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Airframe Ice and Rain Control PDF
Airframe Ice and Rain Control PDF
RAIN CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
Ice is a flight hazard because it destroys the smooth air flow across the aircraft's lifting and control surfaces. Ice
on wings and other surfaces decreases their ability to produce lift, increases the weight of the aircraft, and
increases induced drag. Removal or prevention of ice is necessary for an aircraft to be safe to fly. Rain is a hazard
because it affects the pilot's ability to see clearly. This chapter deals with operating and maintaining aircraft ice
prevention and removal systems, as well as procedures and equipment for ground ice and snow removal. Also
reviewed are rain control systems and methods of protecting windscreens from the effects of rain.
AIRFRAME ICE CONTROL SYSTEMS
ICING EFFECTS
Frost forms on the surface of non-hangared aircraft
when the temperature of the air drops at night and
moisture is present. If the air is warm, dew will
form, but if the temperature is below freezing, water
will freeze and form tiny crystals of frost. Frost does
not add appreciable weight, but must be removed
Only aircraft that meet the requirements of 14 CFR before flight. Surprisingly, frost is a very effective
Part 23.1419 can continue flight into known icing aerodynamic spoiler that increases the thickness of
conditions. Aircraft certified for flying into known the boundary layer and adds a significant amount
icing conditions have been proven capable of oper- of drag.
ating safely in continuous maximum and intermit-
tent maximum icing conditions as described in FAR As an aircraft flies into clouds with the outside air
25. Many light aircraft have only minimal equip- temperature near freezing, it will likely collect ice.
ment to deal with icing conditions inadvertently Any exposed surface such as the wings, tail, wind-
encountered during flight and are not certified to fly shield, propeller, engine intakes and radio antennas
into forecasted icing conditions (known icing can accumulate ice. Ice adds a great deal of weight
conditions). and changes the aerodynamic shape of the surfaces,
destroying much of the lift. For turbine engine
Frost, wing leading-edge ice, horizontal stabilizer intakes, ice will disturb the flow of air into the
ice, carburetor ice, propeller ice, engine intake and engine or break off and be ingested into the engine's
windshield ice are all examples of aircraft icing. compressor. Build-up of ice causes propellers to
Each type of icing presents aircraft operators, become inefficient and out of balance.
pilots, and maintenance personnel with unique
operational problems prior to or during flight. With Another dangerous type of icing is one that can
the appropriate equipment and adequate proce- occur in the carburetors of reciprocating engines.
dures, most of these can be effectively managed, Float-type carburetors break down liquid fuel into
allowing an aircraft to take off, or continue flight if tiny droplets and mix them with air. When fuel
airborne. changes from a liquid into a vapor, heat is absorbed
from the air, causing the surrounding air tempera-
Prevention of ice is called "anti-icing" and the ture to drop. Moisture in the form of an invisible
removal of ice is called "de-icing." A variety of water vapor will condense into liquid water. When
equipment is specifically designed to prevent the the temperature is low enough, it will freeze and
formation of ice or remove it when encountered. stick to the walls of the carburetor throat. The flow
Different aircraft typically use different combina- of air is restricted and the engine will run rough or
tions of equipment to meet the certification stan- completely stop. It is not necessary to have visible
dards of FAR 23. One example of a combined anti- moisture to experience carburetor ice.
icing and de-icing system is installed on the
Learjet 35/36 series. This series uses three different ICE DETECTION SYSTEMS
methods of ice protection. The primary anti-ice Ice protection systems should be operated only
system uses turbine engine bleed air to prevent ice when necessary so that operational expenses, and
formation on the wing leading edges, horizontal unnecessary wear can be minimized. By having
stabilizer edges, engine nacelle inlets, engines, some form of ice detection, the prevention or
and the windshield. The second method of removal system operates only when needed. There
protection is in the form of electric heating elements are visual detection methods as well as several opti-
for static ports, stall warning vanes, and pitot tube cal and electronic methods of ice detection.
probes. Finally, methyl alcohol is used to protect
the radome and as a backup for the windshield.
Aviation maintenance technicians can better deal
with the various de-icing and anti-icing systems by
understanding both the effects of the various forms
of ice and the types of ice detection devices.
