangga to the era of Majapahit kings has profoundly influenced and
shaped the Balinese culture and history.[32] The ancient links and
Majapahit legacy is observable in many ways; architecture, literature,
religious rituals, dance-drama and artforms. The aesthetics and style of
bas-reliefs in Majapahit East Javanese temples were preserved and
copied in Balinese temples. It is also due to the fact that after the fall of
the empire, many Majapahit nobles, artisans and priests has took
The red brick Candi Bentar split gate of Keraton
refuge either in the interior mountainous region of East Java or across
Kasepuhan in Cirebon reveal Majapahit
architectural influences. the narrow strait to Bali. Large numbers of Majapahit manuscripts,
Majapahit 22

such as Nagarakretagama, Sutasoma, Pararaton and Tantu Pagelaran, were being well-kept in royal libraries of Bali
and Lombok, and provides the glimpse and valuable historical records on Majapahit. The Majapahit Hindu-Javanese
culture has shaped the culture of Bali, that led to popular expression; "without Java there is no Bali". Yet in return,
Bali is credited as the last stronghold to safeguard and preserved the ancient Hindu Javanese civilization.
In weaponry, the Majapahit expansion is believed to be responsible for the widespread use of the keris dagger in
Southeast Asia; from Java, Bali, Sumatra, Malaysia, Brunei, Southern Thailand, to the Philippines. Although it has
been suggested that the keris, and native daggers similar to it, predate Majapahit, nevertheless the empire expansion
contributed to its popularity and diffussion in the region.
For Indonesians in later centuries, Majapahit became a symbol of past greatness. The Islamic sultanates of Demak,
Pajang, and Mataram sought to establish their legitimacy in relation to the Majapahit.[33] The Demak claimed a line
of succession through Kertabumi, as its founder, Raden Patah, in court chronicles was said to be the son of
Kertabumi with Putri Cina, a Chinese princess, who had been sent away before her son was born.[22] Sultan Agung's
conquest of Wirasaba (present day Mojoagung) in 1615 — during that time just a small town without significant
strategic and economic value — led by the sultan himself, may probably have had such symbolic importance as it
was the location of the former Majapahit capital.[34] Central Javanese palaces have traditions and genealogy that
attempt to prove links back to the Majapahit royal lines — usually in the form of a grave as a vital link in Java —
where legitimacy is enhanced by such a connection. Bali in particular was heavily influenced by Majapahit and the
Balinese consider themselves to be the true heirs of the kingdom.[25]
Modern Indonesian nationalists, including those of the early
20th-century Indonesian National Revival, have invoked the Majapahit
Empire. The memory of its greatness remains in Indonesia, and is
sometimes seen as a precedent for the current political boundaries of
the Republic.[4] Many of modern Indonesian national symbols derived
from Majapahit Hindu-Buddhist elements. The Indonesian national
flag "Sang Merah Putih" ("Red and White") or sometimes called
"Dwiwarna" ("The bicolor"), derived from the Majapahit royal color.
The Indonesian Navy flag of red and white stripes also has a Majapahit
The high reliefs of Gajah Mada and Majapahit
origin. The Indonesian national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", is a
history depicted in Monas, has become the source
quotation from an Old Javanese poem "Kakawin Sutasoma", written by of Indonesian national pride of past greatness.
a Majapahit poet, Mpu Tantular.[35]

The Indonesian coat of arms, Garuda Pancasila, also derives from Javanese Hindu elements.[36] The statue and
relief of Garuda have been found in many temples in Java such as Prambanan from the ancient Mataram era, and the
Panataran as well as the Sukuh temple dated from the Majapahit era. The notable statue of Garuda is the statue of the
king Airlangga depicted as Vishnu riding Garuda.
In its propaganda from the 1920s, the Communist Party of Indonesia presented its vision of a classless society as a
reincarnation of a romanticized Majapahit.[37] It was invoked by Sukarno for nation building and by the New Order
as an expression of state expansion and consolidation.[38] Like Majapahit, the modern state of Indonesia covers vast
territory and is politically centred on Java.
Palapa, the series of communication satellites owned by Telkom, an Indonesian telecommunication company, has
been named after Sumpah Palapa, the famous oath taken by Gajah Mada. Gajah Mada swore that he would not taste
any spice as long as he had not succeeded in unifying Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago). This ancient oath of
unification signifies the Palapa satellite as the modern means to unify the Indonesian archipelago by way of
telecommunication. The name was chosen by president Suharto, and the program was started in February 1975.
During the last half year of 2008, the Indonesian government sponsored a massive exploration on the site that is
believed to be the place where the palace of Majapahit once stood. Jero Wacik, the Indonesian Minister of Culture
Majapahit 23

and Tourism stated that the Majapahit Park would be built on the site and completed as early as 2009, in order to
prevent further damage caused by home-made brick industries that develop on the surrounding area.[39]
Nevertheless, the project leaves a huge attention to some historians, since constructing the park's foundation in
Segaran site located in south side of Trowulan Museum will inevitably damage the site itself. Ancient bricks which
are historically valuable were found scattered on the site. The government then argued that the method they were
applying were less destructive since digging method were used instead of drilling.[40]

List of rulers
The rulers of Majapahit was the dynastic continuity of the
Singhasari kings, which started by Sri Ranggah Rajasa, the
founder of Rajasa dynasty in late 13th century.
1. Raden Wijaya, styled Kertarajasa Jayawardhana
(1294–1309)
2. Kalagamet, styled Jayanagara (1309–1328)
3. Sri Gitarja, styled Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi
(1328–1350)
4. Hayam Wuruk, styled Sri Rajasanagara (1350–1389)
5. Wikramawardhana (1389–1429)
6. Suhita (1429–1447)
7. Kertawijaya, styled Brawijaya I (1447–1451)
8. Rajasawardhana, born Bhre Pamotan, styled Brawijaya II
(1451–1453)
9. Interregnum (1453–1456)
10. Bhre Wengker, Purwawisesa or Girishawardhana, styled
Brawijaya III (1456–1466)
11. Singhawikramawardhana, Pandanalas, or Suraprabhawa, Genealogy diagram of Rajasa dynasty, the royal family of
styled Brawijaya IV (1466–1468 or 1478[8]) Singhasari and Majapahit. Rulers are highlighted with period
12. Kertabumi, styled Brawijaya V (1468–1478) of reign.

13. Girindrawardhana, styled Brawijaya VI (1478–1527)

Majapahit in popular culture

Celebrated as 'the golden era of the archipelago', the Majapahit empire has inspired many writers and artists (and
continues to do so) to create their works based on this era, or to describe and mention it. The impact of the Majapahit
theme on popular culture can be seen in the following:
1. Sandyakalaning Majapahit (1933), or Twilight/Sunset in Majapahit is an historical romance that took place
during the fall of Majapahit empire, written by Sanusi Pane.
2. Panji Koming (since 1979), a weekly comic strip by Dwi Koendoro published in the Sunday edition of Kompas,
telling the everyday life of Panji Koming, a common Majapahit citizen. Although it took place in the Majapahit
era, the comic strip serves as witty satire and criticism of modern Indonesian society. From a political, social,
cultural and current point of view, Indonesia is described as the 'reincarnation' of the Majapahit empire. The
current Indonesian president is often portrayed as a Majapahit monarch or prime minister.
3. Saur Sepuh (1987–1991), a radio drama and film by Niki Kosasih. Begun as a popular radio drama program in
the late 1980s, Saur Sepuh is based on 15th-century Java, centered around the story about a fictional hero named
Brama Kumbara, the king of Madangkara, a fictional kingdom neighbour of the Pajajaran. In several stories the
Paregreg war is described, that is to say the civil war of Majapahit between Wikramawardhana and Bhre
Majapahit 24

Wirabhumi. This part has been made into a single feature film entitled 'Saur Sepuh' as well.
4. Tutur Tinular, a radio drama and film by S Tidjab. Tutur Tinular is a martial art historical epic fictional story
with the Majapahit era serving as the background of the story. The story also involved a romance between the
hero named Arya Kamandanu and his Chinese lover Mei Shin.
5. Wali Songo, the film tells the story of nine Muslim saints ('wali') who spread Islam to Java. The story took place
near the end of the Majapahit era and the formation of Demak. It describes the decaying Majapahit empire where
royals are fighting each other for power, while commoners are suffering.
6. Senopati Pamungkas (1986, reprinted in 2003), a novel by Arswendo Atmowiloto that is also a martial
art-historical epic fiction. It took place in the late Singhasari period and formation of Majapahit. This novel
describes the saga, royal intrigue, and romance of the formation of the Majapahit kingdom as well as the
adventure of the main character, a commoner named Upasara Wulung and his forbidden love affair with princess
Gayatri Rajapatni, whom later becomes the consort of Raden Wijaya, the first king of Majapahit.
7. Imperium Majapahit, a comic book series by Jan Mintaraga, published by Elexmedia Komputindo. This series
tells the history of Majapahit from its formation until the decline.
8. Puteri Gunung Ledang (2004), a Malaysian epic film based on a traditional Malay legend. This film recounts the
love story between Gusti Putri Retno Dumilah, a Majapahit Princess, and Hang Tuah, a Malaccan admiral.
9. Gajah Mada, a pentalogy written by Langit Kresna Hariadi, about fictionalized detail of Gajah Mada's life from
Kuti rebellion until Bubat War.
10. Dyah Pitaloka (2007), a novel written by Hermawan Aksan, about the fictionalized detailed lifestory of
Sundanese Princess Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi, focussed around the Bubat War. The novel virtually took the same
context and was inspired by Kidung Sundayana.

Notes
[1] D.G.E. Hall (1956). "Problems of Indonesian Historiography". Pacific Affairs (Pacific Affairs, Vol. 38, No. 3/4) 38 (3/4): 353–359.
doi:10.2307/2754037. JSTOR 2754037.
[2] Keat Gin Ooi (2004). Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC& pg=PA822). ABC-CLIO. pp. 822. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. .
[3] Majapahit Overseas Empire, Digital Atlas of Indonesian History (http:/ / www. indonesianhistory. info/ map/ majapahit. html)
[4] Ricklefs (1991), page 19
[5] Prapantja, Rakawi, trans. by Theodore Gauthier Pigeaud, Java in the 14th Century, A Study in Cultural History: The Negara-Kertagama by
Rakawi Prapanca of Majapahit, 1365 AD (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1962), vol. 4, p. 29. 34; G.J. Resink, Indonesia’s History Between the
Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory' (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1968), p. 21.
[6] The Brunei Museum journal, Volume 4, Issue 1 – Page 192
[7] Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 29. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
[8] Ricklefs (1991), page 18
[9] Johns, A.H. (November 1964). "The Role of Structural Organisation and Myth in Javanese Historiography". The Journal of Asian Studies
(The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1) 24 (1): 91–99. doi:10.2307/2050416. JSTOR 2050416.
[10] C. C. Berg. Het rijk van de vijfvoudige Buddha (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd.
Letterkunde, vol. 69, no. 1) Ansterdam: N.V. Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij, 1962; cited in M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern
Indonesia Since c. 1300, 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993, pages 18 and 311
[11] Ma Huan Ying-yai Sheng-lan, translated by J.V.G Mills, White Lotus p86 ISBN 974-8496-78-4
[12] JakartaPost: Majapahit capital may be larger than previously believed (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2011/ 01/ 07/
majapahit-capital-may-be-larger-previously-believed. html)
[13] Spuler, Bertold; F.R.C Bagley (1981). The Muslim world : a historical survey, Part 4 (http:/ / books. google. com. my/
books?id=VNgUAAAAIAAJ). Brill Archive. pp. 252. ISBN 90-04-06196-7, 9789004061965. .
[14] Slamet Muljana. Menuju Puncak Kemegahan (LKIS, 2005)
[15] Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet.
pp. 279. ISBN 981-4155-67-5.
[16] Drs. R. Soekmono, (1973, 5th reprint edition in 1988). Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2, 2nd ed.. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius.
p. 72.
[17] Y. Achadiati S, Soeroso M.P., (1988). Sejarah Peradaban Manusia: Zaman Majapahit.. Jakarta: PT Gita Karya. p. 13.
[18] Millet, Didier (Hardcover edition — August 2003). John Miksic. ed. Indonesian Heritage Series: Ancient History. Singapore 169641:
Archipelago Press. pp. 106. ISBN 981-3018-26-7.
Majapahit 25

[19] Cribb, Robert, Historical Atlas of Indonesia, University of Hawai'i Press, 2000
[20] Ricklefs, 37 and 100
[21] Poesponegoro & Notosusanto (1990), hal. 448–451.
[22] Ricklefs, 36–37
[23] Robert W. Hefner (1983). "Ritual and Cultural Reproduction in Non-Islamic Java". American Ethnologist 10 (1983): 665–683.
doi:10.1525/ae.1983.10.4.02a00030. JSTOR 644055.
[24] Millet, Didier (Hardcover edition — August 2003). Indonesian Heritage Series: Ancient History. editor: John Miksic. Singapore 169641:
Archipelago Press. pp. 107. ISBN 981-3018-26-7.
[25] Schoppert, P., Damais, S. (1997). Didier Millet. ed. Java Style. Paris: Periplus Editions. pp. 33–34. ISBN 962-593-232-1.
[26] "Ritual Networks and Royal Power in Majapahit Java, page:100" (http:/ / www. persee. fr/ web/ revues/ home/ prescript/ article/
arch_0044-8613_1996_num_52_1_3357). Persee. 1996. . Retrieved 2010-07-14.
[27] "Uang Kuno Temuan Rohimin Peninggalan Majapahit" (http:/ / www. kompas. com/ read/ xml/ 2008/ 11/ 24/ 17571290/ uang. kuno.
temuan. rohimin. peninggalan. majapahit. ). November 2008. .
[28] Poesponegoro & Notosusanto (1990), hal. 451–456.
[29] MAJAPAHIT : KERAJAAN AGRARIS – MARITIM DI NUSANTARA page 8 (http:/ / ariesgoblog. files. wordpress. com/ 2010/ 01/
agus-arismunandar-majapahit-ker_-agraris-maritim. pdf)
[30] Dellios, Rosita (2003-01-01). "Mandala: from sacred origins to sovereign affairs in traditional Southeast Asia" (http:/ / epublications. bond.
edu. au/ cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=1007& context=cewces_papers& sei-redir=1& referer=http:/ / www. google. co. id/ url?sa=t& rct=j&
q=mandala%20srivijaya%20political%20federation& source=web& cd=11& ved=0CBgQFjAAOAo& url=http%3A%2F%2Fepublications.
bond. edu. au%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent. cgi%3Farticle%3D1007%26context%3Dcewces_papers& ei=xrfkTu3fKdDQrQfpmuCSCA&
usg=AFQjCNHApSYyFUfMf3LtiD2a95urqw-X5w& sig2=SrOqXV_mGyJ6xCRIIOpJQA#search="mandala srivijaya political federation").
Bond University Australia. . Retrieved 2011-12-11.
[31] Nastiti, Titi Surti. Prasasti Majapahit, in the site www.Majapahit-Kingdom.com (http:/ / www. majapahit-kingdom. com/ cms/ index.
php?option=com_content& task=view& id=10& Itemid=7) from Direktorat Jenderal Sejarah dan Purbakala. Friday, 22 June 2007.
[32] Lonely Planet: History of Bali (http:/ / www. lonelyplanet. com/ indonesia/ bali/ history)
[33] Ricklefs, page 40
[34] Ricklefs, page 43
[35] Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, masterpiece of Mpu Tantular, Antara (in Indonesian) (http:/ / www. antaranews. com/ berita/ 1256649489/
bhinekatunggalikakaryagemilangmputantular)
[36] Hindu Civilizations of Austronesia and Southeast Asia (http:/ / vedicempire. com/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=94&
Itemid=1)
[37] Ricklefs, page 174
[38] Friend, Theodore. Indonesian Destinies. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press. pp. 19.
ISBN 0-674-01137-6.
[39] "Taman Majapahit Dibangun di Trowulan" (http:/ / www. kompas. com/ read/ xml/ 2008/ 11/ 04/ 20305699/ taman. majapahit. dibangun. di.
trowulan). November 4, 2008. .
[40] "Situs Majapahit Dirusak Pemerintah" (http:/ / www. kompas. com/ read/ xml/ 2009/ 01/ 05/ 05100324/ situs. majapahit. dirusak.
pemerintah). January 5, 2009. .

References
• M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300, 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991

External links
• A Short History of Majapahit (http://www.eastjava.com/books/trowulan/history/history.html)
• Memoirs of Majapahit Kingdom (http://www.eastjava.com/books/majapahit/)
• A brief history of Majapahit (http://users.skynet.be/network.indonesia/ni4001c6.htm)
• A Complete Transcription of Majapahit Royal Manuscript of Nagarakertagama from SejarahNasional.org an
National History Website (http://sejarahnasional.org/index.php/kerajaan-nusantara/
1-terjemahan-manuskrip-nagarakertagama)
Ubud 26

Ubud
Ubud, Bali
—  Town  —

Ubud

Ubud, Bali
Location in Bali

Ubud, Bali
Location in Indonesia

Coordinates: 8°30′24.75″S 115°15′44.49″E

Country Indonesia

Province Bali

Regency Gianyar
Ubud 27

Time zone UTC+08

Ubud is a town on the Indonesian island of Bali in Ubud District,

located amongst rice paddies and steep ravines in the central foothills
of the Gianyar regency. One of Bali's major arts and culture centres, it
has developed a large tourism industry.
Ubud has a population of about 30,000 people, but it is becoming
difficult to distinguish the town itself from the villages that surround
it.[1]
Hindu Temple in Ubud

History
8th century legend tells of a Javanese priest, Rsi Markendya, who meditated at the confluence of two rivers (an
auspicious site for Hindus) at the Ubud locality of Campuan. Here he founded the Gunung Lebah Temple on the
valley floor, the site of which remains a pilgrim destination.[2]
The town was originally important as a source of medicinal herbs and plants; Ubud gets its name from the Balinese
word ubad (medicine).[2]
In the late nineteenth century, Ubud became the seat of feudal lords who owed their allegiance to the king of
Gianyar, at one time the most powerful of Bali's southern states. The lords were members of the satriya family of
Sukawati, and were significant supporters of the village's increasingly renowned arts scene.[2]
Tourism on the island developed after the arrival of Walter Spies, an ethnic German born in Russia who taught
painting and music, and dabbled in dance. Spies and foreign painters Willem Hofker and Rudolf Bonnet entertained
celebrities including Charlie Chaplin, Noël Coward, Barbara Hutton, H.G. Wells and Vicki Baum. They brought in
some of the greatest artists from all over Bali to teach and train the Balinese in arts, helping Ubud become the
cultural centre of Bali.
A new burst of creative energy came in 1960s in the wake of Dutch painter Arie Smit (1916-), and development of
the Young Artists Movement. There are many museums in Ubud, including the Museum Puri Lukisan, Museum
Neka and the Agung Rai Museum of Art.
The Bali tourist boom since the late 1960s has seen much development in the town; however, it remains a centre of
artistic pursuit.[2]
Ubud 28

Town orientation and tourism

The main street is Jalan Raya Ubud (Jalan Raya means main road), which runs
east-west through the center of town. Two long roads, Jalan Monkey Forest and
Jalan Hanoman, extend south from Jalan Raya Ubud. Puri Saren Agung is a large
palace located at the intersection of Monkey Forest and Raya Ubud roads. The
home of Tjokorda Gede Agung Sukawati (1910–1978), the last "king" of Ubud,
it is now occupied by his descendants and dance performances are held in its
courtyard. It was also one of Ubud's first hotels, dating back to the 1930s.

The Ubud Monkey Forest is a sacred nature reserve located near the southern end
of Jalan Monkey Forest. It houses a temple and approximately 340 Crab-eating
Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) monkeys.[3]
Ubud tourism focuses on culture, yoga and nature. In contrast to the main tourist
area in southern Bali, the Ubud area has forests, rivers, cooler temperatures and The Ubud Palace
less congestion although traffic has increased dramatically in the 21st century. A
number of smaller "boutique"-style hotels are located in and around Ubud, which
commonly offer spa treatments or treks up Ubud's mountains.
The Moon of Pejeng, in nearby Pejeng, is the largest single-cast bronze kettle
drum in the world, dating from circa 300BC. It is a popular destination for
tourists interested in local culture, as is the 11th century Goa Gajah, or 'Elephant
Cave', temple complex.
The Blanco Renaissance Museum is also located in the town.

Notes
[1] "World Gazetteer: Ubud" (http:/ / www. world-gazetteer. com/ wg. php?x=1283240716&
lng=de& des=wg& geo=293357526& srt=npan& col=adhoq& msz=1500& men=gpro& lng=en).
World Gazetteer. . Retrieved 2010-08-31.
[2] Picard (1995)
[3] "Sacred Monkey Forest Ubud Sanctuary - Mandala Wisata Wenara Wana - Padangtegal Ubud Cremation in Ubud
Bali" (http:/ / www. monkeyforestubud. com/ monkey. html). Desa Adat Padangtegal. . Retrieved
2009-06-21.

