Maintaining the integrity of process plant

susceptible to high temperature hydrogen

attack. Part 1: analysis of non-destructive
testing techniques

Prepared by TWI Ltd for the Health and Safety Executive

RR1133
Research Report
© Crown copyright 2018

Prepared 2018
First published 2018

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Carbon steel process plant that operates with hydrogen at

elevated pressure and temperature can be weakened by a
phenomenon known as high temperature hydrogen attack
(HTHA). Hydrogen diffuses through the steel and reacts
with carbon to form methane which builds up and degrades
the steel’s mechanical properties. If this phenomenon is
taking place and continues undetected, it can potentially
lead to failure of the process plant and a major accident. A
fatal fire and explosion at the Tesoro Refinery in the USA in
2010 was caused by rupture of a hydrocarbon containing
heat exchanger which had been weakened by HTHA.
HSE commissioned research to give a better understanding
of maintaining the integrity of process plant operating in
high temperature hydrogen service susceptible to HTHA.
The research is described in two reports which should be
read together. Part 1, RR1113, gives an analysis of the
performance limitations of ultrasonic non-destructive
testing techniques when searching for the presence of
HTHA, and emerging technologies that may offer improved
detection. Part 2, RR1114, discusses factors affecting HTHA
for carbon steels including: the safe operating pressure and
temperature envelope for plant (‘Nelson Curves’); steel
type, welds, stress and other material factors; and
equipment operating history.

This report and the work it describes were funded by the Health and
Safety Executive (HSE). Its contents, including any opinions and/or
conclusions expressed, are those of the authors alone and do not
necessarily reflect HSE policy.

2
Maintaining
Lorem ipsum the integrity
dolor sitof process
amet plant
susceptible to highadipiscing
consectetuer temperatureelithydrogen
attack. Part 1: analysis of non-destructive
testing techniques
Channa Nageswaran
TWI Ltd
Granta Park
Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL

3
This is the first of two reports on maintaining the
integrity of process plant operating in high
temperature hydrogen service. The two reports
should be read together.

This first report is RR1133 ‘Maintaining the integrity

of process plant susceptible to high temperature
hydrogen attack. Part 1: analysis of non-destructive
testing techniques’.

The second report is RR1134 ‘Maintaining the

integrity of process plant susceptible to high
temperature hydrogen attack. Part 2: factors
affecting carbon steels’.

4
Executive Summary

Background
Following a catastrophic fire at the Tesoro Anacortes refinery in USA in April 2010 (the
Tesoro incident), the US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (CSB) issued
an Investigation Report (CSB, 2014). Regarding non-destructive testing (NDT) capability
to detect high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA), the report states: “Inspection
results can be unreliable and misleading. Successful identification of HTHA is highly
dependent on the specific techniques employed and the skill of the inspector, and few
inspectors have this level of expertise” (CSB, 2014).

This report provides the outcomes of a TWI review, containing a critical analysis of any
performance limitations in the ultrasonic techniques used in industry and an assessment
of emerging inspection technologies that could provide improved performance, reliability
and confidence.

The UK Health & Safety Executive (HSE) commissioned this work to review publically
available literature, discuss with stakeholders in the UK and abroad, and use inspection
resources available in TWI to provide an assessment of the current state of affairs
regarding inspection for HTHA damage. This report was generated in parallel with
associated work looking into the metallurgical aspects raised by the CSB investigation
into the Tesoro incident (Rothwell, 2018), which guided this work to focus on those
aspects of components that were perceived to be at increased risk of HTHA damage. The
HSE also requested TWI to identify any techniques that may be suited to these critical
areas of a component and make recommendations for their effective use in industry.

Objectives
Make a critical assessment of all ultrasonic techniques used for assessment of parent
metal and weldments in carbon steel components most likely to suffer HTHA.
Recommend techniques that are likely to be most suited to specific critical inspection
scenarios and identify the key systemic parameters that could influence their
performance.