Airframe Ice and Rain Control 13-3
VISUAL DETECTION
When conditions are favorable for ice formation,
flight crews routinely observe the aircraft structure
during flight for ice buildup. For example, it is
easy to look at the wing leading edge or check the
windshield for early signs of ice accumulation.
When flying at night, lights are necessary to illu-
minate aircraft structures. FAR 23 requires some
form of lighting that is adequate for the crew to
detect ice at night as well as monitor the operation
of the de-icing equipment. Some other form of
detector is required on those portions of the air-
craft where it is not possible for the crew to see.
Most often, some form of electronic detection
device is used. Figure 13-1. Example of an ice detection probe.
ELECTRONIC DETECTION
Ice detectors consist of a microprocessor circuit ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS
with an aerodynamic strut and probe extending into Onboard anti-icing systems are designed to prevent
the slipstream. The probe vibrates at a pre-deter- ice formation on certain portions of the aircraft.
mined frequency and when ice attaches to the These are areas most affected by ice build-up, or
probe, its frequency decreases. A microprocessor where damage would occur if accumulated ice were
turns on an annunciator light when the probe to break free. Typically, anti-ice systems serve the
reaches a preset minimum frequency value. components are around the engine intakes, on loca-
tions upstream from the engines, or on components
After detecting ice, a heating element within the that would not operate properly if allowed to ice
probe melts it away and continues to recheck for over. [Figure 13-2]
icing conditions. If the probe continues to sense
icing at each check, the ICE annunciator remains
on. The light will go out when ice is no longer Propellers are frequently protected by anti-ice sys-
detected. [Figure 13-1] tems because ice can cause an unbalanced condi-
tion that makes continued flight difficult or impos-
sible. Anti-icing systems use several different meth-
OPTICAL ICE DETECTORS ods to remove the ice, typically by heating the sur-
Optical detection devices measure ice thickness on face or component with hot air, engine oil, or
airplane wings and transmit the measurements to electric heating elements. Another type of system
the pilot. One design produces a measurement uses chemicals with low freezing points injected at
range of 15 mm of ice thickness with a resolution of the root of the blade, which flow outward by cen-
15 um. These units mount flush with the airfoil trifugal force. This type of system often protects
without any protrusions, making it suitable for windscreens also.
supersonic flight applications.
THERMAL ANTI-ICING
CONTAMINANT/FLUID INTEGRITY Heated air can be directed through specially
MEASURING SYSTEM (C/FIMS3) designed heater ducts in the leading edges of the
C/FIMS1M is an aircraft-mounted sensor system wings and tail surfaces to prevent ice formation.
developed by Allied Signal Aerospace of Canada for Combustion heaters or heater shrouds around the
detecting the buildup of ice, frost, and snow on the engine exhaust system heat the air in reciprocating
flight surfaces of airplanes. Strategically located engine aircraft. Hot air is also routed to the carburetor
sensors on critical aircraft surfaces interact with when conditions are conducive to carburetor icing.
processors and a central control unit to provide Combustion heaters are controlled by thermo-cycling
warning information via a flight deck display. Flush switches that turn off the flow of fuel when a certain
mounted sensors are installed on the aircraft skin temperature is reached and turn it back on when the
and detect the electromagnetic properties of the heater has cooled. [Figure 13-3]
contaminants. The system can also be used to mea-
sure the effectiveness of de/anti-icing fluids and the Most aircraft that use thermal anti-icing systems
aircraft's skin temperature. today are turbine powered, in which case, a portion
73-4 Airframe Ice and Rain Control
V WING ANTI-ICING
D ENGINE INLET ANTI-ICING
D VHF ANTENNA ANTI-ICING
Figure 13-2. Bleed air heats some surfaces on large turbine aircraft for anti-ice purposes.
Figure 13-4. Bleed air provides anti-ice protection to wings, control surfaces, antennas, and engine inlets of the Boeing 727.
Figure13-5. Bleed air heats the structures associated with the engine intakes.