References
• Picard, Kunang Helmi (1995) Artifacts and Early Foreign Influences. From Oey, Eric (Editor) (1995). Bali.
Singapore: Periplus Editions. pp. 130–133. ISBN 962-593-028-0.
Batuan, Bali 29

Batuan, Bali
Batuan

The "Fat statue" of Batuan

Batuan
Location in Bali

Batuan
Location in Indonesia

Coordinates: 8°35′8″S 115°16′32″E

Country Indonesia

Province Bali

Batuan (alternate: Batoeon or "Baturan")[1] is a village in Bali, Indonesia. It is noted for its artwork and style of
painting which originated in the village in the 1930s and has since emerged into a major Balinese artistic style,
known as a Batuan painting. It is a major painting center and contains a number of art galleries and cooperative art
societies which have played a key role in promoting the art of Batuan. The village is also known for its performance
Batuan, Bali 30

of the ancient Gambuh dance, performed every Full Moon day.[2]

There are two temples on the western part of the village which are known as Pura Puseh and Pura Dasar. These
temples are built in classical Balinese temple architecture style with elaborate carvings. Visitors are given vermilion
sarongs to wear during visit to the temples. The town is also popular for carved teak wood furnishings.[3] The village
also has a "fat Buddha statue" (called the "Fat Baby Statue") at the cross road from Sakah to Blahbatu facing east.[4]

Geography
Batuan is located in central Bali about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) south of
Ubud and about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) northeast of Denpasar
contiguous to northern Sukhawathi village, another well-known art
center.[4][5][6] The land in this part of Bali is very flat. The area
covered by the town excluding agricultural lands is 6 square kilometres
(2.3 sq mi). The town is bounded by streams flowing through chasms
or gorges, which provide water supply to the town. Apart from the
streams that flow through the town, there are also irrigation canals
sourced from upstream dams which provide irrigation facilities to large
Gas station in Batuan
tract of paddy fields that surround the village, which was the back bone
of the sustenance economy in the past; economy is now largely
dependent on tourist influx and the town is now part of “World Economy.” By 1995, the village had paved roads.[7]

The town has a number of temples hidden in the labyrinth lanes and by lanes of the town but two temples are
prominent on the main road. In addition, there are now concrete paved performance pavilions in the town with high
roofs where dance performances are held by many dance groups, which have got established now to cater to the
tourism in the town; one such pavilion is in front of the Pura Desa Batuan temple.[7]

History
Batuan is mentioned in historical records as far back as 1000 years.[8] The Hindu and Indian influence in the region
in the village is evident from the carvings and temples. In the 17th century, Batuan and southern Bali were controlled
by the royal family until a priest's curse led to their losing their control; eventually they dispersed to various parts of
the country.[3][8] During the period of 1947–1949, most of the Batuan people remained loyal to the Gianyar Regency
and opposed nationalism.[9]
Batuan, Bali 31

Culture

Art
Balinese art forms are primarily classified under three
major categories of which Batuan Style (distinct from
the Ubud Style) which originated in Batuan is one style
which has absorbed the traditional art form to the
present dynamic art styles; the other two Bali art styles
are the Ubud style of Ubed and the Sanur style which
have been further supplemented by an "Young Artists"
style of 1960s of Penestanan (the artists village) origin
influenced by the Dutch artists. In the Batuan style of
painting, the emphasis is adoption of sombre colour,
generally in black and white with preponderance of
A typical painting from Batuan by a local artist mystic Balinese religious ethos related to sorcery and
witchcraft. They are also famous for the miniature
painting with great attention paid to detailing.[10][11] The artists have an eye for detail as they paint with great
patience. Vegetation is drawn in a stylised format, but each leaf is painted and shaded. The patterns, even in batik
sarongs, have the minor figures drawn very carefully. Even the open space is filled with pulsating marks. Scenes
emerge from the canvas and retreat into the vegetation such as a dog fight, a love affair, a group of gamblers, all
shown in a corner of the canvas.[6]

Batuan village gave its name to a style of painting which evolved in the 1930s after a group of local villagers, Ida
Bagus Made Togog and Ida Bagus Made Wija began experimenting with ink-washed paintings on black
backgrounds. These are popular to this day.[12] The black and white background was said to evoke the
supernatural.[8] Artists in Batuan later changed to gouache and acrylics. In the early years of the Batuan genre art,
Batuan artists explored subjects that concerned themselves rather than creating tourist art. While anthropologists
Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson had a special relationship with Batuan artists, they avoided influencing them
and were careful in what Western pictures they were to show to the Batuans. Batuan artists depicted only a
traditional world in their pictures, avoiding objects such as automobiles, until at least the late 1980s.[13]
Anthropologists also interpret that the paintings made by artists of Batuan are visual texts which represent the
“Balinese Character”.[14]
Another notable feature is, unlike the Ubud style, the Batuan style also imbued daily life scenes in its depictions,
deviating from the traditional. The depiction is of factual scenes but camouflaged in the form of masks. The colours
used by the famous artists of Batuan were more bold than those used in Ubud paintings, with green and maroon
being the dominant shades used for depicting human beings. Daily life with a complex variety of activities is
depicted in great details. However, the painting canvases still adopted the three space formula with the bottom part
devoted to daily human activities, with ritual activities in the middle section and with the upper section devoted to
the realms of gods.[15]
Batuan, Bali 32

The Batuan painters belonging to the Pita Maha Painters group also
created aesthetically elegant paintings combining Buddhist mythology
with vivacious and inventive Wayan-style images. These paintings
have also been described as “naïve style works –almost caricatures –
that depict daily life with humour.”[16]
The village is now dominated by galleries of various artists.[12] Of
major note is I Wayan Bendi Gallery, which is named after a notable A Batuan painting by Ida Bagus Rai
contemporary artist in the style and sells expensive paintings, mostly
over $200.[12] Many paintings of the artist I Made Buli are located here.[17] I Wayan Bendi of Batuan created the
paintings as “craft for tourist painting” with himself as the central figure surrounded by tourists in various modes of
life and this format has now become a flourishing art form.[18]

Dance form
One of the popular and ancient dance forms, which is performed in Batuan and many other villages, frequently, is
known as the Gambuh. It is a theatrical dancing art form which reportedly evolved in the 15th century which is a
fusion of singing, drama and visual art forms. It is performed during the festivals of Full Moon day and also on
occasions of marriages and other ceremonies, locally known as the Odalan, Manusa Yadnya and Pitra Yadnya
(Ngaben). However, this dance form is stated to be on the decline.[11][19]
Ethnography studies indicate that tourism has become integral to the economy of Batuan, particularly since the
1930s. So much so, that in the 1970s a frog dance was devised for the tourists which became a part of Balanese
social life, as such dances were performed as part of wedding receptions.[18]

Rituals
While certain villages in Bali are known for violence during trance state, violence rituals are not performed in
Batuan, nor do Batuans commonly engage in the trance state at all.[20]

Festivals
The most popular festival that is observed in Batuan and other places
in Bali is the Galungan (meaning "When the Dharma is winning),
which is a national festival that occurs over a cycle of every 210 days.
It is the religious belief that Gods descend to the earth on this day.
During this festival a long bamboo pole called locally as penjor is
made to decorate the entrance to the family compound. The festival is
observed starting with the day of arrival of gods and ends on the 10th
day known as Kuningan. During this temple celebrations are held
every 210 days. It is known as the Odlan festival and is held in the
village when child artists also give music performances. During this
festival, dancing, music and elaborate decorations and food offerings
are a common feature.[21]

Landmarks
Although the village is known primarily for its artistic genre, it also Penjor made of bamboo is displayed in villages
contains some notable architectural landmarks and carvings. during Galungan.

Pura Puseh
Batuan, Bali 33

Pura Puseh. The pillar has a carving of a dancing goddess

The most notable landmark is the village temple, known as Pura Puseh, an ancient structure dated to the 11th
century, embellished with intricate stone carvings.[17] It is located in the northern part of the village, 200 metres
(660 ft) off the main road.[22] The temple also has an inscription that testifies to the date of founding of Batuan in
1022 AD.[23] The temple underwent restoration in 1992. It is a five-tiered gateway tower, clearly influenced by
Indian religious architecture. Its icons and decorations, however, are typically Balinese in style. Notable depictions
include a Bhoma head overlooking the main gateway, the god Wisnu astride a bull, great elephants on the central
stairway balustrade, and Siwa standing amongst skulls.[22] The roof of the temple is made of the fibre of chromatic
black palm tree. The maintenance of the temple is done by the residents of the village. The temple is situated on the
main road from Denpasar to Ubud.[23]
The entry gate to the temple appears as a split gate as if it was formed
once as one gate that was split in to two parts. This gate leads into a
courtyard which has a garden and a galaxy of statues fixed at various
locations. From the courtyard, there is another gateway spanned by an
intricately carved arch with bass relief on the inset and intertwined
with vines and a closed door. The entry to the sanctum is again through
two gates. The sanctum is where the gods are enthroned during festival
time through a special invitation to “come down into this world.” The
gods invited during the festivals are venerated with deep devotion and
offerings. A sign post at the temple says:[24]

Pr Puse Pr Desa
Des Adat Basua Wooden model of a split gate.

Saka 944

The first line makes mention of two temples – The Pura Puse and the Pura Desa – the second line defines the
organization responsible for the temple and the last line 'saka 944' is in Indic and is equivalent to 1022 CE[24]
On the 1st and 15th of each month, the Gambuh, an ancient court dance performance, is staged at the temple.[12]
Owing to the success of tourism in Bali, a plot has been built next to the temple to put on a daily morning barong
dance for tourists, enacting a fight between the good, a shaggy haired lion-like creature, and an evil widow-witch
named Rangda.[22] In the evenings, the dance troupe puts on a Kecak dance and a fire dance.[22]
"Fat Buddha" statue
In the northern part of the village can be found a stone Buddha statue of considerable girth which marks the Sakah
road to Blahbatuh, pointing east.[4][12]
Nearby tourist attractions include the Santi Mandala and Spa, Balifunworld,[5] and the Bali Zoo.
Batuan, Bali 34

Notable people
• I Nyoman Kakul (1905–1985), dancer and teacher. He was one of the first to teach women martial dances such as
baris in the 1950s. He was a noted performer of topeng.[25] Ida Bagau Togog, the foremost artist of Bali also
hailed from Batuan.[26]

References
[1] Mead, Margaret; Francis, Patricia A. (2006). To cherish the life of the world: selected letters of Margaret Mead (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=oxA7pMP0OvkC& pg=PA167). Basic Books. p. 167. ISBN 0-465-00815-1. .
[2] Vaisutis, Justine (2007). Indonesia (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=eoMYUd6FsSkC& pg=PA327). Lonely Planet. p. 327.
ISBN 1741044359. . Retrieved December 20, 2010.
[3] Bali & Lombok (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=j7YosVd8wEMC& pg=PA204). Lonely Planet Publications (Firm). 1984.
pp. 204–205. ISBN 1-74104-864-8. . Retrieved December 19, 2010.
[4] Backshall, Stephen (2003). The Rough Guide to Indonesia (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=WKoIooGXjPYC& pg=PA565). Rough
Guides. p. 565. ISBN 1-85828-991-2. . Retrieved December 20, 2010.
[5] Google. Google Maps (Map).
[6] Gouyon, Anne; Yayasan Bumi Kita (2005). The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference (http:/ / books.
google. co. in/ books?id=RzUPfuQ1GO0C& pg=PP175). Tuttle Publishing. p. 173. ISBN 979-3780-00-2. . Retrieved December 19, 2010.
[7] Geertz (2004), pp. 17–18
[8] Ver Berkmoes, Ryan; Stewart, Iain (2007). Bali & Lombok (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=ZRewlYFRXqgC& pg=PA206) (11 ed.).
Lonely Planet. p. 206. ISBN 1-74059-913-6. .
[9] Geertz, p. 19
[10] "A short History of Indonesian Realm" (http:/ / preterhuman. net/ texts/ history/ A Short History of Bali. pdf) (pdf). Robert Priglle. p. 138. .
Retrieved December 20, 2010.
[11] ThomassonCroll, Mary Justice (2010). Frommer's Bali & Lombok (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=-SdPoFp5WY0C& pg=PA218).
Frommer's. p. 218. ISBN 0-470-49776-9. . Retrieved December 19, 2010.
[12] Reader, Lesley; Ridout, Lucy (1996). Bali & Lombok:The Rough Guide. Penguin Books. pp. 134–5. ISBN 1-85828-134-2.
[13] Geertz, Hildred (1994). Images of power: Balinese paintings made for Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/
books?id=-PxGieeV6boC& pg=PA17). University of Hawaii Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-8248-1679-X. .
[14] Bott, Anthony (1998). Dimensions: texts from Asia for the upper secondary English classroom (http:/ / books. google. co. in/
books?id=pydoE5JEXZwC& pg=PA12). Curriculum Press. p. 12. ISBN 1-86366-417-3. . Retrieved December 20, 2010.
[15] Bentara Budaya Jakarta (Organization) (2008). The journey of Indonesian painting: the Bentara Budaya collection (http:/ / books. google.
co. in/ books?id=QuB3RHAWu1MC& pg=PA236). Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. p. 236. ISBN 979-9101-20-4. . Retrieved December 20,
2010.
[16] Capaldi, Liz; Joshua Eliot (2000). Bali handbook with Lombok and the Eastern Isles: the travel guide (http:/ / books. google. co. in/
books?id=ZiHAw5zSHKkC& pg=PA234). Footprint Travel Guides. p. 234. ISBN 0-658-01454-4. . Retrieved Deecemebr 19, 2010.
[17] "Bali-Batuan Overivew" (http:/ / news. individualbali. com/ 2009/ 06/ bali-batuan-overview/ ). Individual Bali. June 2009. . Retrieved
December 19, 2010.
[18] Bruner, Edward M (2005). Culture on tour: ethnographies of travel (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=UEED33sTDdgC&
pg=PA202). University of Chicago Press. p. 202. ISBN 0-226-07762-4. . Retrieved December 19, 2010.
[19] "Gambuh" (http:/ / webcache. googleusercontent. com/ search?q=cache:WyldYXTPTDwJ:indonesia. gunadarma. ac. id/ ?p=608+
Demographics+ of+ Batuan,+ Bali& cd=21& hl=en& ct=clnk& gl=in). Explore Indonesia; Gunadharma University. . Retrieved December 20,
2010.
[20] Geertz, p. 23
[21] Descutner, Janet; Elizabeth A. Hanley and Jacques (FRW) D'Amboise (2010). Asian Dance (http:/ / books. google. co. in/
books?id=8tCYjXOtkdgC& pg=PA74). Infobase Publishing. p. 74. ISBN 1-60413-478-X. . Retrieved December 19, 2010.
[22] Reader, Lesley; Ridout, Lucy (2002). The rough guide to Bali & Lombok (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=JlcL6HeY-uAC&
pg=PA180) (4 ed.). Rough Guides. p. 180. ISBN 1-85828-902-5. .
[23] "Batuan Temple at Batuan Village Gianyar Bali" (http:/ / driversbali. com/ batuan-temple. html). Diversebali.com. Archived (http:/ / web.
archive. org/ web/ 20101107223623/ http:/ / www. driversbali. com/ batuan-temple. html) from the original on 7 November 2010. . Retrieved
December 20, 2010.
[24] Geertz (2004), pp. 19–21
[25] Brandon, James R. (1997). The Cambridge guide to Asian theatre (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC& pg=PA135)
(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ISBN 0-521-58822-7. .
[26] Friend, Donald (1990). Donald Friend's Bali (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=8tafAAAAMAAJ& q=Batuan,+ Bali& dq=Batuan,+
Bali& hl=en& ei=EPINTd6CEMfZrQfJnrTwCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA). Art Gallery of
New South Wales,. pp. 18, 23. ISBN 0-7305-6574-2. . Retrieved December 20, 2010.
Batuan, Bali 35

Bibliography
• Geertz, Hildred (2004). The life of a Balinese temple: artistry, imagination, and history in a peasant village (http:/
/books.google.co.in/books?id=JbrPXcurKxAC&pg=PA17). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2533-0.
Retrieved December 20, 2010.

Mas, Indonesia
Mas is a village about six km south of Ubud, Bali, Indonesia - known for their woodcarvings. Mas is the home of the
renowned Nyana & Tilem Gallery.

Kamasan
Kamasan is a village on Bali, Indonesia. It is situated just to the north of Gelgel, in the Klungkung regency.
Kamasan has a cultural importance on a Bali-wide level. The various 'traditional' styles of painting on modern Bali
are derived from the Kamasan style, which in turn takes it patterns from ancient Java. Historically, artists from
Kamasan were used by the many raja courts that existed on Bali up to the early twentieth century. The village also
provided gold- and silversmiths, dancers, musicians and puppeteers. The painters have a particular ward in Kamasan,
the Banjar Sangging. The smiths are located in another ward, the Banjar Pande Mas.[1]

References
[1] Eric Oey, Bali, Island of the Gods. Singapore: Periplus 1990, p. 169.

Wayang
Wayang is a Javanese word for
particular kinds of theatre. When the
term is used to refer to kinds of puppet
theatre, sometimes the puppet itself is
referred to as wayang. Performances of
shadow puppet theatre are
accompanied by a gamelan orchestra
in Java, and by gender wayang in Bali.

UNESCO designated wayang kulit, a

shadow puppet theatre and the best
known of the Indonesian wayang, as a
Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity on 7 November
2003. In return for the
acknowledgment, UNESCO required Javanese wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performance by a famous Indonesian dalang
Indonesians to preserve their (puppet master) Ki Manteb Sudharsono, is usually a whole night long.
[1]
heritage.

Etymology
Wayang 36

The term 'wayang' is the Javanese word for shadow,[2] or bayang in standard Indonesian and Malay. In modern daily
Javanese and Indonesian vocabulary, wayang is most often associated with the puppet itself or the whole puppet
theatre performance.

History
Wayang is a generic term denoting traditional theatre in Indonesia. There is no
evidence that wayang existed before Hinduism was brought to Southeast Asia
from India around the first century CE. This leads to the hypothesis that the art
was imported from India or China, both of which have a long tradition of shadow
puppetry and theatre in general. However, there very well may have been
indigenous storytelling traditions that had a profound impact on the development
of the traditional puppet theatre.

The first record of a wayang performance is from an inscription dated 930 CE

which says si Galigi mawayang, or "Sir Galigi played wayang". From that time
till today it seems certain features of traditional puppet theatre have remained.
Galigi was an itinerant performer who was requested to perform for a special
royal occasion. At that event he performed a story about the hero Bhima from the Wayang shadow-puppet (Bali, early
Mahabharata. 20th century)

Wayang kulit is a unique form of theatre employing light and shadow. The
puppets are crafted from buffalo hide and mounted on bamboo sticks. When held up behind a piece of white cloth,
with an electric bulb or an oil lamp as the light source, shadows are cast on the screen. The plays are invariably
based on romantic tales, especially adaptations of the classic Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Some
of the plays are also based on local happening or other local secular stories. It is up to the conductor or dalang or
master puppeteer to decide his direction.

The dalang is the genius behind the entire performance. It is he who

sits behind the screen and narrates the story. With a traditional
orchestra in the background to provide a resonant melody and its
conventional rhythm, the dalang modulates his voice to create suspense
thus heightening the drama. Invariably, the play climaxes with the
triumph of good over evil.
The figures of the wayang are also present in the paintings of that time,
for example, the roof murals of the courtroom in Klungkung, Bali.
They are still present in traditional Balinese painting today. The figures
A dalang performing wayang kulit in Java, circa are painted, flat woodcarvings (a maximum of 5 to 15 mm
1890. thick—barely half an inch) with movable arms. The head is solidly
attached to the body. Wayang klitik can be used to perform puppet
plays either during the day or at night. This type of wayang is relatively rare.

Wayang today is both the most ancient and most popular form of puppet theatre in the world. Hundreds of people
will stay up all night long to watch the superstar performers, dalang, who command extravagant fees and are
international celebrities. Some of the most famous dalang in recent history are Ki Nartosabdho, Ki Anom Suroto, Ki
Asep Sunandar Sunarya, Ki Sugino, and Ki Manteb Sudarsono.
Wayang 37

Wayang kulit
Wayang kulit, or shadow puppets, are
without a doubt the best known of the
Indonesian wayang. Kulit means skin,
and refers to the leather construction of
the puppets that are carefully chiselled
with very fine tools and supported with
carefully shaped buffalo horn handles
and control rods. The stories are
usually drawn from the Hindu epics
the Ramayana, the Mahabharata or Wayang Purwa type, depicting five Pandawa, from left to right: Bimo, Arjuna, Yudistira,
from the Serat Menak, (a story about Nakula, and Sahadewa at the Indonesia Museum in Jakarta.
the heroism of Amir Hamza[3]).

There is a family of characters in Javanese wayang called Punakawan; they are sometimes referred to as
"clown-servants" because they normally are associated with the story's hero, and provide humorous and
philosophical interludes. Semar is the father of Gareng (oldest son), Petruk, and Bagong (youngest son). These
characters did not originate in the Hindu epics, but were added later, possibly to introduce mystical aspects of Islam
into the Hindu-Javanese stories.[4] They provide something akin to a political cabaret, dealing with gossip and
contemporary affairs.

The puppet figures themselves vary from place to place. In Central Java the city
of Surakarta (Solo) and city of Yogyakarta are most famous and the most
commonly imitated style of puppets. Regional styles of shadow puppets can also
be found in West Java, Banyumas, Cirebon, Semarang, and East Java. Bali
produces more compact and naturalistic figures, and Lombok has figures
representing real people. Often modern-world objects as bicycles, automobiles,
airplanes and ships will be added for comic effect, but for the most part the
traditional puppet designs have changed little in the last 300 years.

Historically, the performance consisted of shadows cast on a cotton screen and

Wayang kulit as seen from the
shadow side an oil lamp. Today, the source of light used in wayang performance in Java is
most often a halogen electric light. Some modern forms of wayang such as
Wayang Sandosa created in the Art Academy at Surakarta (STSI) has employed spotlights, colored lights and other
innovations.
The handwork involved in making a wayang kulit figure that is suitable for a performance takes several weeks, with
the artists working together in groups. They start from master models (typically on paper) which are traced out onto
skin or parchment, providing the figures with an outline and with indications of any holes that will need to be cut
(such as for the mouth or eyes). The figures are then smoothed, usually with a glass bottle, and primed. The structure
is inspected and eventually the details are worked through. A further smoothing follows before individual painting,
which is undertaken by yet another craftsman. Finally, the movable parts (upper arms, lower arms with hands and the
associated sticks for manipulation) mounted on the body, which has a central staff by which it is held. A crew makes
up to ten figures at a time, typically completing that number over the course of a week. However, unfortunately there
is not strong continuing demand for the top skills of wayang craftspersons and the relatively few experts still skilled
at the art sometimes find it difficult to earn a satisfactory income.[5]
The painting of less expensive puppets is handled expediently with a spray technique, using templates, and with a
different person handling each color. Less expensive puppets, often sold to children during performances, are
sometimes made on cardboard instead of leather.
Wayang 38

Wayang wong and wayang topeng

Wayang wong also known as Wayang
orang (literally "human wayang") is a
type of Javanese theatrical
performance with themes taken from
episode of Ramayana or Mahabharata.
While wayang gedog usually the
theatrical performance that took the
themes from the Panji cycles stories
from the kingdom of Janggala, in
which the players wear masks known
as wayang topeng or wayang gedog.
Pandava and Krishna in an act of the wayang wong performance. The word gedog comes from kedok,
which, like topeng means "mask". The
main theme is the story of Raden Panji and Candra. This is a love story about princess Candra Kirana of Kediri and
Raden Panji Asmarabangun, the crown prince of Jenggala. Candra Kirana was the incarnation of Dewi Ratih
(goddess of love) and Panji was an incarnation of Kamajaya (god of love). Kirana's story was given the title
Smaradahana ("The fire of love"). At the end of the complicated story they finally can marry and bring forth a son,
named Raja Putra. Panji Asmarabangun ruled Jenggala under the official names Sri Kameswara, Prabu Suryowiseso,
and Hino Kertapati. Originally, wayang wong was performed only as an aristocratic entertainment in four palaces of
Yogyakarta and Surakarta. In the course of time, it spread to become a popular and folk form as well.