Work Carried Out

A review of publically available information was done to identify techniques being used
for HTHA detection and any evidence for their effectiveness. Privileged information was
also provided by a number of stakeholders in industry which has been included in this
report where permission to do so was granted. The report was also provided in draft to a
number of knowledgeable persons from the wider industry for review and comment.
These persons represented refineries, oil majors, inspection service providers and
inspection instrumentation suppliers.

Key Findings
The key findings of this report are summarised below.

1. Industry is using the techniques indicated in API RP 941:2016 to inspect for and try
to confirm the existence of HTHA, and these techniques have become prevalent.
2. The techniques indicated in API RP 941:2016 appear to have good physical basis and
in some cases are supported by empirical evidence. These techniques are recognised
as difficult to implement practically and not all are suited to scanning large areas.
3. Several major service providers offer inspection services for HTHA and many of those
promote the use of Advanced Ultrasonic Backscatter Technique (AUBT). It is however
not clear how the procedures used by different vendors compare with each other as

5
 many of the techniques that constitute the AUBT procedures rely on how the
operator executes them.
4. There is consensus that backscatter pattern recognition techniques supplemented by
other techniques to confirm suspected areas for damage is the most effective way
forward, both for parent metal and regions adjacent to welds.
5. Automated scanning where positional information is encoded with ultrasonic data has
been identified as a benefit when done effectively with good data quality checking
during the inspection. Automated scanning services are more expensive but there is
reduced scope for missing areas in comparison to manual inspection, as early-stage
damage may be highly localised. It also allows for digital archiving of data that allows
for future analysis and comparative investigations as the component ages.
6. Welds and their heat-affected zones (HAZs) have been identified as critical areas.
However, the techniques indicated in API RP 941:2016 for these areas have been
found to be unreliable according to an ongoing industry project. Time-of-flight
diffraction (TOFD) is a technique suitable for welds and there are ongoing efforts to
assess its effectiveness.
7. Array transducer based techniques (PAUT and FMC/TFM) have been presented
recently with evidence of their ability to detect stage 2 HTHA damage verified
through metallurgical sectioning. It is unclear at present how consistently reliable
these techniques will be for this purpose when utilised in the field.
8. Non-linear techniques are being explored with a view to gain sensitivity to early-
stage damage but the evidence presented to date is inconclusive, requiring validation
against metallurgical data. There are also difficulties with field deployment due to the
relative complexities of the techniques and the large form factor instrumentation that
is required.
9. Training of operators appears to be a key issue, being needed to increase the pool of
available personnel as components and plants age. Due to the lack of representative
specimens, operators may be achieving certification but their competency is in doubt.
10. Industry is increasingly pooling resources to address the issue of HTHA following the
Tesoro incident; these resources include financial resources but also representative
specimens. These specimen libraries are being used to trial existing techniques,
validate them through metallurgical analysis to gain confidence in their performance
and test emerging techniques.
11. These specimens are also helping to generate a wider pool of inspection personnel
who have the opportunity to experience this damage mechanism in their training
environment so that they become more competent and confident when providing
their services to industry.
12. New concepts for continuous or progressive validation and qualification of techniques
using specimens extracted from service with known levels of damage have been
proposed which offer a pragmatic way to improve confidence in the techniques over a
period of time.
13. At the time this report was issued TWI was made aware that a task group within the
API was actively working to review and update the inspection guidance in RP 941.

Technical Recommendations
The recommendations below are based on the findings of this report.

1 Multiple techniques must be used as part of any procedure to confirm the

presence or absence of damage; it is recommended that at least two, ideally
three, well-suited techniques should be implemented. All procedures must
also be validated and must reference the specimens used for calibration and
setting sensitivity.
2 The use of two independent service providers to verify findings of potential
damage should be considered prior to decisions regarding continuing
operations, repair or removal of the component.