73-6 Airframe Ice and Rain Control
A Boeing 727 has the center engine's air intake at ductive film heats the windscreen. Problems encoun-
the rear top of the fuselage. As a result, some hot air tered with electrically heated windscreens include
is ducted to the upper VHF radio antenna to prevent delamination, discoloration, scratches, and arcing. If
ice chunks from breaking off and being ingested into arcing is encountered in an electrically heated wind-
the center engine. shield, it usually indicates a breakdown in the con-
ductive coating and can lead to localized overheating
ELECTRIC ANTI-ICING and possible damage to the windscreen. [Figure 13-7]
Aircraft that may possibly encounter icing usually
have electrically heated pitot tubes. Pitot heaters are
so powerful that they should not be operated on the
ground because they may burn out without an ade-
quate flow of air over them. Their in-flight operation
is monitored by indicator lights or through the
ammeter. Current flow is high enough that the
ammeter will deflect noticeably when the heater is
on. A heated pitot tube prevents ice from plugging
the entry portal. [Figure 13-6]
Figure 13-8. Anti-icing fluid is transferred from the feed lines to the propeller through a slinger ring.
CHEMICAL ANTI-ICING ded in the leading edges of the wings and tail. In this
Some aircraft surfaces and components may be system, fluid coats the wing to prevent ice from accu-
coated with either isopropyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, mulating. A switch in the cockpit activates the sys-
or a mixture of ethylene glycol and alcohol. tem and liquid flows all over the wring and tail sur-
Chemicals lower the freezing point of water on the faces, de-icing as it flows. This type of system is also
surface of the aircraft, and at the same time make used on propellers and windscreens. [Figure 13-9]
the surface too slick for ice to collect upon it.
Chemical anti-icing is normally used on carburetors,
propellers, and windshields and is stored in a tank
on the aircraft.
Propeller anti-icing uses isopropyl alcohol sprayed
onto the leading edges of its blades. Alcohol is
stored in a tank and pumped to the propeller when
needed. A rheostat-controlled electric motor drives
the pump. A pilot can control the amount of alcohol
flowing to the propeller by controlling pump speed
through the rheostat. Each propeller has a slinger
ring that uses centrifugal force to distribute alcohol
to the blade nozzles. The amount of alcohol the tank
can carry limits the system operation. [Figure 13-8]
Windscreen anti-ice on some aircraft utilizes chem-
icals to prevent the formation of ice. Chemicals are
delivered through a fluid spray bar located just
ahead of the pilot's windscreen. A pump provides
just enough flow to coat the windshield and prevent
ice formation. Radome anti-icing is often done with
chemicals as well, helping minimize inaccurate
readings due to ice accumulation.
WEEPING WING
A weeping wing is an anti-icing system that pumps Figure 13-9. The weeping wing system coats the protected
surfaces with glycol. The system can both de-ice and pro-
fluid from a reservoir through a mesh screen embed- vide anti-ice protection.
73-8 Airframe Ice and Rain Control
Flight Ice, Inc. produces a weeping wing system edges of the wings and empennage. This allowed
under the trade name TKS. The TKS ice protection aircraft to fully utilize their improved capabilities.
system coats the surfaces with a protective film of De-icer boots are used on many aircraft to this day.
glycol. The system is designed for prevention in [Figure 13-10]
known icing conditions, but it is also capable of de-
icing an aircraft. When ice accumulates on the lead- PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
ing edges, the antifreeze solution chemically breaks A rubber boot contains several tubes fastened to
down the bond between the ice and airframe, allow- the leading edge of the surface to be protected. Low-
ing the aerodynamic forces on the ice to carry it pressure air passes through a timer-operated
away. This capability allows the system to clear the distributor valve into the tubes. On a sequentially
airframe of accumulated ice before transitioning to operated system, the center tube inflates first and
its prevention. any ice formed over it will crack. The center tube
deflates and the outer tubes inflate, pushing up
A valuable side effect of TKS ice protection is the the cracked ice. Air flowing over the wing gets
reduction of runback icing on the wings and tail. under it and blows it off the surface. All tubes
Runback icing is a problem with many "leading edge then deflate and suction holds them tight against
de-ice systems as the water from the melted ice the boot until the ice reforms, and the cycle is
refreezes as it flows rearward. Large water droplets repeated. Alternating inflation of the boots keeps
that strike the wings behind the heated section also the overall disturbance of the airflow to a minimum.