Wayang golek
Wayang golek are wooden doll puppets that are operated from below
by rods connected to the hands and a central control rod that runs
through the body to the head. The simple construction of the puppets
belies their versatility, expressiveness and aptitude for imitating human
dance. Today, wayang golek is mainly associated with Sundanese
culture of West Java. However the wooden wayang also known in
Central Java as Wayang Menak, originated from Kudus Central Java.

Little is known for certain about the history of wayang golek, but
scholars have speculated that it most likely originated in China and
arrived in Java sometime in the 17th century. Some of the oldest
traditions of wayang golek are from the north coast of Java in what is
called the pasisir region. This is home to some of the oldest Muslim
kingdoms in Java and it is likely the wayang golek grew in popularity
A pair of wayang golek from West Java
through telling the wayang menak stories of Amir Hamza, the uncle of
Muhammad. These stories are still widely performed in Kabumen,
Tegal, and Jepara as wayang golek menak, and in Cirebon, wayang golek cepak. Legendary origins of wayang golek
attribute their invention to the Muslim saint Wali Sunan Kudus, who used the medium to proselytize Muslim values.
Wayang 39

In the 18th century the tradition moved into the mountainous region of
Priangan West Java where it eventually was used to tell stories of the
Ramayana and the Mahabarata in a tradition now called Wayang Golek
Purwa, which can be found in Bandung, Bogor and Jakarta. The
adoption of Javanese Mataram kejawen culture by Sundanese
aristocrats was probably the remnant of Mataram influence over the
Priangan region during the reign of expansive Sultan Agung. While
main characters from Ramayana and Mahabharata are similar with
wayang kulit purwa version of Central Java, some of punakawan
(servant also jester) were rendered in Sundanese names and
characteristics, such as Cepot or Astrajingga as Bagong, Dawala or
Udel as Petruk. Wayang golek purwa has become the most popular
form of wayang golek today and the most famous puppeteer family is
the Sunarya family which has produced several generations of stellar
performers.
Panakawan, the friendly gestures of cepot, the red
face; petruk the long noses and gareng the round
nose

Wayang karucil or wayang klitik

Wayang klitik figures occupy a middle ground between the figures
of wayang golek and wayang kulit. They are constructed similarly
to wayang kulit figures, but from thin pieces of wood instead of
leather, and, like wayang kulit figures, are used as shadow
puppets. A further similarity is that they are the same smaller size
as wayang kulit figures. However, wood is more subject to
breakage than leather. During battle scenes, wayang klitik figures
often sustain considerable damage, much to the amusement of the
public, but in a country in which before 1970 there were no
adequate glues available, breakage generally meant an expensive,
newly made figure. On this basis the wayang klitik figures, which
are to appear in plays where they have to endure battle scenes,
have leather arms. The name of these figures is onomotopaeic, Wayang klitik image of Batara Guru
from the sound klitik-klitik, that these figures make when worked
by the dalang.

Wayang klitik figures come originally from eastern Java, where one still finds workshops turning them out. They are
less costly to produce than wayang kulit figures.
The origin of the stories involved in these puppet plays comes from the kingdoms of eastern Java: Jenggala, Kediri
and Majapahit. From Jenggala and Kediri come the stories of Raden Panji and Cindelaras, which tells of the
adventures of a pair of village youngsters with their fighting cocks. The Damarwulan presents the stories of a hero
from Majapahit. Damarwulan is a clever chap, who with courage, aptitude, intelligence and the assistance of his
young lover Anjasmara, makes a surprise attack on the neighboring kingdom and brings down Minakjinggo, an
Adipati (viceroy) of Blambangan and mighty enemy of Majapahit's beautiful queen Sri Ratu Kencanawungu. As a
reward, Damarwulan is married to Kencanawungu and becomes king of Majapahit; he also takes Lady Anjasmara as
a second wife. This story is full of love affairs and battles and is very popular with the public. The dalang is liable to
Wayang 40

incorporate the latest local gossip and quarrels and work them into the play as comedy.

Wayang beber
The wayang beber has strong
similarities to narratives in the form of
illustrated ballads that were common at
annual fairs in medieval and early
modern Europe. They have also been
subject to the same fate—they have
nearly vanished although there are still
some groups of artists who support
wayang beber in places such as Wayang beber depiction of a battle
Surakarta (Solo) in Central Java.[6]
Chinese visitors to Java during the
15th century described a storyteller or
unrolled scrolls and told stories that
made the audience laugh or cry. A few
scrolls of images remain from those
times, found today in museums. There
are two sets, hand-painted on
hand-made bark cloth, that are still
Wayang glass painting depiction of Bharatayudha
owned by families who have inherited battle
them from many generations ago, in
Pacitan and Wonogiri, both villages in Central Java. Performances, mostly in small open-sided pavilions or
auditoriums, take place according to the following pattern:

The dhalang gives a sign, the small gamelan orchestra with drummer and a few knobbed gongs and a musician with
a rebab (violin-like instrument held vertically) begins to play and the dhalang unrolls the first scroll of the story.
Then, speaking and singing, he narrates the episode in more detail. In this manner, in the course of the evening he
unrolls several scrolls one at a time. Each scene in the scrolls represents a story or part of a story. The content of the
story typically stems from the Panji romances which are semi-historical legends set in the 12th-13th century East
Javanese kingdoms of Jenggala, Daha and Kediri, and also in Bali.

Wayang Sadat
This newly developed form is used by teachers of Islam to show the principles of Muslim ethics and religion to the
natives of Java and Bali. Poplawska The term sadat derived from shahada (Arabic: ‫ ﺍﻟﺸﻬﺎﺩﺓ‬aš-šahādah).

Wayang Wahyu
Wayang wahyu or "revelation wayang" is a modern form created in the 1960s by the Javanese Jesuit Brother
Timotheus L. Wignyosubroto who sought to show the Javanese and other Indonesians the teachings of the Catholic
Church in a manner accessible to the audience. In the beginning, the puppets were often made of paper because it
was less expensive than the traditional water buffalo hide. It became popular as an alternative method of telling Bible
stories.Poplawska
Wayang 41

Notes
1. Poplawska 2004
2. Poplawska 2004

References
[1] Indonesian wayang Inscribed in 2003 on the Representative List of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ culture/ ich/ index.
php?RL=00039)
[2] Mair, Victor H. Painting and Performance:Chinese picture recitation and its Indian
Genesis. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988. p. 58.
[3] Sumarsam (15 December 1995). Gamelan: Cultural Interaction and Musical Wayang Museum in Kota, Jakarta area
Development in Central Java (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=H4JgdJt0ZWwC& pg=PA30). University of Chicago Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-226-78011-5. . Retrieved 19 June 2012.
[4] Eckersley. M.(ed.) 2009. Drama from the Rim: Asian Pacific Drama Book. Drama Victoria. Melbourne. 2009. (p15)
[5] Simon Sudarman, ' Sagio: Striving to preserve wayang' (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2012/ 09/ 11/ striving-preserve-wayang.
html), The Jakarta Post, 11 September 2012.
[6] Ganug Nugroho Adil, ' Joko Sri Yono: Preserving "wayang beber"' (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2012/ 03/ 27/
joko-sri-yono-preserving-wayang-beber. html), The Jakarta Post, 27 March 2012.

• This article was initially translated from the German-language Wikipedia article.
• Poplawska, Marzanna. Asian Theatre Journal. Fall 2004, Vol. 21 p. 194-202

Further reading
• Brandon, James (1970) On Thrones of Gold — Three Javanese Shadow Plays. Harvard University Press
• Clara van Groenendael, Victoria (1985) The Dalang Behind the Wayang. Dordrecht, Foris
• Keeler, Ward (1987) Javanese Shadow Plays, Javanese Selves. Princeton University Press
• Keeler, Ward (1992) Javanese Shadow Puppets. OUP
• Long, Roger (1982) Javanese shadow theatre: Movement and characterization in Ngayogyakarta wayang kulit.
Umi Research Press
• Mellema, R.L. (1988) Wayang Puppets: Carving, Colouring, Symbolism. Amsterdam, Royal Tropical Institute,
Bulletin 315.
• Mudjanattistomo (1976) Pedhalangan Ngayogyakarta. Yogyakarta (in Javanese)
• Soedarsono (1984) Wayang Wong. Yogyakarta, Gadjah Mada University Press

External links
• Historical Development of Puppetry: Scenic Shades (includes informations about wayang beber, kulit, klitik and
golek) (http://pages.citenet.net/users/ctmw2400/)
• Seleh Notes article on identifying Central Javanese wayang kulit (http://www.gamelannetwork.co.uk/
seleh-notes-library/wayang-puppets.html)
• Wayang Orang (wayang wong) traditional dance, from Indonesia Tourism (http://www.indonesiatourism.go.
id/gallery/traddance.htm)
• Wayang Klitik: a permanent exhibit of Puppetry Arts Museum (http://www.puppet.org/museum/permanent.
shtml#Wayang)
• Wayang Golek Photo Gallery, includes description, history and photographs of individual puppets by Walter O.
Koenig (http://www.pbase.com/amoxtli/wayang_golek)
• Wayang Kulit: The Art form of the Balinese Shadow Play (http://www.shadowlight.org/slp/index.
cfm?fuseaction=Resources.DisplayText&resource_id=6) by Lisa Gold
Wayang 42

• Wayang Puppet Theatre (http://www.unesco.or.id/activities/culture/programme/259.php) on the Indonesian

site of UNESCO
• The Wayang Golek Wooden Stick Puppets of Java, Indonesia (http://www.marlamallett.com/puppets.htm)
(commercial site)
• An overview of the Shadow Puppets tradition (with many pictures) in a site to Discover Indonesia (http://www.
discover-indo.tierranet.com/wayang.htm)
• Wayang Kulit exhibition at the Museum of International Folk Art (http://www.internationalfolkart.org/
exhibitions/dancingshadows.html)
• Wayang Kulit Collection of Shadow Puppets, Simon Fraser University Museum of Archaeology & Ethnology
digitized on Multicultural Canada website (http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/wkcsp)

Natural dye
Natural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants, invertebrates,
or minerals. The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from
plant sources –roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood — and other
organic sources such as fungi and lichens.
Archaeologists have found evidence of textile dyeing dating back to
the Neolithic period. In China, dyeing with plants, barks and insects
has been traced back more than 5,000 years.[1] The essential process of
dyeing changed little over time. Typically, the dye material is put in a
pot of water and then the textiles to be dyed are added to the pot, which
is heated and stirred until the color is transferred. Textile fiber may be
dyed before spinning ("dyed in the wool"), but most textiles are
"yarn-dyed" or "piece-dyed" after weaving. Many natural dyes require Naturally dyed skeins made with madder root,
the use of chemicals called mordants to bind the dye to the textile Colonial Williamsburg, VA

fibers; tannin from oak galls, salt, natural alum, vinegar, and ammonia
from stale urine were used by early dyers. Many mordants, and some dyes themselves, produce strong odors, and
large-scale dyeworks were often isolated in their own districts.

Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles using common, locally available materials, but scarce dyestuffs
that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes, Tyrian purple and crimson
kermes, became highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world. Plant-based dyes such as woad (Isatis
tinctoria), indigo, saffron, and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of
Asia and Europe. Across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control
the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth. such as cochineal and logwood (Haematoxylum campechianum) were
brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America.
The discovery of man-made synthetic dyes in the mid-19th century triggered a long decline in the large-scale market
for natural dyes. Synthetic dyes, which could be produced in large quantities, quickly superseded natural dyes for the
commercial textile production enabled by the industrial revolution, and unlike natural dyes, were suitable for the
synthetic fibers that followed. Artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement preferred the pure shades and subtle
variability of natural dyes, which mellow with age but preserve their true colors, unlike early synthetic dyes,[1] and
helped ensure that the old European techniques for dyeing and printing with natural dyestuffs were preserved for use
by home and craft dyers. Natural dyeing techniques are also preserved by artisans in traditional cultures around the
world.
Natural dye 43

In the early 21st century, the market for natural dyes in the fashion industry is experiencing a resurgence.[2] Western
consumers have become more concerned about the health and environmental impact of synthetic dyes in
manufacturing and there is a growing demand for products that use natural dyes. The European Union, for example,
has encouraged Indonesian batik cloth producers to switch to natural dyes to improve their export market in
Europe.[3]

Dyes in use in the fashion industry

Fibre content determines the type of dye required for a fabric:
• Cellulose fibres: cotton, linen, hemp, ramie, bamboo, rayon
• Protein fibres: wool, angora, mohair, cashmere, silk, soy, leather, suede
Cellulose fibres require fibre-reactive, direct/substantive, and vat dyes, which are colourless, soluble dyes fixed by
light and/or oxygen. Protein fibres require vat, acid, or indirect/mordant dyes, that require a bonding agent. Each
synthetic fibre requires its own dyeing method, for example, nylon requires acid, disperse and pigment dyes, rayon
acetate requires disperse dyes, and so on. The types of natural dyes currently in use by the global fashion industry
include:[4]
Animal:
• Cochineal insect (red)
• Cow urine (Indian yellow)
• Lac insect (red, violet)
• Murex snail (purple)
• Octopus/Cuttlefish (sepia brown)
Plant:
• Catechu or Cutch tree (brown)
• Gamboge tree resin (dark mustard yellow)
• Himalayan rubhada root (yellow)
• Indigofera plant (blue)
• Kamala tree (orange-yellow, golden yellow)
• Larkspur plant (yellow)
• Madder root (red, pink, orange)
• Myrabolan fruit (yellow, green, black)
• Pomegranate peel (yellow)
• Weld herb (yellow)

Origins
Colors in the "ruddy" range of reds, browns, and oranges are the first attested colors in a number of ancient textile
sites ranging from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age across the Levant, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Europe, followed by
evidence of blues and then yellows, with green appearing somewhat later. The earliest surviving evidence of textile
dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia, where traces of red dyes,
possible from ochre (iron oxide pigments from clay), were found.[5] Polychrome or multicolored fabrics seem to
have been developed in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE.[5] Textiles with a "red-brown warp and an ochre-yellow
weft" were discovered in Egyptian pyramids of the Sixth Dynasty (2345-2180 BCE).[6]
The chemical analysis that would definitively identify the dyes used in ancient textiles has rarely been conducted,
and even when a dye such as indigo blue is detected it is impossible to determine which of several indigo-bearing
plants was used.[7] Nevertheless, based on the colors of surviving textile fragments and the evidence of actual
dyestuffs found in archaeological sites, reds, blues, and yellows from plant sources were in common use by the late
Natural dye 44

Bronze Age and Iron Age.[8]

Processes
The essential process of dyeing requires soaking the material
containing the dye (the dyestuff) in water, adding the textile to be dyed
to the resulting solution (the dyebath), and bringing the solution to a
simmer for an extended period, often measured in days or even weeks,
stirring occasionally until the color has evenly transferred to the
textiles.[9]

Some dyestuffs, such as indigo and lichens, will give good color when
used alone; these dyes are called direct dyes or substantive dyes. The
majority of plant dyes, however, also require the use of a mordant, a
chemical used to "fix" the color in the textile fibers. These dyes are
called adjective dyes. By using different mordants, dyers can often
obtain a variety of colors and shades from the same dye. Fibers or cloth
may be pretreated with mordants, or the mordant may be incorporated Dyeing wool cloth, 1482, from British Library
Royal MS 15.E.iii, f. 269.
in the dyebath. In traditional dyeing, the common mordants are
vinegar, tannin from oak bark, sumac or oak galls, ammonia from stale
urine, and wood-ash liquor or potash (potassium carbonate) made by leaching wood ashes and evaporating the
solution.[10][11][12]

We shall never know by what chances primitive man discovered that salt, vinegar from fermenting fruit,
natural alum, and stale urine helped to fix and enhance the colours of his yarns, but for many centuries these
four substances were used as mordants.[10]
Salt helps to "fix" or increase "fastness" of colors, vinegar improves reds and purples, and the ammonia in stale urine
assists in the fermentation of indigo dyes.[10] Natural alum (aluminum sulfate) is the most common metallic salt
mordant, but tin (stannous chloride), copper (cupric sulfate), iron (ferrous sulfate, called copperas) and chrome
(potassium dichromate) are also used. Iron mordants "sadden" colors, while tin and chrome mordants brighten
colors. The iron mordants contribute to fabric deterioration, referred to as "dye rot". Additional chemicals or
alterants may be applied after dying to further alter or reinforce the colors.[13][14][15]
Textiles may be dyed as raw fiber (dyed in the fleece or dyed in the
wool), as spun yarn (dyed in the hank or yarn-dyed), or after weaving
(piece-dyed).[16] Mordants often leave residue in wool fiber that makes
it difficult to spin, so wool was generally dyed after spinning, as yarn
or woven cloth. Indigo, however, requires no mordant, and cloth
manufacturers in medieval England often dyed wool in the fleece with
the indigo-bearing plant woad and then dyed the cloth again after
weaving to produce deep blues, browns, reds, purples, blacks, and
tawnies.[17][18]
A dye-works with baskets of dyestuffs, skeins of
dyed yarn, and heated vats for dyeing. In China, Japan, India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Gambia, and other parts of
West Africa and southeast Asia, patterned silk and cotton fabrics were
produced using resist dyeing techniques in which the cloth is printed or stenciled with starch or wax, or tied in
various ways to prevent even penetration of the dye when the cloth is piece-dyed. Chinese ladao is dated to the 10th
century; other traditional techniques include tie-dye, batik, Rōketsuzome, katazome, bandhani and leheria.[19]
The mordants used in dyeing and many dyestuffs themselves give off strong and unpleasant odors, and the actual
process of dyeing requires a good supply of fresh water, storage areas for bulky plant materials, vats which can be
Natural dye 45

kept heated (often for days or weeks), and airy spaces to dry the dyed textiles. Ancient large-scale dye-works tended
to be located on the outskirts of populated areas, on windy promontories.[20]

Common dyestuffs

Reds and pinks

A variety of plants produce red dyes, including a number of lichens,
henna, alkanet or dyer's bugloss (Alkanna tinctoria), asafoetida and
Rubia tinctorum.[21] Madder (Rubia tinctorum) and related plants of
the Rubia family are native to many temperate zones around the world,
and have been used as a source of good red dye (rose madder) since
prehistory. Madder has been identified on linen in the tomb of
Tutankhamun,[21] and Pliny the Elder records madder growing near
Rome.[22] Madder was a dye of commercial importance in Europe,
being cultivated in Holland and France to dye the red coats of military
uniforms until the market collapsed following the development of
The Hunt of the Unicorn Tapestry, dyed with
synthetic alizarin dye in 1869. Madder was also used to dye the weld (yellow), madder (red), and woad (blue).
"hunting pinks" of Great Britain.[22]

Turkey red was a strong, very fast red dye for cotton obtained from madder root via a complicated multistep process
involving "sumac and oak galls, calf's blood, sheep's dung, oil, soda, alum, and a solution of tin."[23] Turkey red was
developed in India and spread to Turkey. Greek workers familiar with the methods of its production were brought to
France in 1747, and Dutch and English spies soon discovered the secret. A sanitized version of Turkey red was being
produced in Manchester by 1784, and roller-printed dress cottons with a Turkey red ground were fashionable in
England by the 1820s.[24][25]

Munjeet or Indian madder (Rubia cordifolia) is native to the Himalayas and other mountains of Asia and Japan.
Munjeet was an important dye for the Asian cotton industry and is still used by craft dyers in Nepal.[26]
Puccoon or bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) is a popular red dye among Southeastern Native American
basketweavers.[27] Choctaw basketweavers additionally use sumac for red dye.[28] Coushattas artists from Texas and
Louisiana used the water oak (Quercus nigra L.) to produce red.[29]
A delicate rose color in Navajo rugs comes from fermented prickly pear cactus fruit, Opuntia polycantha.[30] Navajo
weavers also use rainwater and red dirt to create salmon-pink dyes.[31]
Natural dye 46

Oranges
Dyes that create reds and yellows can also yield oranges. Navajo dyers create orange dyes from
one-seeded juniper, Juniperus monosperma, Navajo tea, Thelesperma gracile,[32] or alder
bark.[33]

Yellows
Yellow dyes are "about as numerous as red ones",[34] and can be extracted from saffron,
pomegranate rind, turmeric, safflower, onionskins, and a number of weedy flowering
plants.[34][35] Limited evidence suggests the use of weld (Reseda luteola), also called
mignonette or dyer's rocket[36] before the Iron Age,[34] but it was an important dye of the
ancient Mediterranean and Europe and is indigenous to England.[37] Two brilliant yellow dyes
of commercial importance in Europe from the 18th century are derived from trees of the
Americas: quercitron from the inner bark of oaks native to North America and fustic from the
dyer's mulberry tree (Maclura tinctoria) of the West Indies and Mexico.[35]

In rivercane basketweaving among Southeastern Woodlands tribes in the Americas, butternut

(Juglans cinerea) and yellow root (Xanthorhiza simplicissima) provide a rich yellow color.[27]
Chitimacha basket weavers have a complex formula for yellow that employs a dock plant (most
likely Rumex crispus) for yellow.[38] Navajo artists create yellow dyes from small snake-weed,
brown onion skins, and rubber plant (Parthenium incanum). Rabbitbush (Chrysothamnus) and
rose hips produce pale, yellow-cream colored dyes.[33]

Backside of
loomed quillwork
collected from an
Upper Missouri
tribe by the Lewis
and Clark
Expedition,
pre-1804. All
natural dyes.
Collection of the
University of
Pennsylvania
Museum