6
3 Newer techniques such as array ultrasonics, TOFD and non-linear ultrasonic
techniques should be included and updated within the API RP 941:2016
guidance in order to raise awareness of these inspection techniques among
plant operators.
4 The region adjacent to the HAZs close to the root of the weld have been
identified as a critical area to improve inspection capability; hence
techniques using array transducers (PAUT and FMC/TFM) and possibly TOFD
(working complementarily) should be further investigated as they are most
likely to give good capability.
5 Plant operators should consider creating baseline scans of those components
that will operate close to the design limits or risk going beyond design limits
transiently during service. These baseline scans should ideally be performed
at installation, which also gives the plants the opportunity to prepare
effective inspection procedures (ideally with formal qualification) that can
then be used on those components during service. This approach (starting
from a baseline and using well-designed procedures containing techniques
suited to those components) should aid in better monitoring of the
microstructures as they age, thereby helping to detect early-stage damage.
6 Training for operators should focus on competency and exposure to HTHA
damage in all its different stages and guises so that they become effective
and confident in its assessment.
7 Stakeholders need to increase their openness with knowledge urgently so
that industry as a whole can find practicable ways forward and find solutions
that address the threat level due to HTHA.

7
Executive Summary
Contents

1 Introduction 10

2 Objectives 11

3 The Issue 12

3.1 HTHA mechanism 12

3.2 Areas at risk on components 12

3.3 General good practice for ultrasonic testing in the field 13

4 Ultrasonic Techniques Indicated by API RP 941:2016 16

4.1 Background 16

4.2 Velocity Ratio 16

4.3 Attenuation 19

4.4 Spectral analysis 20

4.5 Backscatter 22

4.5.1 Introductory comments 22

4.5.2 Amplitude based 22

4.5.3 Pattern recognition 23

4.5.4 Spatial averaging 24

4.5.5 Direction dependence 25

4.5.6 Frequency dependence 25

4.6 Conventional shear wave UT and TOFD 26

4.7 High frequency shear wave UT 27

4.8 Angle Beam Spectrum Analysis (ABSA) 29

5 Discussion of the Techniques Currently Being Used

in the Field 31

6 Ultrasonic Techniques Using Array Probes 34

6.1 Phased array techniques 34

6.2 Advanced imaging techniques (FMC/TFM) 41

8
7 Acoustic Emission Techniques 45

8 Non-Linear Ultrasonic Techniques 46

9 Early-Stage Detection of HTHA 47

10 Conclusions 49

11 Technical Recommendations 51

12 Acknowledgements 52

13 References 53

9
1 Introduction
Following a catastrophic fire at the Tesoro Anacortes refinery in USA in April
2010 (the Tesoro incident), the US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation
Board (CSB) issued a report on the outcomes of an investigation (CSB, 2014).
Regarding non-destructive testing (NDT) capability to inspect for high
temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) the report states: “Inspection results can
be unreliable and misleading. Successful identification of HTHA is highly
dependent on the specific techniques employed and the skill of the inspector,
and few inspectors have this level of expertise” (CSB, 2014).

The Health & Safety Executive (HSE) of the UK approached TWI to provide a
review of the ultrasonic NDT techniques used in industry around the world to
assess carbon steel components susceptible to HTHA. The HSE also wanted a
critical assessment of the techniques and an up to date view of emerging
techniques that may provide improved detection of HTHA, in particular at its
earlier stages.

It was noted that other methods are also used for detection of HTHA but the
focus of this work was on ultrasonic techniques, as they remain most suited for
assessment of components for damage within the volume of the components
and so potentially detect damage at early-stage.

This report provides the outcomes of this review, seeks to identify any
performance limitations in the ultrasonic techniques currently used in industry,
and assesses emerging ultrasonic techniques that could provide improved
performance and reliability.

TWI undertook this task by reviewing publically available literature, holding

discussions with stakeholders in the UK and abroad, and using inspection
resources available in TWI. This report was generated in parallel with work
looking into the metallurgical aspects raised by the CSB investigation into the
Tesoro incident (Rothwell, 2018), which guided this work to focus on those
aspects of components that were perceived to be at increased risk of HTHA
damage.

Another key reference for this report is the API RP 941:2016 that gives
guidance on selecting steels for hydrogen service at elevated temperatures and
pressures. API RP 941:2016 also gives guidance on ultrasonic inspection, and
operating plants use this document to inform their inspection decisions; hence,
this guidance was the starting point for TWI’s work.