sometimes freeze to the surface. Once fluid departs [Figure 13-11]
the porous panel on the leading edge, it flows aft
over the upper and lower surfaces and departs the The operating cycle inflates the tubes in a symmet-
aircraft at the trailing edge. This effect precludes ice rical manner so the disruption of lift during inflation
accumulation aft of the panels due to runback or will be uniform, minimizing any flight control
from impact of larger water droplets. There is some problems. The manufacturer of the aircraft deter-
increased weight due to the amount of fluid mines the proper cycle time for de-icing boot oper-
required. As with most chemical systems, if the ation from flight tests.
fluid reservoir runs dry during operation, there is
usually no other method to prevent ice from accu- Larger aircraft using this type of de-icing system
mulating. have an electric motor-driven timer to operating
solenoid valves to continually cycle the system
DE-ICING SYSTEMS through all of the tubes. The timer then provides the
De-icing systems remove the ice after it has formed, proper duration of rest time, allowing ice to form
typically by using pneumatic de-icer boots on the over the boots before repeating the cycle. Any time
leading edges of the wings and tail. Propeller de- the tubes are not inflated, suction is applied to hold
icing normally uses heating elements to melt the them tight against the aircraft surface.
accumulated ice and the propeller's centrifugal
force to remove it. Smaller aircraft do not use an elaborate timer. The
pilot turns on the system after observing an accu-
Anti-icing systems prevent the formation of ice on mulation of ice on the leading edges. When the de-
the protected component. However, it may be more icing switch is turned on, the boots will cycle
effective on surfaces of slower airplanes to allow the through one, two, or three operating cycles, depend-
ice to form and then crack it. The normal airflow ing upon the system's design. Similar to more elab-
over the surface will naturally carry the ice away. orate systems, tubes connected to the vacuum side
This method also avoids runback that can form a of the air pump hold the boots tight against the leading
ridge on the back edge of the surface, effectively edge. [Figure 13-12]
becoming an aerodynamic spoiler.
SOURCES OF OPERATING AIR
RUBBER DE-ICER BOOT SYSTEM Low-pressure air is required to operate the boots in
Airline flying was hindered in the early days of the boot de-ice system. Depending on the type of
aviation because of aircraft ice accumulation. With aircraft, several different sources can be utilized for
improved instruments and radios, and the intro- inflation.
duction of higher performance aircraft, flight into
icing conditions could no longer be avoided. To 1. On most turbine aircraft, pneumatic air is taken
remove the ice, B.F. Goodrich developed a rubber from turbine engine bleed air. Air from the turbine
de-icer boot that was installed on the engine is at a much higher pressure than required
leading
Airframe Ice and Rain Control 13-9
Figure 13-10. This medium twin is equipped with de-icer boots and electrically de-iced propellers. Being able to remove ice accu-
mulations enables it to fully utilize modern navigation and communication equipment. Bottom photos show de-icing boots before
and during inflation.
for inflating the boots. A step-down regulator is 2. Air for inflating boots can also come from the
used to reduce the pressure suitable for de-icing exhaust of an engine-driven air pump (instru-
boot operation. Bleed air can also be used through ment system vacuum pump). Some pumps are
a venturi to create a vacuum. Negative pressure, or the "wet type," which use engine oil taken into
vacuum, is used to hold the boots down smoothly the pump through holes in the mounting flange
to the leading edge during the deflation cycle. to lubricate and seal the steel vanes. Since oil
Figure 13-11. Sequential inflation of the boot's tubes breaks up the ice so the airflow can sweep it away
73-70 Airframe Ice and Rain Control
Figure 13-12. The de-icing system for small aircraft does not include a timer.