Greens
If plants that yield yellow dyes are common, plants that yield green dyes are rare. Both woad and indigo have been
used since ancient times in combination with yellow dyes to produce shades of green. Medieval and Early Modern
England was especially known for its green dyes. The dyers of Lincoln, a great cloth town in the high Middle Ages,
produced the Lincoln green cloth associated with Robin Hood by dyeing wool with woad and then overdyeing it
yellow with weld or dyer's greenweed (Genista tinctoria), also known as dyer's broom.[39] Woolen cloth mordanted
with alum and dyed yellow with dyer's greenweed was overdyed with woad and, later, indigo, to produce the
once-famous Kendal green.[37] This in turn fell out of fashion in the 18th century in favor of the brighter Saxon
green, dyed with indigo and fustic.
Natural dye 47

Soft olive greens are also achieved when textiles dyed yellow are treated with an iron mordant. The dull green cloth
common to the Iron Age Halstatt culture shows traces of iron, and was possibly colored by boiling yellow-dyed cloth
in an iron pot.[40] Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau in North America used lichen to dye corn husk bags a
beautiful sea green.[41]
Navajo textile artist Nonabah Gorman Bryan developed a two-step process for creating green dye. First the Churro
wool yarn is dyed yellow with sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata, and then it is soaked in black dye afterbath.[30] Red
onion skins are also used by Navajo dyers to produce green.[33]

Blues
Blue colorants around the world were derived from indigo dye-bearing plants, primarily those in the genus
Indigofera, which are native to the tropics. The primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true indigo
(Indigofera tinctoria). India is believed to be the oldest center of indigo dyeing in the Old World. It was a primary
supplier of indigo dye to Europe as early as the Greco-Roman era. The association of India with indigo is reflected in
the Greek word for the dye, which was indikon (ινδικόν). The Romans used the term indicum, which passed into
Italian dialect and eventually into English as the word indigo.[42]
In Central and South America, the important blue dyes were Añil (Indigofera suffruticosa) and Natal indigo
(Indigofera arrecta).[42][43]
In temperate climates including Europe, indigo was obtained primarily from woad (Isatis tinctoria), an indigenous
plant of Assyria and the Levant which has been grown in Northern Europe over 2,000 years, although from the 18th
century it was mostly replaced by superior Indian indigo imported by the British East India Company. Woad was
carried to New England in the 17th century and used extensively in America until native stands of indigo were
discovered in Florida and the Carolinas. In Sumatra, indigo dye is extracted from some species of Marsdenia. Other
indigo-bearing dye plants include dyer's knotweed (Polygonum tinctorum) from Japan and the coasts of China, and
the West African shrub Lonchocarpus cyanescens.[42][44]

Purples
In medieval Europe, purple, violet, murrey and similar colors were produced by dyeing wool with woad or indigo in
the fleece and then piece-dyeing the woven cloth with red dyes, either the common madder or the luxury dyes
kermes and cochineal. Madder could also produce purples when used with alum. Brazilwood also gave purple shades
with vitriol (sulfuric acid) or potash.[45]
Choctaw artists traditionally used maple (Acer sp.) to create lavender and purple dyes.[28] Purples can also be derived
from lichens, and from the berries of White Bryony from the northern Rocky Mountain states and mulberry (morus
nigra) (with an acid mordant).[46]

Browns
Cutch is an ancient brown dye from the wood of acacia trees, particularly Acacia catechu, used in India for dyeing
cotton. Cutch gives gray-browns with an iron mordant and olive-browns with copper.[47]
Black walnut (Juglans nigra) is used by Cherokee artists to produce a deep brown approaching black.[27] Today
black walnut is primarily used to dye baskets but has been used in the past for fabrics and deerhide. Juniper,
Juniperus monosperma, ashes provide brown and yellow dyes for Navajo people,[30] as do the hulls of wild walnuts
(Juglans major).[48]
Natural dye 48

Greys and blacks

Choctaw dyers use maple (Acer sp.) for a grey dye.[28] Navajo weavers create black from mineral yellow ochre
mixed with pitch from the piñon tree(Pinus edulis) and the three-leaved sumac (Rhus trilobata).[30] They also
produce a cool grey dye with blue flower lupine and a warm grey from Juniper mistletoe (Phoradendron
juniperinum).[33]

Lichen
Dye-bearing lichen produce a wide range of greens,[41] oranges, yellows, reds, browns, and bright pinks and purples.
The lichen Rocella tinctoria was found along the Mediterranean Sea and was used by the ancient Phoenicians. In
recent times, lichen dyes have been an important part of the dye traditions of Wales, Ireland, Scotland, and among
native peoples of the southwest and Intermontane Plateaus of the United States.[41] Scottish lichen dyes include
cudbear (also called archil in England and litmus in Holland), and crottle.[49]

Fungi
Miriam C. Rice, (1918—2010) of Mendocino, California, pioneered research into using various mushrooms for
natural dyes. She discovered mushroom dyes for a complete rainbow palette. Swedish and American mycologists,
building upon Rice's research, have discovered sources for true blues (Sarcodon squamosus) and mossy greens
(Hydnellum geogenium).[50] Hypholoma fasciculare provides a yellow dye, and fungi such as Phaeolus schweinitzii
and Pisolithus tinctorius are used in dyeing textiles and paper.[51]

Luxury dyestuffs
From the second millennium BCE to the 19th century, a succession of
rare and expensive natural dyestuffs came in and out of fashion in the
ancient world and then in Europe. In many cases the cost of these dyes
far exceeded the cost of the wools and silks they colored, and often
only the finest grades of fabrics were considered worthy of the best
dyes.

Royal purple
The premier luxury dye of the ancient world was Tyrian purple or
royal purple, a purple-red dye which is extracted from several genera
of sea snails, primarily the spiny dye-murex Murex brandaris
(currently known as Bolinus brandaris). Murex dye was greatly prized
in antiquity because it did not fade, but instead became brighter and
more intense with weathering and sunlight. Murex dyeing may have
been developed first by the Minoans of East Crete or the West Semites Byzantine Emperor Justinian I clad in Tyrian
purple, 6th-century mosaic at Basilica of San
along the Levantine coast, and heaps of crushed murex shells have
Vitale, Ravenna, Italy
been discovered at a number of locations along the eastern
Mediterranean dated to the mid-2nd millennium BCE. The classical
dye known as Phoenician Red was also derived from murex snails.[52]

Murex dyes were fabulously expensive - one snail yields but a single drop of dye - and the Roman Empire imposed a
strict monopoly on their use from the reign of Alexander Severus (225–235 CE) that was maintained by the
succeeding Byzantine Empire until the Early Middle Ages.[53] The dye was used for imperial manuscripts on purple
Natural dye 49

parchment, often with text in silver or gold, and porphyrogenitos or "born in the purple" was a term for Byzantine
offspring of a reigning Emperor. The color matched the increasing rare purple rock porphyry, also associated with
the imperial family.

Crimson and scarlet

Tyrian purple retained its place as the premium dye of Europe until it was replaced "in status and desirability"[54] by
the rich crimson reds and scarlets of the new silk-weaving centers of Italy, colored with kermes. Kermes is extracted
from the dried unlayed eggs of the insect Kermes vermilio orKermococcus vermilio found on species of oak
(especially the Kermes oak of the Mediterranean region). The dye is of ancient origin; jars of kermes have been
found in a Neolithic cave-burial at Adaoutse, Bouches-du-Rhône.[55] Similar dyes are extracted from the related
insects Porphyrophora hamili of the Caucasus region, Coccus polonicus (Polish cochineal or Saint John's blood) of
Eastern Europe, and the lac-producing insects of India, Southeast Asia, China, and Tibet.[56][57][58]
When kermes-dyed textiles achieved prominence around the mid-11th century, the dyestuff was called "grain" in all
Western European languages because the desiccated eggs resemble fine grains of wheat or sand.[53] Textiles dyed
with kermes were described as dyed in the grain.[57] Woollens were frequently dyed in the fleece with woad and then
piece-dyed in kermes, producing a wide range colors from blacks and grays through browns, murreys, purples, and
sanguines.[57] By the 14th and early 15th century, brilliant full grain kermes scarlet was "by far the most esteemed,
most regal" color for luxury woollen textiles in the Low Countries, England, France, Spain and Italy.[53]
Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect of Central and North America from which the crimson-coloured dye
carmine is derived. It was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples. Moctezuma in the 15th century collected tribute in
the form of bags of cochineal dye.[59] Soon after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire cochineal began to be
exported to Spain, and by the seventeenth century it was a commodity traded as far away as India. During the
colonial period the production of cochineal (in Spanish, grana fina) grew rapidly. Produced almost exclusively in
Oaxaca by indigenous producers, cochineal became Mexico's second most valued export after silver.[60] Cochineal
produces purplish colors alone and brilliant scarlets when mordanted with tin, and cochineal, which produced a
stronger dye and could thus be used in smaller quantities, replaced kermes dyes in general use in Europe from the
17th century.[61][62]

The rise of formal black

During the course of the 15th century, the civic records show brilliant reds falling out of fashion for civic and
high-status garments in the Duchy of Burgundy in favor of dark blues, greens, and most importantly of all,
black.[63][64] The origins of the trend for somber colors are elusive, but are generally attributed to the growing
influence of Spain and possibly the importation of Spanish merino wools. The trend spread in the next century: the
Low Countries, German states, Scandinavia, England, France, and Italy all absorbed the sobering and formal
influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s.[64][65]
Producing fast black in the Middle Ages was a complicated process involving multiple dyeings with woad or indigo
followed by mordanting, but at the dawn of Early Modern period, a new and superior method of dyeing black dye
reached Europe via Spanish conquests in the New World. The new method used logwood (Haematoxylum
campechianum), a dyewood native to Mexico and Central America. Although logwood was poorly received at first,
producing a blue inferior to that of woad and indigo, it was discovered to produce a fast black in combination with a
ferrous sulfate(copperas) mordant.[54][64] Despite changing fashions in color, logwood was the most widely used dye
by the 19th century, providing the sober blacks of formal and mourning clothes.[54]
Natural dye 50

Decline and rediscovery

Indigo-dyed and discharge-printed textile,
William Morris, 1873
The first synthetic dyes were discovered in the mid-19th century,
starting with William Henry Perkin's mauveine in 1856, an aniline dye
derived from coal tar.[66] Alizarin, the red dye present in madder, was
the first natural pigment to be duplicated synthetically, in 1869,[67]
leading to the collapse of the market for naturally grown madder.[68]
The development of new, strongly colored aniline dyes followed
quickly: a range of reddish-purples, blues, violets, greens and reds
became available by 1880. These dyes had great affinity for animal
fibers such as wool and silk. The new colors tended to fade and wash
out, but they were inexpensive and could be produced in the vast
quantities required by textile production in the industrial revolution. By
the 1870s commercial dyeing wth natural dyestuffs was fast
disappearing.[66]

At the same time the Pre-Raphaelite artist and founding figure of the Arts and Crafts movement William Morris took
up the art of dyeing as an adjunct to his manufacturing business, the design firm of Morris & Co. Always a
medievalist at heart, Morris loathed the colors produced by the fashionable aniline dyes. He spent much of his time
at his Staffordshiredye works mastering the processes of dyeing with plant materials and making experiments in the
revival of old or discovery of new methods. One result of these experiments was to reinstate indigo dyeing as a
practical industry and generally to renew the use of natural dyes like madder which had been driven almost out of
use by the commercial success of the anilines. Morris saw dyeing of wools, silks, and cottons as the necessary
preliminary to the production of woven and printed fabrics of the highest excellence; and his period of incessant
work at the dye-vat (1875–76) was followed by a period during which he was absorbed in the production of textiles
(1877–78), and more especially in the revival of carpet- and tapestry-weaving as fine arts. Morris & Co. also
provided naturally dyed silks for the embroidery style called art needlework.[69][70]

Scientists continued to search for new synthetic dyes that would be effective on cellulosefibers like cotton and linen,
and that would be more colorfast on wool and silk than the early anilines. Chrome or mordant dyes produced a
muted but very fast color range for woollens. These were followed by acid dyes for animal fibers (from 1875) and
the synthesis of indigo in Germany in 1880. The work on indigo led to the development of a new class of dyes called
vat dyes in 1901 that produced a wide range of fast colors for vegetable fibers.[71] Disperse dyes were introduced in
1923 to color the new textiles of cellulose acetate, which could not be colored with any existing dyes. Today disperse
dyes are the only effective means of coloring many synthetics. Reactive dyes for both wool and cotton were
introduced in the mid-1950s, and are used both in commercial textile production and in craft dyeing.[71]
In America, synthetic dyes became popular among a wide range of Native American textile artists; however, natural
dyes remained in use, as many textile collectors prefer natural dyes over synthetics. Today, dyeing with natural
materials is often practiced as an adjunct to handspinning, knitting and weaving.[72]It remains a living craft in many
traditional cultures of North America, Africa, Asia, and the Scottish Highlands.[73]
Natural dye 51

Notes
[1] Goodwin (1982), p. 11.
[2] Calderin, Jay (2009). Form, Fit, Fashion. Rockport. pp. 125. ISBN 978-1-59253-541-5.
[3] Faizal, Elly Burhaini (October 29, 2011). "Indonesia told to produce more 'green' products" (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2011/
10/ 29/ indonesia-told-produce-more-green-products. html). The Jakarta Post. . Retrieved November 9, 2011.
[4] Calderin, Jay (2009). Form, Fit, Fashion. Rockport. pp. 125–6. ISBN 978-1-59253-541-5.
[5] Barber (1991), pp. 223-225.
[6] Rogers, Penelope Walton, "Dyes and Dyeing". In Jenkins (2003), pp. 25-29.
[7] Barber (1991), pp. 227, 237.
[8] Barber (1991), pp. 228–229.
[9] Goodwin (1982), pp. 29–31.
[10] Goodwin (1982), p. 12
[11] Goodwin (1982), p. 32
[12] Kerridge (1988), pp. 165–66
[13] Barber (1991), pp. 235-236, 239.
[14] Goodwin (1982), pp. 32–34.
[15] (http:/ / www. quilthistory. com/ cleaning. htm)
[16] Kerridge (1988), pp. 15, 16, 135
[17] Munro (2003), p. 210
[18] Kerridge (1988), pp. 15, 17
[19] Gillow & Sentence (1999), pp. 122–136
[20] Barber (1991), p. 239.
[21] Barber (1991), p. 232.
[22] Goodwin (1982), pp. 64-65.
[23] Goodwin (1982), p. 65.
[24] Tozer & Levitt (1983), pp. 29–30.
[25] Cannon & Cannon (2002), p. 76
[26] Cannon & Cannon (2002), p. 80.
[27] Chancey, 37
[28] Chancey 51
[29] Chancey 66
[30] Bryan and Young 5
[31] Bryan and Young 62
[32] Bryan and Young 6
[33] "12 Plant Navajo Dye Chart, Craftperson: Maggie Begay." (http:/ / www. bairsindiantradingco. com/ craft_items/ 74-DC-12. htm) Bair's
Indian Trading Company. (retrieved 9 Jan 2011)
[34] Barber (1991), p. 233
[35] Goodwin (1982), pp. 60–63
[36] Reseda luteola (http:/ / www. alchemy-works. com/ reseda_luteola. html)
[37] Goodwin (1982), p. 63
[38] Chancey 47
[39] Cannon & Cannon (2002), p. 110.
[40] Barber (1991), p. 228.
[41] Chancey 173
[42] See Indigo dye.
[43] Goodwin (1982), p. 70
[44] Goodwin (1982), pp. 11, 70-76
[45] Kerridge (1988), pp. 166–67
[46] Goodwin (1982), pp. 107, 112
[47] Goodwin (1982), p. 60.
[48] Bryan and Young 61
[49] Goodwin (1982), pp. 87–92.
[50] Beebee, Dorothy M. "Mushrooms for Color." (http:/ / www. mushroomsforcolor. com/ ) 30 Nov 2010 (retrieved 9 Jan 2011)
[51] Beebee, Dorothy M. "Miriam C. Rice and Mushrooms for Color." (http:/ / www. turkeyredjournal. com/ archives/ V14_I1/ rice. html)
Turkey Red Journal. Fall 2008 (retrieved 9 Jan 2011)
[52] Barber (1991), pp. 228-229.
[53] Munro, John H. "The Anti-Red Shift – To the Dark Side: Colour Changes in Flemish Luxury Woollens, 1300–1500". In Netherton and
Owens-Crocker (2007), pp. 56–57.
Natural dye 52

[54] Schoeser (2007), p. 118

[55] Barber (1991), pp. 230–231
[56] Barber (1991), p. 231
[57] Munro, John H. "Medieval Woollens: Textiles, Technology, and Organisation". In Jenkins (2003), pp. 214–215.
[58] Goodwin (1982), p. 56
[59] Threads In Tyme, LTD. "Time line of fabrics" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051028155009/ http:/ / threadsintyme. tripod. com/ id63.
htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / threadsintyme. tripod. com/ id63. htm) on 2005-10-28. . Retrieved 5 January 2011.
[60] Behan, Jeff. "The bug that changed history" (http:/ / www. gcrg. org/ bqr/ 8-2/ bug. htm). . Retrieved 5 January 2011.
[61] Schoeser (2007), pp. 121, 248
[62] Barber (1982), p. 55.
[63] Munro (2007), pp. 76–77.
[64] , Munro (2007), pp. 87–93.
[65] Boucher, François: 20,000 Years of Fashion, pp. 219 and 244
[66] Thompson & Thompson (1987), p. 10
[67] Hans-Samuel Bien, Josef Stawitz, Klaus Wunderlich “Anthraquinone Dyes and Intermediates” in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry 2005 Wiley-VCH, Weinheim: 2005. doi:10.1002/14356007.a02355.
[68] Goodwin (1982), p. 65
[69] Dictionary of National Biography (1901), "William Morris"
[70] Parry (1983), pp. 36–46.
[71] Thompson & Thompson (1987), pp. 11–12
[72] Goodwin (1982), pp.7–8.
[73] Gillow & Sentance (1999), pp. 118–119.

References
The section on William Morris incorporates text from the Dictionary of National Biography, supplemental volume 3
(1901), a publication now in the public domain.
• Barber, E. J. W. (1991). Prehistoric Textiles. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00224-X.
• Boucher, François (1966). 20,000 Years of Fashion. Harry Abrams.
• Bryan, Nonabah Gorman and Stella Young (2002). Natives Dyes: Their Preparation and Use. (http://books.
google.com/books?id=5w71XQ1C0kIC&pg=PA5&dq=Nonabah&hl=en&
ei=OT4qTY6dM4mPnwebkq38AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false''Navajo) Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-42105-6.
• Cannon, John; Cannon, Margaret (2002). Dye Plants and Dyeing (2nd ed.). A&C Black.
ISBN 978-0-7136-6374-7.
• Chancey, Jill R., ed. (2005). By Native Hands: Woven Treasures from the Lauren Rogers Museum of Art. Lauren
Rogers Museum of Art. ISBN 0-935902-08-9 .
• Gillow, John; Sentance, Bryan (1999). World Textiles. Bulfinch. ISBN 0-8212-2621-5.
• Goodwin, Jill (1982). A Dyer's Manual. Pelham. ISBN 0-7207-1327-7.
• Hofenk de Graaf, Judith (2004). The Colourful Past: Origins, Chemistry and Identification of Natural Dyestuffs.
Abegg-Stiftung and Archetype Publications. ISBN 1-873132-13-1.
• Jenkins, David, ed. (2003). The Cambridge History of Western Textiles. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 052134107.
• Kerridge, Eric (1988). Textile Manufactures in Early Modern England (http://books.google.com/
books?id=YzS8AAAAIAAJ). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-2632-4.
• Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, ed. (2007). Medieval Clothing and Textiles. 3. Boydell Press.
ISBN 978-1-84383-291-1.
• Parry, Linda (1983). William Morris Textiles. Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-77074-4.
• Schoeser, Mary (2007). Silk. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11741-8.
• Thompson, Frances; Thompson, Tony (1987). Synthetic Dyeing: For Spinners, Weavers, Knitters and
Embroiderers. David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-8874-6.
Natural dye 53

• Tozer, Jane; Levitt, Sarah (1983). Fabric of Society: A Century of People and their Clothes 1770–1870. Laura
Ashley Press. ISBN 0-9508913-0-4.
• Cardon, Dominique (2007). Natural Dyes: Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science. Archetype Publications.
ISBN 1-904982-00-X.

External links
• International Mushroom Dye Institute (http://sonic.net/~dbeebee/IMDI.htm)
• Cochineal Master's Thesis-History and Uses (http://cochineal.info)

Sanur
Sanur may refer to:
• Sanur (West Bank), a Palestinian town in the northern West Bank
• Sa-Nur, a former Israeli settlement
• Sanur (Bali), a town on the Indonesian island of Bali

Pointillism
Pointillism (pron.: /ˈpwɛntɪlɪzəm/) is a technique of painting in which
small, distinct dots of pure color are applied in patterns to form an
image. Georges Seurat and Paul Signac developed the technique in
1886, branching from Impressionism. The term Pointillism was first
coined by art critics in the late 1880s to ridicule the works of these
artists, and is now used without its earlier mocking connotation.[1]
Neo-impressionism and Divisionism are also terms used to describe
this technique of painting.

Technique
The technique relies on the ability of the eye and mind of the viewer to
blend the color spots into a fuller range of tones. It is related to
Divisionism, a more technical variant of the method. Divisionism is
concerned with color theory, whereas pointillism is more focused on
the specific style of brushwork used to apply the paint.[1] It is a
technique with few serious practitioners today, and is notably seen in
the works of Seurat, Signac and Cross. However, see also Andy
Warhol's early works, and pop art. Detail from Seurat's La Parade de Cirque (1889),
showing the contrasting dots of paint used in
pointillism.
Pointillism 54

Practice
The practice of Pointillism is in sharp contrast to the traditional
methods of blending pigments on a palette. Pointillism is analogous to
the four-color CMYK printing process used by some color printers and
large presses that place dots of Cyan (blue), Magenta (red), Yellow,
and Key (black). Televisions and computer monitors use a similar
technique to represent image colors using Red, Green, and Blue (RGB)
colors.
Paul Signac, Femmes au Puits, 1892, showing a
If red, blue, and green light (the additive primaries) are mixed, the detail with constituent colors.
result is something close to white light (see Prism (optics)). Painting is
inherently subtractive, but pointillist colors often seem brighter than
typical mixed subtractive colors. This may be partly because subtractive mixing of the pigments is avoided, and
partly because some of the white canvas may be showing between the applied dots.
The painting technique used for pointillist color mixing is at the expense of the traditional brushwork used to
delineate texture.
The majority of pointillism is done in oil paints. Anything may be used in its place, but oils are preferred for their
thickness and tendency not to run or bleed.[2]

Music
Pointillism also refers to a style of 20th-century music composition. Different musical notes are made in seclusion,
rather than in a linear sequence, giving a sound texture similar to pointillism.[3] This type of music is also known as
punctualism or klangfarbenmelodie.