An important area of interest was information that quantified the detection

capability of ultrasonic techniques currently used with respect to different
stages of HTHA damage. The industrial requirement is to detect HTHA as early
as possible − ideally at onset. However, it was unclear at the outset of this work
whether any validation evidence was available to show in a quantifiable way the
sensitivity of different ultrasonic techniques to early-stage HTHA.

A number of industrial stakeholders were consulted during the course of this

effort and this report was submitted for review by selected persons. Their
comments were considered by TWI and any relevant input was incorporated
within this report. It is hoped that this approach allowed for the content of this
report to be an industrial view of the current situation. The recommendations of
this report are based on the findings of this work and are intended to identify
those techniques that could be effectively used in industrial sites for timely
detection of HTHA damage in carbon steel components.

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2 Objectives
 Make a critical assessment of all ultrasonic techniques used for assessment
of parent metal and weldments in carbon steel components most likely to
suffer HTHA.

 Recommend techniques that are likely to be most suited to specific critical

inspection scenarios and identify the key systemic parameters that could
influence their performance.

11
3 The Issue

3.1 HTHA mechanism

HTHA is a form of damage to which low alloy carbon steels are particularly
susceptible. Pipework and vessels that transport hydrogen at elevated
temperatures and pressures can experience diffusion of hydrogen atoms
through the exposed steel under certain conditions. Within the metal, the
hydrogen reacts with any freely available carbon to form methane gas. Methane
gas molecules are unable to diffuse through the steel and so become trapped at
grain boundaries, and then exert significant localised pressure onto the steel.
This internal stress can lead to damage at the grain boundary, which are
termed fissures, leading to further accumulation of methane within these
fissures that further increases the internal stresses within the steel.
Decarburisation of the steel, both at the hydrogen-exposed surface and within
the steel, is characteristic of HTHA, as unstable carbon reacts with the atomic
hydrogen to form methane. Hence, a primary route to reducing the
susceptibility of steels is to stabilise the carbon using alloying elements that
form carbides resistant to breakdown by hydrogen. A detailed discussion of the
HTHA mechanism and the factors that affect it can be found in API RP 941:2016
and in Rothwell (2018).

From the start of exposure to diffusing hydrogen to the onset of adverse

changes in mechanical properties, there is a period when the damage due to
HTHA is too small for detection by NDT methods or metallurgical assessment
methods. In industry, there is a motivation to maximise this period, termed the
incubation time, in susceptible steel as it also represents the period of time for
which the steel can be used before the deterioration in mechanical properties
may become unacceptable. API RP 941:2016 divides the lifetime of steels
experiencing HTHA into four stages. Stage 1 is termed the incubation period
where methane filled voids appear along grain boundaries and this level of
damage is currently considered to be beyond the capability of NDT to detect.
Once the damage progresses to stage 2 the mechanical properties of the metal
begin to be degraded and the damage is characterised by fissures along the
grain boundaries. In stage 3, the fissures coalesce and grow into microcracking
with a rapid deterioration in mechanical properties, and by stage 4 the metal is
considered to be at significant risk of failure by cracking. It is therefore
important that the damage can be non-destructively detected as it moves into
stage 2 while the components are operating in plants because in the later
stages 3 and 4 fissures can grow into cracks quickly, leading to increased risk of
components failing catastrophically.

HTHA can occur in welds as well as parent metal and, in particular, their heat
affected zone (HAZ). Aggravating factors such as residual stresses from the
welding are thought could play a significant role in the susceptibility of
weldments to HTHA. The HTHA mechanism and the factors that affect it are
presented in detail by Rothwell (2018) and industrial contacts have indicated
that the mechanisms governing HTHA in weldments may be different to that in
parent metal with public dissemination of this information being planned in due
course.

3.2 Areas at risk on components

Welds in steel components have been identified as areas at particular risk of
HTHA due to the potential presence of residual stresses. The use of post-weld
heat treatment (PWHT) is recommended as a good way to reduce these
stresses, and it has other beneficial effects such as stabilisation of alloy
carbides (API RP 941:2016). However, it is noted that PWHT is not always
applied, which poses a risk to the welds, as discussed by Rothwell (2018).