would damage the boots, an oil separator module, and de-icer boots. A vacuum pump is nor-
removes all of it and sends it back into the engine mally used to create a vacuum for operating the
crankcase before the air is used. flight instruments. The output side of a pump pro-
3. Newer "dry-type" pumps are used for many instal vides air pressure that is used to inflate the de-icer
lations, and do not require an oil separator since boots. The vacuum regulator controls the amount of
carbon vanes make the pump self-lubricating. vacuum applied to the de-ice boots and the instru-
ments. Likewise, the pressure control valve controls
4. Other less common de-icing systems inflate the the amount of pressure allowed in the system.
boots from a cylinder of compressed air that is Under normal operations, a pressure gauge fluctu-
carried just for this purpose. ates as the boots are alternately inflated while the
vacuum gauge remains relatively steady. A switch
DE-ICING SYSTEM COMPONENTS (TYPICAL) in the cockpit activates a timer module, which
Some of the main components in a pneumatic de- sequences the de-icer boots through one complete
icer system are the air pump (vacuum pump), de-ice cycle. Normally, the system shuts off after
vacuum regulator, pressure control valve, one complete cycle, and applies a vacuum to the
timer
Airframe Ice and Rain Control 13-11
cells or tubes until the pilot calls for another cycle. forms then breaks off as the tubes inflate. Some
Other components include filters, valves, and mis- boots use span-wise tubes that inflate alternately,
cellaneous tubing and lines. and others inflate simultaneously. Certain configu-
rations of boots have chord-wise tubes that may
CONSTRUCTION AND inflate either alternately or simultaneously. Flight-
INSTALLATION OF DE-ICER BOOTS testing determines the tube configuration and only
There are several configurations of de-icer boots, the specific boot that is approved for the aircraft
but all accomplish their work in the same way. Ice should be used. [Figure 13-13]
ALL
TUBES
DEFLATED
"A"
TUBES
INFLATED
11B"
TUBES
INFLATED
SPANWISE TUBES WITH ALTERNATE INFLATION SPANWISE TUBES WITH SIMULTANEOUS INFLATION
(A) (B)
ALL
TUBES ALL
DEFLATED TUBES
DEFLATED
"A"
TUBES
INFLATED
ALL
TUBES
"B" INFLATED
TUBES
INFLATED
CHORDWISE TUBES WITH ALTERNATE INFLATION CORDWISE TUBES WITH SIMULTANEOUS INFLATION
(A) (B)
Figure 13-13.The individual manufacturer determines the configuration and operation of de-icing boots.
73-72 Airframe Ice and Rain Control
When rubber de-icer boots were first developed, the surface of the boots for condition and security.
adhesives had not been developed to the extent that Also, inspect the condition of plumbing fittings and
they are today. Boots were installed with machine lines. Conclude the inspection with a thorough
screws driven into Rivnuts installed in the skin. A operational check of the system.
narrow metal fairing strip that covers the screw
heads at the boot edges can identify this type of A very important part of deicer boot maintenance is
installation. Almost all of the newer boot installa- to keep the boots clean. Wash the boots with a mild
tions fasten the boot to the surface with adhesives, soap and water solution. Remove any cleaning com-
eliminating the need for Rivnuts and screws. When pounds used on the aircraft from the boots using
removing or installing a de-icer boot, follow the clean water. Remove oil or grease by lightly wiping
instructions in the aircraft service manual or the the surface with a rag that is damp with benzoil or
manufacturer's approved information. Do not sub- other manufacturers' approved cleaner. Wipe dry
stitute methods or materials. before the cleaner has a chance to soak into the rubber.
Boots are often sprayed with silicon to give the
To remove de-icer boots, soften the adhesive with rubber an extremely smooth surface that the ice can-
the recommended solvent and carefully apply ten- not adhere to. During inspection, check the surface
sion to peel back the edges of the boot . Keep the of the boots for condition and security. Also, inspect
separation area wet with solvent and carefully pull the condition of plumbing fittings and lines.
the boot away from the surface. Conclude the inspection with a thorough opera-
tional check of the system.
To begin installation, remove all of the paint and
primer from the area where the boot is to be A deicer boot repair referred to as a "cold patch
installed. Clean both the surface and the back of the repair" includes refurbishing scuff damage, repair-
boot thoroughly. Apply adhesive to the back of the ing damage to the tube area, and tears in the fillet
boot and leading edge. Secure the hoses to the boot area. Scuff damage is the most common type of dam-
and place the boot in the proper position. Press age that A&P technicians encounter when maintain-
tightly to the surface with a roller. Obviously, the ing deicer boots. For any type of deicer boot damage,
actual process is considerably more complicated refer to the manufacturer's maintenance manual for
than this, but in all maintenance activities, follow guidance in making appropriate repairs and follow
the manufacturer's recommendations carefully. the approved repair procedures explicitly.