Notable artists
• Charles Angrand
• Chuck Close
• Henri-Edmond Cross
• Henri Delavallée
• Georges Lemmen
• Maximilien Luce
• Camille Pissarro
• John Roy
• Georges Seurat
• Paul Signac
• Vincent van Gogh
• Théo van Rysselberghe

Notable paintings
Vincent van Gogh, Self Portrait, 1887, using
• A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte by Georges pointillist technique.
Seurat
• Bathing at Asnieres by Georges Seurat
• The Windmills at Overschie by Paul Signac
Pointillism 55

• Banks of Seine by Georges Seurat

• Une baignade, Asnières by Georges Seurat
• A Coastal Scene by Theo Van Rysselberghe
• Family in the Orchard by Theo Van Rysselberghe
• Countryside at Noon by Theo Van Rysselberghe
• Afternoon at Pardigon by Henri-Edmond Cross
• Rio San Trovaso, Venice by Henri-Edmond Cross
• The Seine in front of the Trocadero by Henri-Edmond Cross
• The Pine Tree at St. Tropez by Paul Signac
• Against the Enamel of Background Rhythmic with Beats and Angels Maximilien Luce, Morning, Interior, 1890, using
by Paul Signac pointillist technique.

• The Yellow Sail, Venice by Paul Signac

• Notre Dame Cathedral by Maximilien Luce
• Le Pont De Pierre, Rouen by Charles Angrand
• The Beach at Heist by Georges Lemmen
• Aline Marechal by Georges Lemmen
• Vase of Flowers by Georges Lemmen

Neo-pointillism
Neo-pointillism is a further development of pointillism. This style of art was born in the late 20th early 21st century.

Neo-pointillism artists
• Francois Mathieu

Gallery

Georges Lemmen, The Beach at Heist, c. 1891/2, Musée d'Orsay Paris The Church at Eragny, Camille Pissarro, 1884.
The Walters Art Museum.
Pointillism 56

References
[1] "Pointillism." Artcyclopedia. Artists by Movement. John Malyon/Artcyclopedia, 2007. Web. http:/ / www. artcyclopedia. com/ history/
pointillism. html
[2] Nathan, Solon. "Pointillism Materials." Web. 9 Feb 2010. http:/ / www. si. umich. edu/ chico/ emerson/ pntmat. html
[3] Britannica - The Online Encyclopedia http:/ / www. britannica. com/

External links
• Georges Seurat, 1859-1891 (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/
p15324coll10/id/73155), a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Brahman
In Hinduism, Brahman (ब्रह्मन् brahman) is "the unchanging reality
amidst and beyond the world"[1], which "cannot be exactly defined"[2],
but is Sat-cit-ānanda (being-consciousness-bliss)[3] and the highest
reality.[4][5][6]
Brahman is conceived as personal (Saguna Brahman, with qualities),
impersonal (Nirguna Brahman, without qualities) and/or Para
Brahman, supreme, depending on the philosophical school.
The sages of the Upanishads teach that Brahman is the ultimate Impact of a drop of water in water, a common
essence of material phenomena (including the original identity of the analogy for Brahman and the Ātman
human self) that cannot be seen or heard but whose nature can be
known through the development of self-knowledge (atma jnana).[7] According to Advaita, a liberated human being
(jivanmukta) has realised Brahman as his or her own true self.
Radakrishnan, who is representative of the "Modern Hinduism"[8], refers to Brahman as the Absolute or Godhead
which is the Divine Ground[9] of all being.
The Isha Upanishad says:
Auṃ - That supreme Brahman is infinite, and this conditioned Brahman is infinite. The infinite proceeds
from infinite. If you subtract the infinite from the infinite, the infinite remains alone.

Etymology
Sanskrit Brahman (an n-stem, nominative bráhmā) from a root bṛh " to swell, expand, grow, enlarge" is a neutral
noun to be distinguished from the masculine brahmán—denoting a person associated with Brahman, and from
Brahmā, the creator God of the Hindu Trinity, the Trimurti. Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies
greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme
self.
The further origin of bṛh is unclear. According to the Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (IEW,
"Indo-European Etymological Dictionary"), written by the Austrian-German comparative linguist and Celtic
languages expert Julius Pokorny, IE root bhreu-, bhreu-d- denotes to swell, sprout (cf Slovenian brsteti – to sprout).
It could be from PIE *bherg'h- "to rise, high, eminent", cognate to Old Norse Bragi. Some, including Georges
Dumézil, have said that the Latin word flāmen "priest" may also be cognate. However, the standard Indo-Aryan
etymological dictionary by M. Mayrhofer (1986–2000, vol. II, p. 236-8) derives brahman 'formulation (of truth) [in
poetry], from Indo-Iranian *bhrajh-man < Indo-European *bhreg'h-men; cf. Old Persian brahm, Middle Persian
Zurvan 'form', Nuristani (Ashkun) blamade 'a god' ( from *brahma-daeva?), Old Norse bragr 'poetical art', etc., and
Brahman 57

argues against connection with Latin flamen.

Semantics and pronunciation

Here the underlined vowels carry the Vedic Sanskrit udātta short pitch accent. It is usual to use an acute
accent symbol for this purpose. (on the first syllable).
In Vedic Sanskrit:-
• Brahma (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter[10] gender) means the Great Cosmic Spirit,
from root brha
• Brahmānda (ब्रह्माण्ड) (nominative singular), from stems brha (to expand) + anda (egg), means universe as an
expansion of a cosmic egg (Hiranyagarbha), or the macrocosm. Brahmanda Purana discusses cosmogenesis.
Bhagavata Purana also discusses cosmogony and fundamental principles of material nature in detail.[11]
In later Sanskrit usage:-
• Brahma (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), brahman (stem) (neuter[10] gender) means the concept of the transcendent
and immanent ultimate reality of the One Godhead or Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism; the concept is central
to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. Also note that the word Brahman in this sense
is exceptionally treated as masculine (see the Merrill-Webster Sanskrit Dictionary). It is called "the Brahman" in
English. Brahm is another variant of Brahman.
• Brahmā (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singlular), Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (masculine gender), means the deity or deva
Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a
cult in present day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets
absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa.
One must not confuse these with:
• A brāhmaņa (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced Sanskrit pronunciation: [ˈbraːhməɳə]), (which literally means
"pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature.
• A brāhmaņa (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually
rendered in English as "Brahmin". This usage is also found in the Atharva Veda. In neuter plural form, Brahmāņi.
See Vedic priest.
• Ishvara, (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes)
of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme
Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal Brahman.
• Devas, the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In Vedic Hinduism, there
were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as
more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See Para Brahman). The Sanskrit word for
"ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.

Hindu understanding of Brahman

Vedic
In the early Vedic religion Brahman was the name given to the power that made the sacrifice effective, namely the
spiritual power of the sacred utterances pronounced by the vedic priests who were by virtue of this known as
brahmins. Connected with the ritual of pre-Vedantic Hinduism, Brahman signified the power to grow, the expansive
and self-altering process of ritual and sacrifice, often visually realized in the sputtering of flames as they received the
all important ghee (clarified butter) and rose in concert with the mantras of the Vedas.
The Vedas say that by Brahman, the initial manifestation of the material universe and all therein arose:
Great indeed are the devas who have sprung out of Brahman." — Atharva Veda
Brahman 58

Upanishads
The later Vedic religion produced the Upanisads, a series of profound philosophical reflections in which Brahman is
now considered to be the one Absolute Reality behind changing appearances. It is the universal substrate from which
material things originate and to which they return after their dissolution.
The sages of the Upanishads made their pronouncements on the basis of meditative experience and direct
knowledge. The earlier Upanishads were written during a time of intensely fertile philosophical and religious revival
in which the old dogmas were being questioned while experiential knowledge and logic were being emphasised. It is
at this point that the polytheism that characterises the vedic hymns gives way to a search for what is common in the
seemingly pluralistic universe. The unitive concepts that arise from this tendency are those of dharma and brahman.
The Upanishads recount the teachings of gurus to pupils (Brahmacaryas) who are seeking knowledge of Brahman.
This knowledge of brahman is not mere epistemic knowledge (knowing about something) but a direct, unambiguous
knowing that is liberating in its experience. This culture of acquiring personal knowledge and its concomitant
liberation, separate from direct Vedic influence, is now referred to as sramanic culture and has constituted an
important influence on the development of mainstream Hinduism.

Descriptions of Brahman
The description of Brahman from Mandukya Upanishad:
सर्वं ह्येतद् ब्रह्मायमात्मा ब्रह्म सोयमात्मा चतुष्पात्
sarvam hyetad brahmāyamātmā brahma soyamātmā chatushpāt – Mandukya Upanishad, verse-2
• Translation:-
sarvam (सर्वम्)- whole/all/everything; hi (हि)- really/surely/indeed; etad (एतद्)- this here/this; brahma (ब्रह्म)-
Brahma/Brahman; ayam (अयम्)- this/here; ātmā(आत्मा)- atma/atman; sah(सः)- he; ayam (अयम्)- this/here;
chatus(चतुस्)- four/quadruple; pāt(पात्)- step/foot/quarter
• With the sandhi expanded:-
सर्वम् हि एतद् ब्रह्म अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म सः अयम् आत्मा चतुस पात्
sarvam hi etad brahma ayam ātmā brahm sah ayam ātmā chatus paat
• Simple meaning:-
All indeed is this Brahman; He is Atman; He has four quarters.

The Great Sayings

Several mahā-vākyas (great sayings) from the Upanisads indicate what the principle of Brahman is:

Sanskrit Word-To-Word Translation (Used by Vaishnava Interpretation

Advaitins)

[12] "Brahman is knowledge" Brahman knows everything

prajnānam brahma

[13] "The Self is Brahman" The soul is of the same eternal, spiritual and transcendental nature as
ayam ātmā brahma
Brahman

[14] "I am Brahman" I am as eternal as Brahman

aham brahmāsmi

[15] "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman") [16]

tat tvam asi "You are the servant of the Supreme"

"All is truly Brahman" Brahman is everything, and all we see are His different energies —
sarvam khalvidam
[17] material or spiritual
brahma
Brahman 59

Brahman and Atman

Some Upanishadic statements identify the Atman, the Self, with Brahman. While Advaita philosophy considers
Brahman to be without form, qualities, or attributes, Visishtadvaita and Dvaita philosophies understand Brahman as
one with infinite auspicious qualities. In Advaita, the ultimate reality is expressed as Nirguna Brahman. Nirguna
means formless, attribute-less and indescribable. Advaita explains all personal forms of God including Vishnu and
Shiva with a metaphor: The personal God is impersonal reality reflected upon the mirror of ignorance and illusion.
In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, God is Saguna Brahman with infinite attributes and is the source of the impersonal
Nirguna Brahman, and God's energy is regarded as Maya (Hinduism)].

Moksha
While Brahman lies behind the sum total of the objective universe, the human mind boggles at any attempt to
explain it with only the tools provided by reason. Gital explains the concept of (Bhagavad Gita 5.21) "beyond the
senses, beyond the mind, beyond intelligence, beyond imagination."
Yajur Veda Mundakopanishad 3.2.4 reads: This Self is not attained by one devoid of strength, nor through delusion,
nor through knowledge unassociated with monasticism. But the Self of that knower, who strives through these means,
enters into the abode that is Brahman.
Yajur Veda Mundakopanishad 3.2.6 reads: Those to whom the entity presented by the Vedantic knowledge has
become fully ascertained, and who endeavour assiduously with the help of the Yoga of monasticism, become pure in
mind. At the supreme moment of final departure all of them become identified with the supreme Immortality in the
worlds that are Brahman, and they become freed from the cycle of Birth and Death.

Vedanta
The later Vedantic philosophers teach that the liberated being, upon realizing his or her true nature, reaches the state
of existence, awareness and bliss; as such, when asked to describe Brahman anthropomorphically, philosophers use
the term saccidananda even though Brahman is beyond the grasps of words. The term saccidānanda is regarded as
the only possible, yet inadequate and inaccurate, term which can be used to explain Brahman.
It is said that Brahman cannot be known by empirical means — that is to say, as an object within our
consciousness — because Brahman is our very consciousness. Therefore it may be said that moksha, yoga, samādhi,
nirvana, etc. do not merely mean to know Brahman, but rather to realise one's "brahman-hood", to actually realise
that one is and always was Brahman. Indeed, closely related to the Self-concept of Brahman is the idea that it is
synonymous with jiva-atma, or individual selves, our atman (or Self) being readily identifiable with the greater
reality (paramatma) of Brahman.
Generally, Vedanta rejects the notion of an evolving Brahman since Brahman contains within it the potentiality and
archetypes behind all possible manifest phenomenal forms. The Vedas, though they are in some respects historically
conditioned, are considered by Hindus to convey a knowledge[18] eternal, timeless and always contemporaneous
with Brahman. This knowledge is considered to have been handed down by realised yogins to students many
generations before the Vedas were committed to writing. Written texts of the Vedas are a relatively recent
phenomenon.
Different schools try to establish the primacy or supremacy of the personal or impersonal nature of Brahman.
Advaita argues the latter and dvaita the former.
Brahman 60

Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta espouses nondualism or monism. Thus, Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material or
otherwise. Brahman is the root source of everything that exists, and is the only thing that exists according to
Shankara. He states that Brahman is unknowable (as an object of knowledge), indescribable and, all inclusively,
non-dual. The goal of Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (Atman) is a product of our ego and false-identification; in
reality, Brahman is all that exists. This leads to the statement that we are ultimately Brahman. Depending upon the
interpretation, the Hindu pantheon of gods is said, in the Vedas and Upanishads, to be only higher manifestations or
metaphors, of Brahman. For this reason, "ekam sat" ("Truth is one"), and all is Brahman. This explains the Hindu
view that "Truth is one, though the sages give it different names."[19]
The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it is Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of
Advaita Vedanta, knowledge of brahman springs from inquiry into the real word as well as the world of the
Upanishads. Adi Shankaracharya is also of the view that the knowledge of brahman that shruti provides cannot be
obtained in any other means besides inquiry.[20]
In Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is without attributes and strictly impersonal. Since the Advaitins regard Brahman to be
the ultimate reality in comparison to it, the distinctness and dualism/pluralism of the material universe are products
of illusion and ignorance. Nonetheless, individual Advaitins have slightly differing views regarding the existence of
God in relation to Brahman. Some believe that there is one God however this God is transcended by the impersonal
Brahman; this form of Advaita Vedanta is a transtheistic form of nondualism. Others, still, consider gods to be
metaphors of the different aspects of the universe, which is ultimately Brahman; in this sense, Advaita Vedanta is a
nondualistic form of atheistic pantheism.
Following are relevant verses from Bhagavad-Gita which establish the Advaita position:
Similar to a person who is not attached to external pleasures but enjoys happiness in the Atman (soul),
the person who perceives Brahman in everything feels everlasting joy. (Bhagavad Gita 5.21)
The act of offering is Brahman; that which is offered is Brahman; the sacred fire is Brahman; the one
who makes the offering is Brahman; Brahman is thus attained by those who, in their actions, are
absorbed in contemplation of Brahman.(Bhagavad Gita 4.24)

Visishtadvaita Vedanta
Brahman of Visishtadvaita is synonymous with Narayana, who is the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or
Narayana is Saguna Brahman with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless Nirguna
Brahman. "Sarvam khalvidam brahma, tajjalaniti santa upasita": According to Ramanuja, considering the appearance
of the word "tajjalan iti" (Roots: tat + ja = born + la = dissolved), this statement from the Chandogya Upanishad does
not simply mean that the universe is Brahman, but that it is pervaded by, born from and dissolves into Brahman. An
analogy: fish is born in water, lives in water, and is ultimately dissolved into water; yet the fish is not water.
The concept of Brahman in Visishtadvaita is explained as an inseparable triad of Ishwara-Chit-Achit. Ishvara, the
Supreme Self (Paramatman) is the indwelling spirit (Antaryami) in all. Both the Chit (sentient) and Achit (insentient)
entities are pervaded and permeated by Ishvara. Brahman is the material and efficient cause of the universe. The
concept of Brahman in Visishtadvaita can be seen as a hybrid of Advaita and Dvaita positions. Like all other
Vaishnava schools of thought, Visishtadvaita is also panentheistic unlike the pantheism of Advaita. It also proposes a
qualified attributive monism approach as opposed to the absolute monism of Advaita.
Brahman is, Antaryami, the real self of all beings. Everything other than Brahman form the Sarira (body) of
Brahman. The inseparable relation between the body and the soul is similar to that of substance and attribute which
are inseparable. So Brahman is the prakari and the universe is the prakara, mode of Brahman. Hence anything that
describes a sentient or insentient being has its connotation only with Brahman, the real and ultimate self.
The relationship between Ishvara-Chit-Achit can be further understood as follows:
Brahman 61

1. The Sarira-Sariri Concept

The key concept of Visishtadvaita is the Sarira-Sariri Bhaava, the body-soul relationship between the universe and
Ishvara. There are three realities, namely, Ishvara (the Lord), Jiva (individual souls), and Jagat (insentient matter).
They are not separate entities but together they form an organic whole. This is similar to the concept of body-soul
relationship, but on a cosmic scale. Thus, Ishvara has the Chit (sentient) and Achit (insentient) entities for His body
and being the Supreme Self, exercises complete control over it.
2. Substance-Attribute Concept
In Visishtadvaita, Ishvara is the original substance, of which Jiva and Prakriti are attributes. An attribute cannot have
an existence independent of an underlying substance. The substance-attribute concept establishes an uninterrupted,
non-reciprocal relationship between Ishvara and the two modes.
Followers of Visishtadvaita refute Advaita thought that if it is indeed true that the one undivided Brahman, whose
very nature is pure spirit, is the foundation of Maya and also embodies the liberating force of knowledge, then it is
illogical to say that the very same Brahman falls under the influence of the illusory power of Maya and gets covered
by ignorance. Thus establishing that Jiva and Ishvara are indeed separate entities. Since both their identities and
capabilities are different, the Jiva and the Lord are essentially distinct. In other words, if Brahman is indivisible,
changeless, and supreme, then a force of Maya cannot appear within Brahman, modify it, and put it into ignorance.
Bhakti Yoga is the sole means of liberation in Visishtadvaita. Through Bhakti (devotion), a Jiva ascends to the realm
of the Lord to serve Him. Karma Yoga and Jnana Yoga are natural outcomes of Bhakti, total surrender, as the
devotee acquires the knowledge that the Lord is the inner self. A devotee realizes his own state as dependent on, and
supported by, and being led by the Lord, who is the Master. One is to lead a life as an instrument of the Lord,
offering all his thought, word, and deed to the feet of the Lord. One is to see the Lord in everything and everything in
Him. This is the unity in diversity achieved through devotion.
In Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna is Ishvara and denotes Saguna Brahman, and the term Brahman means Nirguna Brahman:
I (Ishvara) am the basis of the impersonal Brahman, which is immortal, imperishable and eternal and is the
constitutional position of ultimate happiness. (Bhagavad Gita 14.27)
I (Ishvara) am transcendental, beyond both kshara (the fallible, perishable world) and akshara (the infallible).
(Bhagavad Gita 15.18)

Dvaita Vedanta
Brahman of Dvaita (substantial monism) is synonymous with Hari or Vishnu, who is the most exalted Para
Brahman (Supreme Brahman), superior to liberated souls and even the impersonal Brahman. Dvaita holds that the
individual soul is dependent (paratantra) on God, since it is unable to exist without the energizing support of the
universal spirit, just as a tree cannot survive without its sap.
Dvaita schools argue against the Advaita concept that upon liberation one realizes Brahman as a formless God is
erroneous, quoting from Vedanta Sutra:
The form of Brahman is unmanifest, but even the form of Brahman becomes directly visible to one who
worships devoutly (tat avyaktam aha, api samradhane pratyaksa anumanabhyam).[21] (Vedanta Sutra 3.2.23)
Within His divine realm, devotees see other divine manifestations which appear even as physical objects in a
city (antara bhuta gramavat svatmanah). (Vedanta Sutra 3.3.36)
Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between Tattvas (significant properties) of
entities within the universal substrate as follows:
1. Jîva-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the soul and Vishnu
2. Jada-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the insentient and Vishnu
3. Mitha-jîva-bheda — difference between any two souls
4. Jada-jîva-bheda — difference between insentient and the soul
Brahman 62

5. Mitha-jada-bheda — difference between any two insentients

Vaishnavism
Vishnu is traditionally derived from the root "Vish" which means to enter or pervade, and He is called Vishnu
because He pervades the whole universe. Brahmanda Purana (1.4.25) says that He is called as Vishnu because He
has entered into everything in the universe. The most important aspect is that the whole universe is covered by only
three steps of Vishnu which is referred to several times in the Vedas (Rig Veda 1.22.17, 1.154. 3, 1.155.4, Atharva
Veda 7.26.5, Yajur Veda 2.25). In His three steps rests the whole universe (Rig Veda 1.154.2, Yajur Veda 23.49).
All indeed is Brahman, which can thus be identified with Vishnu, based on the Vedas.

Achintya Bheda Abheda

The Acintya Bheda Abheda philosophy is similar to Dvaitadvaita (differential monism). All Vaishnava schools are
panentheistic and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an
intermediate step of self-realization, but not Mukti, or final liberation of complete God-realization through Bhakti
Yoga. Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the
Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu; the universe and all other
manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.
In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal. That Brahman is Supreme Personality of
Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called jnana) of Absolute Truth, He is realized (usually by
advaita-vedantists, followers of Shankaracarya) as impersonal Brahman, then (by Vaishnavas) as personal Brahman
having eternal Vaikuntha abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as Paramatma (by process of
yoga-meditation on Supersoul, Vishnu-God in heart) – Vishnu (Narayana, also in everyone's heart) who has many
abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by bhakti) as Bhagavan,
Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal and/or impersonal).
In Gaudiya-vaisnavism, philosophers who try to establish that everything is Brahman or Maya are called
Brahmavadis (impersonalists) or Mayavadis. Thought they are still considered to be transcendentalists, but of other
group (so-called followers of Shankaracarya, because he himself, as avatara of Shiva accepted Brahman to be
Vishnu, not impersonal brahmajyoti as God).
The Advaita concept of a Jivanmukta is mocked as an absurd oxymoron because a person who has surmounted the
realm of perception and realized the Absolute (as Advaita holds) should not continue to exist within and interact with
the realm of perception that one has realized as being not real. The suggestion that such bondage to the world of
perception continues for a while after the occurrence of God-realization, because of past attachments, is not tenable.
Such attachments themselves are artifacts of the perceived world that has supposedly been sublated, and should not
continue to besiege the consciousness of the self-realized. A Jivanmukta, or liberated person, should not even be
physically present in the material universe. A person who is living in the world cannot be said to be free of sorrow
born of material contact, and also cannot be said to experience the joy of liberation. The very act of being in a gross
material body is not accepted in as a Jivanmukta i.e. a person liberated from the cycle of birth and death. The soul
upon liberation does not lose its identity, which remains different from God, nor does one become equal to God in
any respect. A mukta indeed becomes free from all suffering, but one's enjoyment is not of the same caliber as His,
nor does a mukta become independent of Him. The permanent differential aspect of Atman (soul) from the Lord is
established from:
Never was there a time when I (Ishvara) did not exist, nor you, nor all these kings; nor in the future shall any of us
cease to be. (Bhagavad Gita 2.12)
In Dvaita, liberation (Moksha) is achieved by flawless devotion and correct understanding. Devotion to a personal
form of God, Saguna Brahman, indicated here is the transcendental form of Krishna or Vishnu (see Vaishnavism).
This conclusion is corroborated by the Bhagavata Purana, written by Vyasa as his commentary on Vedanta Sutra.
Brahman 63

O my Lord, Krishna, son of Vasudeva, O all-pervading Lord, I offer my respectful obeisances unto You, the Absolute
Truth and the primeval cause of all causes of the creation, sustenance and destruction of the manifested universes
(om namo bhagavate vasudevaya janmady asya yatah 'nvayad itaratas cartheshv abhijnah svarat). (Bhagavata
Purana 1.1.1)
Vyasa employs the words "janma-adi – creation, sustenance and destruction; asya – of the manifested universes;
yatah – from whom;", in the first verse of the Bhagavata Purana to establish that Krishna is the Absolute Truth. This
is clear testimony of the author's own conclusion that the ultimate goal of all Vedic knowledge is Krishna.

Modern Hinduism
During the 19th century Hindu reform movements arose, creating "neo-Hinduism"[22], a modern synthetic
understanding of classical Hinduism and modern philosophy and spirituality.[23] Representants of this Hindu
modernism are Ramakrishna[22], Sri Aurobindo[22] and Radakrishnan.[24] An important influence is the Theosophy
from Annie Besant.[25]
Brahman is the one supreme, universal Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe.[26]
Radakrishnan refers to Brahman as the Absolute or Godhead, which is the Divine Ground of all being.[27]

Buddhist understanding of Brahman

Brahma as perfection
Buddhaghosa in his Digha[28] says that the "Tathagata (Buddha) is dhammakaya brahmakaya dhammabhuta
brahmabhuta."[29]
It is said that the cultivation of compassion in its purest form is "called the divine life in this world (Brahman item
viharam idhmahu)."[30] In this context Brahma is interpreted to mean divine.
While Brahmā in Buddhist scripture refers to the non-eternal demigod, Brahma or Brahman is believed by scholars
to refer to the eternal perfect being, and the highest stage any person can achieve is labelled as Brahma. For example
Buddha's eight-fold path is not only called as Astanga Marga (eight-fold path) and Dharmayana but also as
Brahmayana. As the Samyutta Nikaya says, V, 5-6, "This Ariyan eightfold Way may be spoken of as Brahmayana or
as Dhammayana.[31] Again the Buddha Dharma is equated with Brahma when "...he has become dharma, he has
become brahman."
In the Suttanipata, 656, the Buddha says that he who has won the three-fold lore (self-denial, holy life, and control)
and who will never be reborn is Brahma.[32]
The Buddha Dharma is compared to Brahma. In the Majjhima Nikaya, I, 60 the Dharmachakra of wheel of law is
also called the Brahmachakra.[33]
Of Nirvana, the ultimate happiness it is written "one who has attained Nirvana" it is said, "may justifiably employ
theological terminology (dhammena so Brahma- vadam vadeyya)"[34]
Further, Brahmajala refers to the best knowledge achieved.[35]
Bhavaviveka uses the term Brahma-Abhyasa, meaning "practicing Brahma" which refers to the Buddhist trying to
become one with Brahma.[36]
"Even so have I, monks, seen an ancient way, an ancient road followed by the wholly awakened ones of olden
time....Along that have I done, and the matters that I have come to know fully as I was going along it, I have told to
the monks, nuns, men and women lay-followers, even monks, this Brahma-faring brahmacharya that is prosperous
and flourishing, widespread and widely known become popular in short, well made manifest for gods and men."[37]
Brahman 64

Rejection of Brahman
Buddhism rejects the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman/atman.[38][39] According to Damien Keown, "the Buddha
said he could find no evidence for the existence of either the personal soul (atman) or its cosmic counterpart
(brahman)".[40] According to David Webster, the metaphysics of Buddhism entails that desire for Brahman leads to
dukkha (suffering).[41]
According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman.[42]
As an example, Fowler cites the early Sarvastivada school of Buddhism, which "had come to accept a very
pantheistic religious philosophy, and are important because of the impetus they gave to the development of
Mahayana Buddhism".[43] According to William Theodore De Bary, in the doctrines of the Yogacara school of
Mahayana Buddhism, "the Body of Essence, the Ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe
[...] was in fact the World Soul, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form".[44] According to Fowler, some
scholars have identified the Buddhist nirvana, conceived of as the Ultimate Reality, with the Hindu Brahman/atman;
Fowler claims that this view "has gained little support in Buddhist circles."[45] Fowler asserts that the authors of a
number of Mahayana texts took pains to differentiate their ideas from the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman.[46]

Notes
[1] Puligandla 1997, p. 222
[2] Sinari 2000, p. 384
[3] Raju 1992, p. 228
[4] Potter 2008, p. 6-7
[5] "not sublatable"Potter 2008, p. 6-7, the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated Merriam Webster Dictionary (http:/ /
www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ sublate) or annihilated (German: "aufheben").
[6] It is also defined as:
•The unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all matter, energy, time, space, being, and
everything beyond in this Universe; that is the one supreme, universal spirit.Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint
Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
• The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe.John Bowker (ed.)(2012), The Oxford
Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press. (http:/ / www. oxfordreference. com/ view/ 10. 1093/ acref/ 9780192800947. 001.
0001/ acref-9780192800947-e-1183)
[7] pp.77, Radhakrishnan, S, The Principal Upanisads, HarperCollins India, 1994
[8] See Micaels 2004Micaels 2004 and Rambachan 1994Rambachan 1994for "Modern Hindusim"; see SinariSinari 2000 and Michael Hawley,
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888—1975), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ radhakri/ ) for Radakrishnan as a
modern reinterpretor of India's classical philosophy
[9] The phrase 'Divine Ground' was in modern times coined by Aldous Huxley in his widely read comparative study of mysticism The Perennial
Philosophy.)
[10] Not Masculine or Feminine (see Grammatical gender).
[11] http:/ / srimadbhagavatam. com/ sb Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Śrīmad Bhāgavatam
[12] Aitareya Upanishad 3.3
[13] Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5,
[14] Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10,
[15] Chhāndogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq.
[16] Madhavacarya, Mayavada sata dushani, text 6
[17] Chhāndogya Upanishad 3.14.1
[18] Veda means 'knowledge' and not merely epistemic knowledge but knowledge of the eternal truth that one's ultimate nature is pure
consciousness and independent of material form (cf. Gnosis)
[19] Rg Veda 1.164.46
[20] Anantanand Rambachan, The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press, 1994, pages 125,
124: (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=b9EJBQG3zqUC& pg=PA124& dq=brahma+ as+ opposed+ to+ brahman& lr=#PPA124,M1).
[21] api — but, samradhane — intense worship, pratyaksa — as directly visible, anumanabhyam — as inferred from scripture
[22] Michaels 2004, p. 45
[23] Michaels 2004, p. 45-47
[24] Sinari 2000, p. 426-430
[25] Sinari 2000, p. 405-407
[26] The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, ed. John Bowker, OUP, 1997
Brahman 65

[27] The phrase 'Divine Ground' was in modern times coined by Aldous Huxley in his widely read comparative study of mysticism The
Perennial Philosophy.
[28] iii.8
[29] P. 262 Philosophy, grammar, and indology:essays in honour of Professor Gustav Roth
[30] P. 419 Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Buddhism by Samir Nath
[31] P. 77 Elements of Buddhist iconography by Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy, Harvard-Yenching Institute
[32] P. 121-122 The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development By Yuvraj Krishan
[33] P. 64 Indian horizons, Volume 1 by Indian Council for Cultural Relations
[34] P. 20 The philosophy of religion: a Buddhist perspective by Arvind Sharma
[35] P. 52 The Pacific world: journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, Volume 5
[36] P. 230 To See the Buddha: A Philosopher's Quest for the Meaning of Emptiness By Malcolm David Eckel
[37] P. 57 Buddhist Art & Antiquities of Himachal Pradesh, Upto 8th Century A.D. By Omacanda Hāṇḍā
[38] Merv Fowler, Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005), p. 30: "Upanisadic thought is anything but
consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the Vedic
period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...] The true Self and Brahman are one and the same. Known as the Brahman:atman
synthesis, this theory, which is central to Upanisadic thought, is the cornerstone of Indian philosophy. The Brahman:atman synthesis, which
posits the theory of a permanent, unchanging self, was anathema to Buddhists, and it was as a reaction to the synthesis that Buddhism first
drew breath."
[39] Merv Fowler, Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005), p. 47: "It is here that the tensions between the two
systems become manifest, however, to such an extent that they part company, for what is real to one is anathema to the other. For the
Upanisadic sages, the real is the Self, is atman, is Brahman. [...] To the Buddhist, however, any talk of an atman or permanent, unchanging
Self, the very kernel of Upanisadic thought, is anathema, a false notion of manifest proportion."
[40] Damien Keown, Buddhism (NY: Sterling, 2009), p. 70
[41] David Webster, The Philosophy of Desire in the Buddhist Pali Canon (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005), p. 96: "The metaphysical basis of
Buddhist thought—arising from the anatta doctrine—is such that the desire for the atman, for Brahman, for a theistic deity, all these are
routes to dukkha rather than liberation."
[42] Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34: "It was inevitable that the non-theistic philosophy
of orthodox Buddhism should court the older Hindu practices and, in particular, infuse into its philosophy the belief in a totally transcendent
Absolute of the nature of Brahman."
[43] Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34
[44] William Theodore De Bary, cited in Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 98
[45] Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 81
[46] Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 82: "The original writers of these Mahayana texts
were not at all pleased that their writings were seen to contain the Brahman of the Upanisads in a new form. The authors of the Lankavatara
strenuously denied that the womb of Tathagatahood, [...] was in any way equatable with the 'eternal self', the Brahmanical atman of
Upanisadic thought. Similarly, the claim in the Nirvana Sutra that the Buddha regarded Buddhahood as a 'great atman' caused the Yogacarins
considerable distress."

References

Sources
• Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
• Potter, Karl H. (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His
Pupils, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
• Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
• Raju, P.T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
• Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas, University
of Hawaii Press
• Sinari, Ramakant (2000), Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History
of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta", Delhi: Centre for
Studies in Civilizations
Brahman 66

External links
• A Note on Attā in the Alagaddūpama Sutta (http://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/
a-note-on-atta-in-the-aladaddupama-sutta_norman_ld_1981.pdf). K. R. Norman – Studies in Indian Philosophy
LD Series, 84 – 1981
• Recovering the Buddha's Message (http://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/
recovering-the-buddhas-message_gombrich_tbf_1988.pdf). R. F. Gombrich
• Detailed essays on Brahman (http://www.hinduwebsite.com/brahmanmain.asp) at Hinduwebsite.com
• Worship of the Supreme Brahman (http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/maha/maha03.htm) from
Mahanirvana Tantra
• Essays on Brahman at lawsofbrahman.com (http://www.lawsofbrahman.com/index.html)

I Nyoman Ngendon
I Nyoman Ngendon (1906-1946). I Nyoman Ngendon was among the first Batuan painters who embraced the
modernization of Balinese art that took place around the beginning of 1930s. Ngendon first learned the Wayang-style
painting from I Dewa Nyoman Mura, a well known painter in Batuan.[1] Walter Spies' influence can be seen in their
early works (prior to 1940s).[2] His works can be found in several museums throughout the world. In Bali, his works
can be viewed at the Museum Puri Lukisan and the Agung Rai Museum of Art (ARMA). In the Netherlands, his
works can be found at the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden and the Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam.[3]

References
[1] Höhn, Klaus (1997). Reflections of Faith: The History of Painting in Batuan, 1834-1994: The Art of Bali. Published by Pictures Publishers
Art Books.
[2] Geertz, Hildred (1994). Images of Power: Balinese Paintings Made for Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN 978-0-8248-1679-7.
[3] Haks, Frans; Kunsthal Rotterdam (1999). Pre-war Balinese Modernists, 1928-1942. Ars et Animatio. ISBN 90-5349-297-6.
Ida Bagus Made Togog 67

Ida Bagus Made Togog

Ida Bagus Made Togog (1913–1989) was born into a noble Brahmana clan in the center of Batuan. Together with I
Ngendon, he was one of the foremost painters from Batuan. Unlike Ngendon, Togog was not particularly interested
in Western ideas. He was comfortable with the Balinese way of life and adhered closely to the Balinese belief
system. As a member of the high priest family, Togog was very familiar with Balinese lontar (religious literature)
and Balinese myths and folklore. His works were primarily drawn from religion and local myths from an insider's
view point and he narrates them through his drawings, just like in the Wayang tradition. The strength of his drawings
was neither his draftsmanship nor composition, but his narration of complex religious beliefs and the united life in
Bali as a balance between the macrocosm and microcosm, between the benevolent and good spirits.[1] According to
Wim Bakker, it was the Dutch painter Rudolf Bonnet, who inspired him to translate images in Balinese lontars into
drawings.[2] During 1936 to 1938, he was befriended by Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead and produced 83
paintings for them. As Bateson and Mead went to Bali to do research on Balinese character, they requested Togog to
give an expression of his dreams. He produced a large number of drawings on dreams and his own interpretation in
the context of Balinese beliefs as he understood it.[1]
His works can be found in Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam and in the Rudolf Bonnet collection at the Ethnography
Museum in Leiden, the Netherlands. In Bali, his can be viewed at the Puri Lukisan Museum and the Agung Rai
Museum of Art (ARMA) in Ubud, Bali.

References
[1] Geertz, Hildred (1994). Images of Power: Balinese Paintings Made for Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN 978-0-8248-1679-7.
[2] Höhn, Klaus (1997). Reflections of Faith: The History of Painting in Batuan, 1834-1994: The Art of Bali. Published by Pictures Publishers
Art Books.
Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai 68

Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai

Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai (~1915-2000) was a traditional Balinese painter from Sanur, a beach resort near Denpasar,
Bali, Indonesia. He was also known as I Bagus Nyoman Rai Tengkeng or Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai Klingking[1]

Biography
He was born in Sanur, Bali, Indonesia between 1907 and 1920.[1] Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai came from a Brahmin
family and began painting as a teenager. During the birth of the Pitamaha Art Association in 1930s, Ida Bagus
Nyoman Rai and other Sanur painters started selling drawings depicting the fisherman's life at the suggestion of
Neuhaus brother who own a tropical fish shop in Sanur. Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai till his death drew mostly black and
white drawings on paper.
During 1930s he was befriended by a Swiss artist, Theo Meier
(1908–1982) who became his first and loyal patron. Many of his works
were found in the Theo Meier Estate that was sold in 2002.[1] After the
Second World War, he was befriended by the Australian artist Donald
Friend who lived in Bali from 1968 to 1980 and had a house in
Jimbaran beach. He was one of a few Balinese painters of his
generation who produced drawings capturing historical events around
Beached Whale, Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai, Ink
their village. Several of his drawings depicted beached whales that wash on canvas
often stranded on the shores of the Sanur beach. He also documented
events during the Japanese occupation. One such work was recently found in the estate of Theo Meier.[1] He died in
2000.

Works
His works are scattered around the world in museums and private collectors. His works can be found at the Australia
National Gallery, Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Ethnographic Museum in Leiden, and the Museum der Kulturen in
Basel, Switzerland. In Bali, his works can be viewed at the Agung Rai Art Museum and the Museum Puri Lukisan.[2]

References
[1] Adian Vickers, Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai: painter of history, IIAS Newsletter, No. 41 (2006)
[2] Agus Dermawan, Bali Bravo (2006)
Miguel Covarrubias 69

Miguel Covarrubias
José Miguel Covarrubias Duclaud (22 November 1904 — 4 February 1957) was a Mexican painter and
caricaturist, ethnologist and art historian.

Early life
José Miguel Covarrubias was born 22 November 1904 in Mexico City. Following his graduation from the elite
Escuela Nacional Preparatoria, at the age of 14, he dedicated himself to drawing, producing caricatures and
illustrations for texts and training materials published by the Mexican Secretariat of Public Education. He also
worked for the Secretariat of Communications as a teenager.
In 1924 at the age of 19 he moved to New York City armed with a grant from the Mexican government, tremendous
talent, but very little English speaking skill. In her book, Covarrubias, author Adriana Williams tells how Mexican
poet José Juan Tablada and New York Times critic/photographer Carl Van Vechten, introduced him to New York's
literary/cultural elite (Also known as the Smart Set). Soon Covarrubias was drawing for several top magazines,
eventually becoming one of Vanity Fair magazine's premier caricaturists.

Theatre work
A man of many talents, he also began to design sets and costumes for the theater including Caroline Dudley Reagan's
La Revue Negre starring Josephine Baker in the show that made her a smash in Paris. Other shows included
Androcles and the Lion, The Four Over Thebes, and the Garrick Gaities' Rancho Mexicano number for dancer and
choreographer Rosa Rolando (or Rolanda; born Rosemonde Cowan, and later to take the name Rosa Covarrubias).
The two fell in love and traveled together to Mexico, Europe, Africa and the Caribbean in the mid to late 1920s.
During one of their trips to Mexico, Rosa and Miguel traveled with Tina Modotti and Edward Weston, who taught
Rosa photography. Rosa was also introduced to Miguel's family and friends including artist Diego Rivera. Rosa
would become lifelong friends with Rivera's second wife, the artist Frida Kahlo.

Artwork
Miguel's artwork and celebrity caricatures have been featured in The New Yorker and Vanity Fair magazines. The
linear nature of his drawing style was highly influential to other caricaturists such as Al Hirschfeld. Miguel's first
book of caricatures The Prince of Wales and Other Famous Americans was a hit, though not all his subjects were
thrilled that his sharp, pointed wit was aimed at them. He immediately fell in love with the Harlem jazz scene, which
he frequented with Rosa and friends including Eugene O'Neill and Nickolas Muray. He counted many notables
among his friends including Zora Neale Hurston, Langston Hughes and W.C. Handy for whom he also illustrated
books. Miguel's caricatures of the jazz clubs were the first of their kind printed in Vanity Fair. He managed to
capture the spirit of the Harlem Renaissance in much of his work as well as in his book, Negro Drawings. He did not
consider these caricatures, but serious drawings of people, music and a culture he loved. Covarrubias also did
illustrations for George Macy, the publisher of The Limited Editions Club, including Uncle Tom's Cabin, Green
Mansions, Herman Melville's Typee, and Pearl Buck's All Men Are Brothers. Heritage Press, the sister organization
of The Limited Editions Club, reprinted unsigned editions. In addition he did illustrations for publisher Alfred &
Charles Boni's Frankie and Johnny for a young writer who would become a good friend and film director named
John Huston. Today, these editions are very sought after by collectors. He collaborated in Austrian Artist Wolfgang
Paalen's journal Dyn from 1942-44. Additionally his advertising, painting and illustration work brought him
international recognition including gallery shows in Europe, Mexico and the United States as well as awards such as
the 1929 National Art Directors' Medal for painting in color for his work on a Steinway & Sons piano advertisement.
Miguel Covarrubias 70

Personal life
Miguel and Rosa married in 1930 and they took an extended honeymoon to Bali with the National Art Directors'
Medal prize money where they immersed themselves in the local culture, language and customs. Miguel returned to
Southeast Asia (Java, Bali, India, Vietnam) in 1933, as a Guggenheim Fellow with Rosa whose photography would
become part of Miguel's book, Island of Bali. The book and particularly the marketing for months surrounding its
release, contributed to the 1930s Bali craze in New York.
Rosa and Miguel returned to live in Mexico City where he continued to paint, illustrate and write. Their home,
Tizapán, would become a hub for visitors from around the world including the likes of Nickolas Muray, Dolores del
Río, and Nelson Rockefeller. He taught ethnology at the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia and was
appointed artistic director and director of administration for a new department at the Palacio de Bellas Artes, the
National Palace of Fine Arts. His mandate was to add an Academy of Dance - a task to which Rosa with her dance
and choreography background was most valuable. Miguel recruited friend and dancer José Limón who brought his
dance company from New York City for the inaugural season in 1950, taught at Bellas Artes and helped arrange for
international exposure of this new Mexican modern dance company. During Miguel's tenure traditional Mexican
dance was not only researched, documented and preserved but by this research into its roots, it helped usher in a new
era in contemporary Mexican dance.

Notability
Covarrubias is known for his analysis of the pre-Columbian art of Mesoamerica, particularly that of the Olmec
culture, and his theory of Mexican cultural diffusion to the north, particularly to the Mississippian Native American
Indian cultures. His analysis of iconography presented a strong case that the Olmec predated the Classic Era years
before this was confirmed by archaeology. His interest in anthropology went beyond the arts and beyond the
Americas—Covarrubias lived in and wrote a thorough ethnography of the "Island of Bali". He shared his
appreciation of foreign cultures with the world through his drawings, paintings, writings, and caricatures.