The only way to know for sure that the boot is prop- ELECTROTHERMAL DE-ICING
erly bonded to the surface is to make a test strip. Many modern propellers installed on both recipro-
Apply a trimmed scrap of boot material to the leading cating and turboprop engines are de-iced with an
edge near the boot installation. Clean the scrap in electrothermal de-icer system. Rubber boots with
the same manner as the rest of the boot and apply heater wires embedded in them are bonded to the
cement. Attach it to the leading edge by the identical leading edges of the propeller blades. Electrical cur-
procedures used with the boot. After the recom- rent passes through the wires to heat the rubber and
mended cure time, measure the amount of force melt any ice that has formed, while centrifugal force
needed to peel the test strip away. The required and wind carry the ice away.
force must be within the tolerance specified by the
manufacturer. In some installations, boots are made in two sec-
tions on each blade. Current flows for about a half
INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE, AND minute through the outboard section of all blades
TROUBLESHOOTING OF RUBBER and then for the same time through the heaters on
DE-ICER BOOT SYSTEMS the inboard section of all blades. Flight tests have
The most important part of de-icer boot mainte- determined the amount of time that current flows in
nance is keeping the boots clean. Wash the boots each section. The time is sufficient to allow ice to
with a mild soap and water solution. Remove any form over the inactive section while loosening it
cleaning compounds used on the aircraft from the from the heated section. Alternating the de-icing
boots using clean water. Remove oil or grease by current between the blade sections is the most effi-
scrubbing the surface of the boot lightly with a rag cient method for propeller ice removal.
that is damp with benzoil or lead-free gasoline.
The propeller de-icer system consists of the following
Wipe dry before the solvent has a chance to soak
components:
into the rubber. Boots are often sprayed with silicon
to give the rubber an extremely smooth surface that 1. Electrically heated de-icers bonded to the pro-
the ice cannot adhere to. During inspection, check peller blades.
Airframe Ice and Rain Control 13-13
2. Slip-ring and brush block assemblies that carry the de-icers. The heating sequence optimally
the current to the rotating propeller. loosens the ice so that centrifugal force can carry
it away. The same portion of each blade is heated
3. A timer to control the heating time and sequence at the same time to prevent an out-of-balance
of the de-icing cycle. condition.
4. An ammeter to indicate the operation The ammeter is used to monitor the system's opera-
of the tion. When each heater element is taking an equal
system. amount of current, the pilot knows that the pro-
5. Wiring, switches, and circuit breakers necessary to pellers are de-icing evenly. The advantage of the
conduct electrical power from the aircraft electri electric heat system is its minimal weight, but in
cal system into the de-icer system. [Figure 13-14] some cases, it can place a high electrical load on the
generator or alternator.
The slip-ring assembly is attached to the propeller
either through a specially adapted starter gear, the ELECTRO-EXPULSIVE
spinner bulkhead, or to the crankshaft flange. The SEPARATION SYSTEM
brush block is mounted on the engine so that the The Electro-Expulsive Separation System was
three brushes ride squarely on the slip rings. The developed by NASA and licensed
timer controls the sequence of current to each of to Ice
LEGEND
Management Systems, Inc. This relatively lightweight them properly at every step in the de-icing/anti-
system provides ice protection at power levels far icing process, including transportation and storage.
below those required by bleed air and electro-thermal Follow FPD fluid manufacturer's guidelines for the
systems. It also offers a reliable alternative to pneu- entire process.
matic or electrical de-icing boots on wing leading
edges, thus reducing airfoil drag and surface erosion. Holdover time, which is the length of time that the
surface will be protected from ice, frost, and snow,
In a typical installation, the electro-expulsive de- is relatively short for Type I fluids. Because taxi
icing system employs a de-icing control unit linked times are often much longer than the holdover times
to two energy storage banks, one for each wing. that Type I fluids provide, fluid manufacturers
Actuators are mounted directly beneath a metal developed Type II or IV (thickened) de-icing/anti-
leading edge. Energy storage banks deliver high-cur- icing fluids in cooperation with the airlines. Type II
rent electrical pulses to the actuators in timed and IV fluids have significantly longer holdover
sequences. This generates opposing electro-mag- times than Type I fluids. Systems that mix various
netic fields, which cause the actuators to change FPDs with compressed air are now being used in the
shape rapidly. An erosion shield on the wing's lead- aviation industry as well. These systems use fewer
ing edge flexes and vibrates at a high frequency. chemicals, thus reducing recovery systems costs in
Rapid motion results in acceleration-based debond- preventing chemicals from reaching water supplies.