Bibliography
• The Prince of Wales and Other Famous Americans Miguel Covarrubias, 1925
• The Weary Blues Langston Hughes, (Illustrations by Miguel Covarrubias) 1926
• An Anthology of the Blues W.C. Handy, (Illustrated Plates by Covarrubias) 1927
• Negro Drawings Miguel Covarrubias, 1927
• Meaning No Offense John Riddell (Illustrations by Miguel Covarrubias) 1928
• Frankie & Johnny John Huston, (Illustrations by Miguel Covarrubias) 1930
• Mules and Men Zora Neale Hurston, (Illustrations by Miguel Covarrubias)1935
• Typee Herman Melville (Illustrations by Miguel Covarrubias), Limited Editions, 1935
• Island of Bali 1937
• Mexico South 1946
• The Eagle, the Jaguar, and the Serpent - Indian Art of the Americas; North America: Alaska, Canada, the United
States 1954
• Mezcala, Ancient Mexican Sculpture, with William Spratling & André Emmerich, 1956
• Indian Art of Mexico and Central America 1957
Miguel Covarrubias 71

Further reading
• Williams, Adriana (1994). Covarrubias. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 318. ISBN 0-292-79088-0.
• Navarrete, Sylvia (1993). Artista y Explorador Miguel Covarrubias. Mexico: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y
las Artes. ISBN 968-29-5707-9.
• Heinzelman, Kurt; Peter Mears, Mary Panzer, Nancy Deffebach, Wendy Wick Reaves, José E. Limón (2004). The
Covarrubias Circle: Nickolas Muray's Collection of Twentieth -Century Mexican Art. Austin: University of Texas
Press. ISBN 0-292-70588-3.
• Ayala Canseco, Eva María; Juan Rafael Coronel Rivera, Selva Hernández, Mercurio López Casillas, Mónica
López Velarde Estrada, Alfonso Miranda Márquez, Carlos Monsiváis, Adriana Williams (2005). Covarrubias
Cuatro Miradas - Four Visions. Mexico: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, Editorial RM, S.A. de
C.V., Museo Soumaya. ISBN 970-35-0179-6.

External links
• Harry Ransom Center Exhibition on Miguel Covarrubias [1]
• Miguel Covarrubias artwork can be viewed at American Art Archives web site [2]
• Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia [3]
• YouTube slide show [4]
• "Genesis, the Gift of Life" mosaic [5]

References
[1] http:/ / www. hrc. utexas. edu/ exhibitions/ current/ 2004/ covarrubias/
[2] http:/ / www. americanartarchives. com/ covarrubias. htm
[3] http:/ / www. enah. edu. mx/
[4] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=WyzbfgmaAcg
[5] http:/ / www. cavallinistudios. com/ mosaics. htm
Arie Smit 72

Arie Smit
Arie Smit
Birth name Adrianus Wilhelmus Smit

Born April 15, 1916

Zaandam, Netherlands

Nationality Dutch - Indonesian

Field Painting

Influenced by Signac, Gauguin and Cezanne

Adrianus Wilhelmus (Arie) Smit (born April 15, 1916) is a Dutch-born Indonesian painter living on Bali.

Early life
Arie Smit was the third of eight children of a trader in cheese and confectionery. His family moved in 1924 from
Zaandam to Rotterdam, where Smit eventually studied graphic design at the Academy of Arts. In his youth he was
most inspired by the work of three artists named Paul (Signac, Gauguin and Cezanne). He was sent to the Dutch East
Indies for military service in 1938, where he worked as a lithographer for the Dutch army's Topographical Service in
Batavia, engraving relief maps of the archipelago. Etching Balinese mountains onto maps ignited his desire to one
day go to Bali.
In early 1942 Smit was transferred to the infantry in East Java, but was soon captured by the invading Japanese
forces. He spent three and a half years in forced labor camps building roads, bridges, and railways in Singapore,
Thailand, and Burma. After the war ended in 1945, Smit was released and returned to the new Republic of Indonesia.
He became an Indonesian citizen in 1951 and taught graphics and lithography at the Institut Teknologi Bandung in
West Java. In his spare time he criss-crossed Java as a painter and in 1953 had his first exhibition in Palembang.

Bali
On invitation by the art dealer Jim Pandy he finally visited Bali in 1956, staying in a little house on stilts at the beach
of Sanur. Smit and Pandy would remain friends and formed a successful partnership. Pandy was well-connected;
Sukarno himself would sometimes bring his state guests to his small gallery. With his love for bright colors, Smit
was captured by the Balinese landscapes in its 'riotous light', and soon decided to stay to depict its villages, rice
terraces, palm trees and temples.
In 1960, while touring the countryside of the Ubud district where he then lived, he came upon some boys drawing in
the sand. Impressed by their talent, Smit invited them to his studio, where they promptly became the first of a
growing number of students. With minimal instruction but lots of encouragement and material support, his pupils
created a naive style of genre painting that became known as the 'Young Artists' style, which at its peak had 300-400
followers. Though he is considered the father of the movement, its style is quite different than any of Smit's own
styles over the years.
Since his arrival in Bali, Smit moved some 40 times, "to see what is beyond the next hill". He stayed longest in his
favorite areas of Karangasem and Buleleng. He finally settled near Ubud in the village of Sanggingan under the
patronage of Pande Suteja Neka, founder of the Neka Museum.
In recognition for his role in the development of painting on the island, Smit received the Dharma Kusuma (Society
of National Heroes) award in 1992 from the government of Bali. The Arie Smit Pavilion was opened at the Neka Art
Museum in 1994 to display his works and those of contemporary Balinese artists. The Museum Bali in Denpasar and
the Penang Museum in Malaysia also have collections of his work. Smit further had exhibits in Jakarta, Singapore,
Arie Smit 73

Honolulu and Tokyo.

Sources
• Painter in Paradise [1]
• Neka Art Museum bio [2]
• Arie Smit and the Young Artists Movement [3]

Books
• Garrett Kam (1990). Poetic Realism: The Art of Arie Smit. Neka Museum. ISBN 979-8026-11-X.
• Suteja Neka & Sudarmaji (1995). Arie Smit. Koes Artbooks. ISBN 979-8704-00-2.
• Ruud Spruit (1997). Artists on Bali: Nieuwenkamp, Bonnet, Spics, Hofker, Le Mayeur, Arie Smit. Pepin Press.
ISBN 90-5496-025-6.
• Arie Smit (2000). Arie Smit: The enchanting tropics. Rudolf Studio. ISBN 979-96075-0-7.
• Amir Sidharta (2002). 'Vibrant' Arie Smit. Hexart Pub. ISBN 979-96380-1-1.

References
[1] http:/ / www. asiafoto. com/ article1. htm
[2] http:/ / www. museumneka. com/ Nav. asp?NavOption=Artist
[3] http:/ / goasia. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa032101d. htm
Penestanan 74

Penestanan
Penestanan

Penestanan
Location in Bali

Penestanan
Location in Indonesia

Coordinates: 8°30′S 115°15′E

Country  Indonesia

Province Bali

Penestanan is village just outside of the town of Ubud, in Bali, Indonesia. It has been known as an artist's village
since the 1930s when Walter Spies lived there. Another notable resident is Arie Smit.
I Ketut Soki 75

I Ketut Soki
I Ketut Soki (Balinese, born 1946) is a successful artist from Bali.[1][2][3] As a boy, he was one of the first two
children to receive art lessons from the famous artist Arie Smit, and so one of the founders of the "Young Artists"
movement.
In 1960, Arie Smit went for a walk through the rice fields in Penestanan, Bali, and found a young boy drawing
pictures in the sand. Smit invited the boy to his studio and gave him crayons and paper. The name of the young boy
was I Nyoman Cakra. As a true Balinese, Nyoman didn't want to be alone, so he asked, "Can my nephew come too?"
His nephew was I Ketut Soki[4] and these two youths became Smit's first pupils.[5]

References
[1] "The Development of Painting in Bali" (http:/ / www. museumneka. com/ ArtistDetails. asp?keywords2=I+ Ketut+ Soki& Name=I Ketut
Soki). Neka Art Museum, Bali. . Retrieved 2008-05-04.
[2] "Young Artist Painter" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080421033453/ http:/ / www. bali-travelnews. com/ Batrav/ Batrav164/ art. htm).
www.bali-travelnews.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. bali-travelnews. com/ Batrav/ Batrav164/ art. htm) on 2008-04-21. .
Retrieved 2008-05-04.
[3] O'Neill, Nick. "Important people in Bali: Arie Smit" (http:/ / www. baliblog. com/ history/ important-people-in-bali-arie-smit. html). Bali
Blog. . Retrieved 2008-05-04.
[4] Soki, Ketut. "Pak Soki. Artist from Penestanan, the 'Village of Young Artists'" (http:/ / www. ketutsoki. com/ ). I Ketut Soki. . Retrieved
2008-05-04.
[5] Hollitzer, Annemarie. "Arie Smit" (http:/ / www. asiafoto. com/ article1. htm). www.asiafoto.com. . Retrieved 2008-05-04.
Tropenmuseum 76

Tropenmuseum
Tropenmuseum

The location of the Tropenmuseum

Established 1864

Location Linnaeusstraat 2, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Coordinates 52°21′46″N 4°55′21″E

Type Anthropological museum

Collection size 340,000 objects and photographs

Visitors 197,000 visitors (2010)

Director Lejo Schenk

Public transit access Alexanderplein

GVB tram lines 9, 10, 14

Website [1]
www.tropenmuseum.nl

The Tropenmuseum (English: Museum of the Tropics) is an anthropological museum located in Amsterdam, the
Netherlands, and established in 1864.[2]
One of the largest museums in Amsterdam, the museum accommodates eight permanent exhibitions and an ongoing
series of temporary exhibitions, including both modern and traditional visual arts and photographic works. The
Tropenmuseum is owned and operated by the Royal Tropical Institute, a foundation that sponsors the study of
tropical cultures around the world. The museum had 176,000 visitors in 2009.[3]
Tropenmuseum 77

History
Frederick van Eeden, father of Frederik van Eeden and secretary of the
Maatschappij ter bevordering van Nijverheid (English: Society for the
Promotion of Industry) established the Koloniaal Museum (English:
Colonial Museum) in Haarlem in 1864,[2] and opened the museum to
the public in 1871.[4] The museum was founded in order to show Dutch
overseas possessions, and the inhabitants of these foreign countries,
such as Indonesia. In 1871 the institute began research to increase
profits made off the colonies. This included attempting to develop
improved means of producing coffee beans, rotan and paraffin. The
museum came under the influence of ethnologists, who added
The opening of the Colonial Institute by Queen
information on the economy, manners, and customs of the inhabitants.
Wilhelmina, 1926
In 1926, they inaugurated the current building in East Amsterdam. At
the time, they had 30,000 objects, and a sizable collection of
photographs.[4]

Following the independence of Indonesia in 1945, the scope of the

museum changed from just the colonial possessions of the Netherlands,
to that of many undeveloped colonial states in South America, Africa,
and Asia. In the 1960s and 1970s the Ministerie van Buitenlandse
Zaken English: Ministry of Foreign Affairs encouraged the museum to
expand its scope to more social issues such as poverty and hunger. In
the early 1970s a new wing for children was added. This wing is now
called Tropenmuseum Junior.[4] Interior of the museum

The Tropenmuseum has now started to use semi-permanent exhibits

that focus both on domestic and foreign cultures.
Tropenmuseum 78

Facility
The original building, built in 1926, was designed by J. J. van Nieukerken and M. A. van Nieukerken. It was richly
decorated for the time, and took 11 years to build due to World War I and various labor strikes.[5] All of the artwork
in the building was created in the first half of the 20th century. In 2003 it was listed as a historical building in
Amsterdam.[4]

Collections
The museum houses 175,000 objects,
155,000 photographs and 10,000
miscellaneous drawings, paintings, and
documents. It inherited 15,000 of these from
the Ethnographisch Museum Artis. These
objects are split up into many collections.
The museum houses collections for many
geographical areas such as Southeast Asia,
South Asia, West Asia & North Africa,
Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the
Caribbean. They also have several
collections in storage that fall outside of
their scope. These include collections for Clove model of a two-wheeled horse-drawn coach with coachman.
China, Japan, Korea, and Europe.

The photography collection consists mainly of historical photographs of the former Dutch Colonies from
1855–1940. The museum released a large number of photographs under a Creative Commons licence to the
Wikimedia Commons.[6]
A theatric collection is housed at the Tropenmuseum as well. The collection houses 5,500 musical instruments as
well as various other theatrical objects such as masks and puppets. It also features 21,000 textile artifacts, a majority
of which are from Indonesia. Tropenmuseum Junior is a sub-museum. It features interactive exhibits, and draws
30,000 children a year.[4]

International activities
The Tropenmuseum is the most visible part of the Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen (KIT) (English: Royal
Tropical Institute). The Colonial Institute and the Colonial Museum merged in 1910, to form KIT.[5] KIT is an
organization meant to increase public awareness of other cultures, and communicate between cultures. The
Tropenmuseum, as part of the KIT, works with foreign exhibits to exhibit and catalog their collections.[4]

References
[1] http:/ / www. tropenmuseum. nl/
[2] "Tropenmuseum – Tropical Museum Amsterdam" (http:/ / www. amsterdam. info/ museums/ tropenmuseum) (in Dutch). Amersterdam.info. .
Retrieved January 27, 2010.
[3] "176.000 bezoekers voor het Tropenmuseum in 2009 – Tropenmuseum" (http:/ / www. tropenmuseum. nl/ smartsite. shtml?ch=FAB&
id=42331). Tropenmuseum. 2010-04-07. . Retrieved 2010-04-11.
[4] Tropenmuseum. "Tropenmuseum vroeger en vandaag [Tropenmuseum Past & Present]" (http:/ / www. tropenmuseum. nl/ eCache/ FAB/ 12/
215. html) (in Dutch). Amsterdam: Tropenmuseum. . Retrieved 2010-04-11.
[5] "History" (http:/ / www. kit. nl/ eCache/ FAB/ 6/ 117. html). Royal Tropical Institute. . Retrieved 12 April 2010.
[6] "Tropenmuseum in collaboration with Wikipedia" (http:/ / www. nieuwsuitamsterdam. nl/ en/ 2009/ 10/
tropenmuseum-collaboration-wikipedia). Netherlands. 2009-10-21. . Retrieved 11 April 2010.
 Tropenmuseum 79

External links
• Official website (http://www.tropenmuseum.nl/)

Puri Lukisan Museum

The Puri Lukisan Museum (Indonesian "Palace of Paintings") is the oldest art museum in Ubud, Bali specializing
in modern traditional Balinese paintings and wood carvings. The Museum is located in Ubud, Bali – Indonesia. It is
home to the finest collection of modern traditional Balinese painting and wood carving on the island, spanning from
the pre-war (1930–1945) to the post-war (1945 – present) era. The collection includes important examples of all of
the artistic styles in Bali including the Sanur, Batuan, Ubud, Young Artist and Keliki schools.

History

Mr. Jero Wacik, Minister of Culture and Tourism

of Indonesia at the 50th Anniversary of Museum
Puri Lukisan on July 14, 2008. Shown are the
photographs of the two founders of the Museum:
the Dutch artist Rudolf Bonnet (left) and the King
of Ubud - Tjokorda Gde Agung Sukawati (right).

Year Historical Events

1936 The Pitamaha Artist Cooperative was founded by Tjokorda Gde Agung Sukawati (the King of Ubud) and Tjokorda Gde Raka Sukawati (the
King’s brother) along with two western artists working in Bali at the time: Walter Spies and Rudolf Bonnet. Its mission was to preserve and
develop traditional Balinese art.

1953 The Ratna Wartha Foundation was founded to carry on the Pitamaha ideals and mission. The concept of building the Museum Puri Lukisan
was born.

1954 Indonesian Prime Minister, Mr. Ali Sastroamidjojo, laid the first stone beginning the construction of the Museum on January 31, 1954

1956 Indonesian Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs, Mr. Mohammad Yamin officiated at the opening of the Museum.

1972 Two new wings were added to the Museum, including a temporary exhibition hall

1978 Tjokorda Gde Agung Sukawati, I Gusti Nyoman Lempad and Rudolf Bonnet died. A magnificent royal cremation ceremony was held to
honor them.

2008 Celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the Museum with two major exhibitions: the Pioneers of Balinese Painting from the Rudolf Bonnet
collection (Leiden University Museum) and the world premier of the Ida Bagus Made Estate collection.
Puri Lukisan Museum 80

Museum Buildings
• Building I (North) – the Pitamaha Gallery houses the Pre-War modern traditional Balinese paintings (1930–1945)
and I Gusti Nyoman Lempad collection
• Building II (West) – the Ida Bagus Made Gallery houses the Ida Bagus Made Estate Collection
• Building III (East) – the Wayang Gallery houses Wayang Painting Collection and used for temporary exhibitions.

Highlights of the Collection

Ida Bagus Nyana (1912–1985)
Ida Bagus Nyana was a talented wood sculptor and a gifted dancer. He is known for his impressionistic, elongated
woodcarvings whose fluid shapes, devoid of excessive detail, often appear as if they had been pulled from taffy. His
sculpture of the Goddess Pertiwi (Mother Earth), with its spidery legs and coiled serpant, is dreamlike and
surrealistic. Nyana's son, Ida Bagus Tilem, was also a talented woodcarver. Both father and son were known for their
ability to impart life to inanimate wood, thereby transforming it into magnificent forms with a sense of movement
and full use of all the dimensions.
Ida Bagus Gelgel (1900–1937)
Ida Bagus Gelgel grew up in Kamasan, far away from direct western influence, but his works evolved beyond the
conventions of the Wayang tradition. He was so creative, that in 1937 one of his paintings won a silver medal at the
International Colonial Art Exhibition in Paris. One of his works, the Priest Dharmaswami, painted in 1935 using
naturals dyes on paper, is one of the masterpieces of the Museum Puri Lukisan. It tells the story of a Priest who
rescued a monkey, a snake and a tiger from a well. When the priest was arrested by a prince on false charges, the
animals came to his rescue. The paintings shows these animals bringing gifts as a gratitude for saving their lives.
I Gusti Nyoman Lempad (~1862–1978)
A true master and "Renaissance Man", Lempad is a figure in the Balinese community as well as in artistic circles
abroad. His fame extends not only beyond geographical borders but also beyond the ordinary borders of
craftsmanship and artistic expression. Lempad’s specialty was classical scenes, rendered in a relatively formal way.
To these he applied creative genius, and the passionate intensity of his personality, in creating works that inspired
many artists who followed him. Although he maintained closed friendships with the foreign artists who lived in Bali,
including Bonnet and Spies, Lempad never compromised his distinctive identity as a Balinese artist. Lempad had a
broad range of talents in many art forms: including painting, sculpture and architecture. He designed some of the
palaces and temples in and around Ubud, including parts of the Puri Lukisan Museum. He also painted the murals at
the entrance of the North building of the museum. Lempad's drawing, the Dream of Dharmawangsa, is one of the
masterpieces of the museum and is rendered in his unique linear style.
Anak Agung Gde Sobrat (1919–1992)
Sobrat was the son of an aristocratic family. As a child, he delighted in the spectacles of the Balinese Wayang Kulit
(shadow puppet performances). His grandfather, a well-known Wayang puppeteer, taught him to carve the rawhide
puppets and familiarized him with the Hindu epics: the Ramayana and Mahabharata. His artistic talent drew the
attention of other artists. Under the tutelage of Walter Spies, he learned to paint Balinese landscapes with surreal
perspectives, and later from Bonnet he developed the techniques for portraiture. From 1957 to 1959, Sobrat taught at
the highly regarded Academy of Fine Arts in Yogyakarta, where he developed his academic style. His painting of the
Balinese Market was exhibited at the opening of the Museum Puri Lukisan and remains one of its masterpieces.
Although the colors have faded, the composition of human figures clearly shows the influence of Bonnet.
I Gusti Made Deblog (1910–1978)
This exceptional artist started his career as an apprentice in the studio of the Chinese photographer, Yap Sin Tin.
Deblog's work portrays a passionate sense of the beauty of nature, rendered in elegantly refined detail that reveals the
Puri Lukisan Museum 81

presence of a deeper reality underlying the world around us. His drawing, the Birth of Hanuman (1936) was
presented to the Puri Lukisan Museum by the chairman of the Ford Foundation, and depicts a lush forest with
magical nymphs and other forest dwellers bringing offerings to the newborn Hanuman.

Ida Bagus Gelgel I Gusti Made Deblog

Noted Exhibitions
Pre-War Balinese Modernist (1999)
Featuring the pre-War Balinese paintings from the Leo Haks collection. Over 100 paintings and drawings were
personally selected by Leo Haks to showcase the pre-War works of artists from Ubud, Sanur and Batuan. Many of
the pieces came from the paintings collected by Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead during their field study in Bali
from 1935 to 1937.
Pioneers of Balinese Painting (July 14 - September 12, 2008)
Featuring masterpieces of Balinese art on loan from the Leiden University Museum, collected between 1929 and
1958 by Dutch artist Rudolf Bonnet, this exhibition showcases the specific characteristics, and style of Balinese
artists from four geographic regions: Tampaksiring, Ubud, Batuan and Sanur. The Leiden University collection was
supplemented by similar works from the permanent collection of the Puri Lukisan Museum, which were also
selected by Rudolf Bonnet. This exhibition is accompanied by a catalog entitled “Pioneers of Balinese Painting” by
Helena Spannjard.
Ida Bagus Made (July 14 - December 31, 2008)
In 2000, following the artist’s last wish, the widow of Ida Bagus Made loaned about 100 paintings from the artist’s
private collection to the Puri Lukisan Museum. Fifty of these paintings will be presented to the public for the first
time. This exhibition is accompanied by a catalog: “Ida Bagus Made – the Art of Devotion” co-authored by Kaja
McGowan et al.
Puri Lukisan Museum 82

References
• Couteau, Jean (1999). Museum Puri Lukisan Collection. Ratna Wartha Foundation.
• Mann, Richard (2006). Museum Puri Lukisan Collection. Gateway Books International. ISBN 979-99853-4-X.
• Pringle, Robert (2004). Bali: Indonesia's Hindu Realm; A short history of. Short History of Asia Series. Allen &
Unwin. ISBN 1-86508-863-3.
• Spanjaard, Helena (December 2007). Pioneers of Balinese Painting [1]. KIT Publishers.
ISBN 978-90-6832-447-1.
• McGowan, Kaja; Adrian Vickers, Soemantri Widagdo, Benedict Anderson (July 2008). Ida Bagus Made - The
Art of Devotion [2]. Museum Puri Lukisan. ISBN 978-1-60585-983-5.