ing of accumulated ice on the erosion shield. The
system essentially pulverizes ice into small parti- The International Standards Organization (ISO),
cles and removes layers as thin as frost or as thick as Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and
an inch of glaze ice. Though the system is not yet Association of European Airlines (AEA) publish
used on many aircraft, it promises to be useful as holdover times for each fluid. They are based on
the particles of ice are small enough not to damage temperature, fluid mixture, and general weather
the airframe or engines. conditions. Holdover times are only guidelines and
other variables that reduce fluid effectiveness must
GROUND DE-ICING OF AIRCRAFT be taken into account. High wings or jet blast may
Aircraft ground de-icing/anti-icing plays a vital role cause the fluid to flow off. Wet snow has a higher
in cold weather procedures to insure that an aircraft moisture content than dry snow, so it dilutes the
is free of ice, frost, and snow contamination before fluid faster. The heavier the precipitation, the
takeoff. Procedures range from a low-tech broom to shorter the holdover time. Airplane skin tempera-
sophisticated chemicals. Airlines most commonly tures that are significantly lower than the outside air
use a truck-mounted mobile de-icer/anti-icer. These temperature can also decrease holdover time. De-ice
units generally consist of one or more fluid tanks, a and anti-ice airplanes as close to the departure time
heater to bring the fluid to the desired application as possible, especially when bad weather condi-
temperature, an aerial device (boom and basket) to tions cause shorter holdover times.
reach remote areas, and a fluid-dispensing system
(including pumps, piping, and a spray nozzle). The In general, there are two methods for de-icing/anti-
dispensing system is capable of supplying fluid at icing an airplane with a mobile unit: a one-step and
various pressures and flow rates with an adjustable a two-step process. The former consists of applying
spray pattern at the nozzle. heated fluid onto the airplane to remove accumu-
lated ice, snow, or frost and prevent their subsequent
ICE AND SNOW REMOVAL buildup. The primary advantage of this method is
There are several different types of freezing point that it is quick and uncomplicated, both procedurally
depressants (FPDs), but some common aircraft FPDs and in terms of equipment requirements. However,
are Type I (unthickened) fluids and Type II and IV in conditions where large deposits of ice and snow
(thickened) fluids. Type I fluids have a relatively must be flushed off the airplane, the total fluid usage
low viscosity except at very cold temperatures. will be greater than for a two-step process, which
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's ability to flow uses a more dilute fluid. [Figure 13-15]
freely. For example, water has low viscosity, and
honey has relatively high viscosity. Because the rate The two-step process consists of separate de-icing
at which fluid flows off the wing depends on the and anti-icing steps. In the de-icing step, a diluted
fluid viscosity, a high viscosity fluid is likely to fluid, usually heated, is applied to the airplane sur-
have larger aerodynamic effects than a low viscosity faces to remove accumulated ice, snow, or frost. The
fluid. The viscosity of Type I fluids depends only on dilution must protect from refreezing long enough
temperature. For the fluids to be effective, handle for the second step (anti-icing) to be completed.
Airframe Ice and Rain Control 13-15
Figure 13-17. On the Lockheed L-1011, windshield washer fluid is supplied to four spray nozzles from a reservoir/pump assembly.
Figure 13-19. Chemical rain repellant systems are used primarily on large transport aircraft.
PNEUMATIC RAIN
REMOVAL SYSTEMS
In pneumatic rain removal systems, high-pressure
compressed air is ducted from the engine bleed air
system into a plenum chamber. It is then directed
up against the outside of the windshield as a high-
velocity sheet of air. This air blast effectively pre- Figure 13-20. Pneumatic rain removal systems use bleed air
from the turbine engines to blow high velocity air across the
vents the rain from reaching the windshield surface. windscreen, preventing rain from obscuring the pilots'
[Figure 13-20] vision.