Literature
• Lenzi, Iola (2004). Museums of Southeast Asia. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 200. ISBN 981-4068-96-9.

External links
• Official website [3] of Museum Puri Lukisan

References
[1] http:/ / www. kit. nl/ smartsite. shtml?ch=FAB& id=8332& ItemID=2156& RecordTitle=Pioneers%20of%20Balinese%20painting
[2] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8BsblLai3lkC& dq=Ida+ Bagus+ Made+ the+ art+ of+ devotion& printsec=frontcover& source=bl&
ots=UudH1O5R_t& sig=aUp2wuytoPRdt4I6vZL9rLo0GLU& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=3& ct=result
[3] http:/ / www. museumpurilukisan. com/
Museum Rudana 83

Museum Rudana
Museum Rudana

Established 11 August 1995

Location Peliatan, Gianyar Regency, Bali Indonesia

Website [1]
museumrudana.com

Museum Rudana or Rudana Art Museum was built in Peliatan, Gianyar Regency, Bali, by Nyoman Rudana. It is
built following the concept of the Bali philosophy Tri Hita Karana, where art has a great contribution in spreading
world peace, prosperity, and brotherhood amongst mankind. The humanist concept of the Rudana Art Museum is the
main philosophy of Nyoman Rudana in collecting paintings in the museum.

History
Its blessing ceremony was held on August, 11 1995 as part of the
commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of Indonesian Independence with its
Golden Indonesian Spirit. President Suharto officially opened it on December 26,
1995.

Nyoman Rudana,founder of Museum

Rudana
Museum Rudana 84

Architecture
The 500 square meter building of Museum Rudana was built on 2.5 acres
(10,000 m2) of land and its cornerstone was laid on December 22, 1990.
Nyoman Rudana conceptualized the building, which is three stories tall holding
Balinese architecture and philosophical artifacts. Tri Angga, the three parts of a
human body: the head, trunk, and legs; Tri Manggala, the division of a
compound into 3 sections: the inner, middle, and outer sections; Tri Loka, the
concept of the universe which is divided into bur, bwah, swah: the worlds
beneath, intermediate and above. These philosophical concepts, connected with
the fine art development of Bali, are reflected in the regeneration of artists from The Gate of Museum Rudana

the past to the present, a continuation of which is comparable to a link of

sustainable golden thread.

The outer walls of the museum reflect the national flag of Indonesia: red and white. The red part is made up of red
bricks and the white is made up of sandstone.

Location
Museum Rudana is located in Peliatan village, in the Ubud sub-district of Gianyar Regency, Bali, Indonesia, about
16 km from Denpasar, the capital city of Bali, in the Museum Rudana compound.

Collections
Museum Rudana exhibits more than 400 pieces of fine art and
sculpture made by various Indonesian artists. The arrangement of
paintings represents a harmony of style inline with the philosophical
concept of the building.
On the first and second floor, the works of modern Indonesian artists
are displayed, such as those of Affandi, Basuki Abdullah, Srihadi
Soedarsono (famous for his series of Borobudur paintings), Nyoman
Gunarsa, and Made Wianta. The works of post-modern Indonesian
artists such as Nyoman Erawan and Made Budhiana are also presented. Nyoman Rudana at the Opening of Modern
Museum Rudana also has many paintings depicting famous temples in Indonesian Masters Painting Exhibitions, 16
August 2007
Indonesia such as Besakih in Bali and Prambanan in Central Java.

On the third floor, various traditional work of traditional Balinese masters from Ubud and Batuan such as those of I
Gusti Nyoman Lempad, I Gusti Ketut Kobot, and many others are exhibited.
The museum also exhibits the works of prominent foreign artists who reside in Bali such as Don Antonio Blanco
(Spain), Yuri Gorbachev (Russia), Jafar Islah (Kuwait) and Iyama Tadayuki (Japan).
Museum Rudana 85

Exhibitions
Museum Rudana conducted several exhibitions overseas. In 1997 and
1998, an era where monetary crisis occurred in Indonesia, it held
exhibitions in Kuwait City, Kuwait and in Rome, Italy in 2000, where
Nyoman Rudana received the L’albero dell’umanita (The Tree of
Humanity) award from the Italian Government.
Regular exhibitions are held several times a year, with the biggest one
usually taking place in August as a commemoration of its anniversary.
The 4th anniversary in 1999 and the 8th in 2004 were commemorated
Museum Rudana held a painting exhibition in
by presenting The Ksatria Seni Awards to fellow artists who dedicated
Kuwait, May 1998
their works for the development of the Indonesian arts.

References
• Mann, Richard, 2006. Treasures of Bali – A Guide to Museums in Bali. Gateway Books International, UK. ISBN
979-99853-4-X
• August 2007, Museum Rudana Buletin (issued commemorating the 12th Anniversary of Museum Rudana).
• 2004, 8th Anniversary of Museum Rudana - Ksatria Seni Award 2004 catalog
• 1995, Museum Rudana catalog.

External links
• Museum Rudana Bali on Online-news 7 Feb07 [2]
• Jakarta Post 23 August 2007 : Museum Rudana Marks its 12th Anniversary [3]
• PlanetMole.Org : Modern Indonesian Masters Painting Exhibitions, 2007 [4]
• Ubud News, 28 August 2004 Rudana Celebrates with Nahappan [5]
• Bali Discovery Tours 8 Oct 2007 Modern Indonesian Masters : 8 Senior Indonesian Artists Celebrate the 12th
Anniversary of Ubud's Museum Rudana in a Joint Exhibition [6]
• Jakarta Post 23 August 2007 - Museum Rudana marks 12th anniversary [7]

References
[1] http:/ / www. museumrudana. com/
[2] http:/ / bali-online. com/ news/ 2007/ 02/ 07/ museum-rudana-the-art-museum-of-bali-indonesia/
[3] http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ yesterdaydetail. asp?fileid=20070823. R03/
[4] http:/ / www. planetmole. org/ indonesian-news/ modern-indonesian-masters-exhibition-ubud-bali. html
[5] http:/ / news. ubud. com/ 2004/ 08/ rudana-celebrates-with-nahappan. html
[6] http:/ / www. balidiscovery. com/ messages/ message. asp?Id=3968/
[7] http:/ / old. thejakartapost. com/ yesterdaydetail. asp?fileid=20070823. R03
Article Sources and Contributors 86

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Tomer T, Tphinney, TransUtopian, Trevor Johns, Trialsanderrors, Tyrenius, Uthabiti, VI, Vexingwind, ViciAnna, Victoria Mason, VinooJohn, Vrenator, Wiki13, Wikipelli, WilliamDigiCol,
Wolfdog, Wordsinart, Ylime16, Youssefsan, Zeisseng, 428 ,55‫ דוד‬anonymous edits

Brahman  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=537796321  Contributors: 1ifes4v3r, 4twenty42o, 7, A. Parrot, ABF, Aadal, Abecedare, Aditya soni, Advedom, Akkini Sithan,
Alan Liefting, Alanthwaits, Alberuni, Algont, Allens, Alosel, Altaïr, Amalas, Amire80, Andre Engels, AndrewHowse, Andrewa, Andrewrost3241981, Anik01, Anthony Appleyard, Arb,
Arjun024, Aroratushar, Arthena, Arun.blue, Atethnekos, Attasarana, Attilios, Auntof6, Avijit3001, AxelBoldt, B9 hummingbird hovering, Babbage, Baboshed, Babub, Bazonka, Bazzargh, Ben
Babcock, Ben Ben, Bentogoa, Betterusername, Bgwhite, Bhadani, Bhawani Gautam, BiT, Bjlarry, BlackSerenade, Bluezy, Boothy443, BorgQueen, Braincricket, Britsin, Bryan Derksen,
Btz1996, Buddhipriya, BuntyK, Buxbaum666, CalicoCatLover, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carlossuarez46, Chemica, Chuunen Baka, Ciphers, Closedmouth, Cntras, Coelacan, Coll7,
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DopefishJustin, Downwards, Dralansun, Drrsundarraj, E rulez, Editor2020, Edwardsdl, Ekabhishek, Elf, Emdrgreg, Enauspeaker, Epbr123, Epsilon60198, ErkinBatu, Exact, Extrabadfish,
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JaGa, JahaalChakravarti, JakeVortex, Jami3 f, Jayjg, Jedi Davideus, Jjzeidner, JohnChrysostom, Jondel, Joshua Jonathan, Juansidious, Juliancolton, K3ny4n m4n, Kaysov, Kbh3rd, Kevin, Kevin
Rector, Khazar, Kledsky, KnowledgeAndVision, Koavf, Kpsaravu, Krsont, Kubigula, Kwamikagami, Kwanesum, Lando Calrissian, Langdell, Laurens-af, LeMaster, LeaveSleaves,
LegalArmsTrade, Leolaursen, Lerdthenerd, Leszek Jańczuk, LilHelpa, LordSimonofShropshire, Lordvolton, Luke Warmwater101, MER-C, Made Adiputra, Magicalsaumy, Magicxcian,
Mahabhusuku, Mahali syarifuddin, Maleabroad, Mani1, Manjuandh, Maqs, Marek69, Mark Arsten, Massen107, Master of Puppets, Mathonius, Matrix108, Mav, Maxpayne11, Meaghan, Michael
Hardy, Michael2012ro, Midnightblueowl, Mild Bill Hiccup, Milonica, Mindmatrix, Mitsube, Mladifilozof, Moe Epsilon, Moloch09, Momergil, Mushlack, Myanw, MythosMagic, Nat Krause,
Naveen Sankar, Navneeth, NawlinWiki, Neelix, Nehrams2020, Netizen, Nick Number, Nihiltres, Nikkimaria, Nnnudibranch, Nobleeagle, Nono64, Norhelt, Northamerica1000, Olaf Davis, Olav
L, Oliverwho2000, Olivier, Omicronpersei8, Perfect Proposal, Phatius McBluff, Philip Trueman, Philosopher4, Physchim62, Pigman, Pinethicket, Playa3000, Ponpan, Possum, Priyanath, Profvk,
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Wclark, Wesley, WhisperToMe, Wiki-uk, Wiki5d, Wikidas, WikipedianMarlith, Wikipelli, Wmahan, Wowie1, Xxcrissxx, Yworo, Zachorious, Zahd, Zensta, Žarišče, 배우는사람, 913
anonymous edits

I Nyoman Ngendon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513496076  Contributors: Jack Merridew, Mogism, Swidagdo, 2 anonymous edits

Ida Bagus Made Togog  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=516964189  Contributors: Gnangarra, Jack Merridew, Mandarax, Swidagdo, Waacstats, 2 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 87

Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523659560  Contributors: Herr Mlinka, Rich Farmbrough, Station1, Swidagdo, 3 anonymous edits

Miguel Covarrubias  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=524124539  Contributors: 7, Al3xil, Andy Newer, Bluemoose, Borgx, Brogine, CJLL Wright, Cartoonasaurus,
CommonsDelinker, CovaFan, Dfwcre8tive, Dunawaybooks, El Comandante, Etacar11, Gamsbart, Infrogmation, Irishbooks, JWPowell, Jack Merridew, JimVC3, Jrendel, Lockley, MIDICH1,
Madman2001, Masterknighted, NawlinWiki, Neutrality, PDH, R'n'B, Reflex Reaction, Rich Farmbrough, Richmx2, Rrburke, Skier Dude, Spiessens, Steve2011, Thelmadatter, Tpkunesh, Uhai,
Uyvsdi, Viriditas, Vzbs34, Waacstats, Wencer, YUL89YYZ, 23 anonymous edits

Arie Smit  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=524566123  Contributors: Afasmit, AlexGWU, Bono24, M5891, Mayumashu, Merbabu, Mr Tan, Nihola, Rich Farmbrough,
SatuSuro, Tabletop, Waacstats, Wikix, Wizardman, 7 anonymous edits

Penestanan  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=385890085  Contributors: Akerbeltz, Catchpole, D6, Dekhayila, DiiCinta, Dr. Blofeld, Jack Merridew, PamD

I Ketut Soki  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=533687118  Contributors: Bakasuprman, BaliBruce, Berjangles, Catchpole, Gene Nygaard, Hmains, Jack Merridew, Rjwilmsi,
SatuSuro, Splash, Studerby, Waacstats

Tropenmuseum  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=521920865  Contributors: Andribudisetiawan, Appraiser, Arthena, AxelBoldt, Bearcat, Chris0693, Cordless Larry, D6,
Deerstop, Deror avi, DragonflySixtyseven, DreamGuy, Drmies, Dsmurat, Durova, Gary King, GerardM, Giraffedata, Gratte-papier, Hmains, Ida Shaw, Iijjccoo, Innotata, Iopensa, Jllm06,
Jvhertum, Kmhofmann, LadyofShalott, Lithoderm, Moonriddengirl, N-k, NativeForeigner, Parafernalia, Patrick, Paulbe, Putnik, Richardal, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Stepheng3, Tim!, WVhybrid,
Waacstats, Yarnalgo, 12 anonymous edits

Puri Lukisan Museum  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507568039  Contributors: Galoubet, Gryffindor, J Milburn, Jack Merridew, Jllm06, John of Reading, Lar, Marokwitz,
Rajasa9, Rochelimit, SatuSuro, Swidagdo, THF, WaysToEscape

Museum Rudana  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507568096  Contributors: Asenine, CommonsDelinker, Darklilac, Editorofthewiki, Indon, Jack Merridew, Jllm06,
Merbabu, Noniq21, PFHLai, RichardVeryard, Rudana, SatuSuro, Slon02, Sukada, Welsh, 9 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 88

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Balinese Stone Carvings.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balinese_Stone_Carvings.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Jordy Theiller
File:Mask Dancer (by A.A. Gde Anom Sukawati).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mask_Dancer_(by_A.A._Gde_Anom_Sukawati).jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: DragonflySixtyseven, Swidagdo
File:Murtika.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Murtika.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Swidagdo
File:Ida Bagus Rai Beached Whale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ida_Bagus_Rai_Beached_Whale.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Swidagdo (talk)
File:Pugur001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pugur001.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Swidagdo (talk)
File:Lunga.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lunga.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: I Lunga
File:BaliLadyDeco.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BaliLadyDeco.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Swidagdo (talk)
File:Blank.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blank.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bastique, Chlewey, ChrisDHDR, It Is Me Here, Jed, Paradoctor,
Patrick, Penubag, Rocket000, Roomba, Timeroot, Tintazul
File:Surya Majapahit.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surya_Majapahit.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Gunkarta
Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Majapahit Empire.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Majapahit_Empire.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: AnonMoos,
Bennylin, Gunkarta, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Harihara Majapahit 1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harihara_Majapahit_1.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Gunawan Kartapranata
Image:Golden Celestial Nymph of Majapahit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Golden_Celestial_Nymph_of_Majapahit.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Gunkarta
Image:Gajah-Mada.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gajah-Mada.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Gunkarta (talk) /
Gunawan Kartapranata
Image:Muzium Negara KL38.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muzium_Negara_KL38.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Gryffindor
File:Wringin Lawang, Trowulan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wringin_Lawang,_Trowulan.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Original uploader was Gunkarta at en.wikipedia
File:Candi Jabung B.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Candi_Jabung_B.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: ESCapade
Image:Majapahit, Piggy Bank.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Majapahit,_Piggy_Bank.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
uploader was Gunkarta at en.wikipedia
File:Pair of door guardians SF Asian Art Museum.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pair_of_door_guardians_SF_Asian_Art_Museum.JPG  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: BrokenSphere
File:Parvati Majapahit 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parvati_Majapahit_2.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Gunkarta
Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Bajang Ratu Gate Trowulan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bajang_Ratu_Gate_Trowulan.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Pura Maospahit Denpasar Bali.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pura_Maospahit_Denpasar_Bali.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: PHGCOM
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:PL09Puryono
File:Keraton Kasepuhan3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keraton_Kasepuhan3.jpg  License: Free Art License  Contributors: Nur azzmy
File:Relief of Indonesian History, Monas.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Relief_of_Indonesian_History,_Monas.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Gunkarta Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Rajasa Dynasty.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rajasa_Dynasty.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Gunawan
Kartapranata
File:Ubud 200507-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ubud_200507-2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:っ
file:Bali Locator Topography.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bali_Locator_Topography.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Sadalmelik
File:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie
file:Indonesia location map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indonesia_location_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Uwe
Dedering
File:Hindu temple in Ubud.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: alfaneque
File:Palace of Ubud 200507.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palace_of_Ubud_200507.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:っ
File:Ubud Cremation 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ubud_Cremation_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Davenbelle, Jack Merridew, Opponent
File:Batuan, Bali statue2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batuan,_Bali_statue2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Colin Brown
File:Gas station of Batuan, Bali 200507.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gas_station_of_Batuan,_Bali_200507.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Albertus
Aditya, Geofrog, Horst Emscher, Humboldt, Liné1, Midori, っ
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Het bewerken van de sawa TMnr 3525-23.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_bewerken_van_de_sawa_TMnr_3525-23.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -
File:Penjor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Penjor.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: RingOfFireImports
Image:Balinese temple.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balinese_temple.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Liné1
Image:Balinese temple pillar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balinese_temple_pillar.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Judithcomm,
Liné1
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten model van een tempelpoort TMnr 6049-2a.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_model_van_een_tempelpoort_TMnr_6049-2a.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -
File:Wayang Performance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_Performance.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Gunkarta Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Wayang Bali.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_Bali.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Clairette, Ies, Indon, Opponent, Ranveig, Tsui
File:Wayang Kulit 1890.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_Kulit_1890.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dre.comandante, Lotje
File:Wayang Pandawa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_Pandawa.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Gunkarta
File:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WayangKulit_Scene_Zoom.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Original uploader was Jpatokal at en.wikipedia
File:Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_Wong_Bharata_Pandawa.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0  Contributors: Gunkarta Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Wayang golek SF Asian Art Museum.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_golek_SF_Asian_Art_Museum.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: BrokenSphere
File:Panakawan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panakawan.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Monty32
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 89

File:ZP 05 Batara Guru 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ZP_05_Batara_Guru_02.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Dieter
Sedlaczek at de.wikipedia
File:Wayang Beber Opened.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_Beber_Opened.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Gunkarta
File:Wayang Painting of Bharatayudha Battle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wayang_Painting_of_Bharatayudha_Battle.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Gunkarta Gunawan Kartapranata
File:Museum Wayang.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Museum_Wayang.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Gryffindor, Humboldt,
Masgatotkaca, Midori
File:Naturally dyed skeins.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Naturally_dyed_skeins.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Madison60
File:Dyeing British Library Royal MS 15.E.iii, f. 269 1482.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dyeing_British_Library_Royal_MS_15.E.iii,_f._269_1482.jpg  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown
File:Natural dye.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Natural_dye.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Ices2Csharp, Logan, Ranveig,
Saharadesertfox
File:The Hunt of the Unicorn Tapestry 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Hunt_of_the_Unicorn_Tapestry_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Peregrine Fisher modified by Itzjustdrama
File:Upper MO quillwork pre1804 UPenn.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Upper_MO_quillwork_pre1804_UPenn.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Uyvsdi
File:Justinian.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Justinian.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Adam Bishop at en.wikipedia
File:Morris Tulip and Willow 1873 small.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Morris_Tulip_and_Willow_1873_small.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Frank
C. Müller, PKM
Image:Seurat-La Parade detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seurat-La_Parade_detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Christopherwils, Manuguf,
Pierpao, Rl, Solipsist
File:Paul Signac Femmes au puits 1892détailcouleur.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paul_Signac_Femmes_au_puits_1892détailcouleur.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: Piscis13
File:VanGogh 1887 Selbstbildnis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VanGogh_1887_Selbstbildnis.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Bukk,
Dschwen, Frank C. Müller, Grenavitar, Hekerui, Hoffmann.th, Howcheng, Léna, Olivier2, Raymond, Scewing, Surya Prakash.S.A., W., Wst, 2 anonymous edits
File:Morning, Interior - Luce.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Morning,_Interior_-_Luce.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Berrucomons, Claritas,
FA2010, Infrogmation, Obakeneko, Paris 16
File:Lemmen2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lemmen2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Staszek99, Zeisterre
File:Camille Pissarro - The Church at Eragny - Walters 372653.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Camille_Pissarro_-_The_Church_at_Eragny_-_Walters_372653.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Boo-Boo Baroo, Jarekt, Kaldari, Wmpearl,
Yaniv256, Zolo
File:Wassertropfen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wassertropfen.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Sven Hoppe
Image:Ida Bagus Rai Beached Whale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ida_Bagus_Rai_Beached_Whale.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Swidagdo (talk)
File:Flag of Indonesia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by
User:Gabbe
File:Tropenmuseum - Logo zonder tekst.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tropenmuseum_-_Logo_zonder_tekst.svg  License: Trademarked  Contributors:
Tropenmuseum, extracted from PDF file by Zscout370 using Inkscape
file:Randstad N.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Randstad_N.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: nl:user:jeroenvrp
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Opening van het Koloniaal Instituut 10020669.jpg  Source:
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File:2010-01 Tropenmuseum.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2010-01_Tropenmuseum.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0
 Contributors: Ziko
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Kruidnagelmodel van een rijtuig met paard TMnr 5467-1.jpg  Source:
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RobertLechner
File:MPL50thAnniversary.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MPL50thAnniversary.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Swidagdo (talk)
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 Contributors: Swidagdo (talk)
Image:MPLGelgel.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MPLGelgel.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ida Bagus Gelgel
(1900-1937), born in Kamasan, Klungkung, Bali
Image:MPLDeblog.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MPLDeblog.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: I Gusti Nyoman Deblog
(1906-1986), born in Denpasar, Bali
File:RAM.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RAM.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Noniq21 at en.wikipedia
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File:Kuwait Exhibition.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuwait_Exhibition.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Sukada
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