12
 Pipework and vessels can be composed of many girth welds and seam welds
that may be exposed to different operating conditions (temperatures and
hydrogen partial pressures) and so will be at different levels of risk. Hence, a
risk-based approach for selection of welds for examination forms an important
aspect of inspection planning. Nozzles and other protrusions connected to
pipework and vessels using set-in, set-on or other weld configurations represent
an additional level of difficulty for their inspection due to the complex geometry
of the welds.

Internal surfaces of components exposed to hydrogen can be clad using

austenitic stainless steels for a number of reasons (such as protection from
corrosion). Metallurgically bonded and weld overlay cladding also have the
effect of reducing the hydrogen partial pressure experienced by the backing
steel, and hence could reduce the rates at which HTHA occurs. Hence, cladding
has been shown to be an effective mitigation strategy when used properly
under well-controlled conditions (such as accurate verification of the reduction
in partial pressure experienced by the susceptible backing steel). However, the
presence of cladding, in particular weld overlay, can have an adverse effect on
implementation of some inspection techniques for detection of HTHA. In
addition, the use of cladding to safeguard against HTHA necessarily dictates
that the integrity of the cladding itself be established accurately, and shown to
be free from, for instance, stress corrosion cracking (SCC) to which austenitic
stainless steels are susceptible. Detecting these highly localised cracking
mechanisms such as SCC in cladding (in particular weld overlay) can be a
difficult inspection challenge in itself. Hence, any strategy using cladding to
mitigate HTHA damage must take into account several potential challenges to
verify this mitigation strategy.

3.3 General good practice for ultrasonic testing in the field

The quality of an ultrasonic technique is not just dependent on the soundness of
its physical basis, but also on the quality of the procedures that dictate how the
technique is implemented. In the case of inspecting for microstructural
changes, the techniques as discussed in Section 4 require measurement of
weak signals and their characteristics. Furthermore, the detection of small
microstructural features requires the use of high frequencies giving sound
waves of small wavelength. Such sound waves are very sensitive to small
changes in the metal but also other features such as material discontinuities
due to fabrication and the roughness of surfaces. Hence, good control of such
influencing parameters is essential to ensure the techniques perform to their
maximum potential.

A best practice guide for NDT has been published by the HSE (2000) in which
many of these key influencing parameters have been identified along with
recommendations to minimise their adverse effects. Many other well-considered
works on understanding the many factors that control good inspection
outcomes are widely available to practitioners and those who seek to procure
NDT services (EEMUA, 2014). Codes such as API RP 941:2016 allow operators
to state what needs to be procured but these codes do not help to acquire good
quality service from vendors. It must be realised that not all procedures are
effective in industry despite many referring back to the same techniques
specified in codes.

More often than not, the selection of inspection services is dictated by price in
an economic environment that is increasingly trying to minimise costs on all
fronts. However, in the case of HTHA the consequences of failure can be so
severe that cost of inspection is not considered an issue by the plant operators
but understanding the quality of the service can be problematic. It is difficult, in

13
general, for a procuring entity to know with clarity and certainty the quality of
the service that could be expected from any vendor in any given contract, as a
multitude of factors, not least unpredictable human factors, governs the
outcome. However, on a systemic level, it is possible for a knowledgeable
procuring entity to understand the critical factors and the aim of the following
sections of this report is to identify the critical factors that govern the
effectiveness of the many techniques that could be employed in industry for
detecting HTHA.

As indicated earlier, discussions with industry has indicated that ensuring that
the scanning surface is prepared suitably for operation of an ultrasonic probe is
very important. Equally, it is important to know as far as possible the condition
of the internal surface of pipes or vessels, in particular for those techniques that
rely on reflection of sound waves from this surface. Manual scanning by
experienced operators has been a staple approach in industry for many decades
and most of the viable techniques presented in this report can be effectively
applied in this way. However, there are significant benefits to the procuring
entity for requesting automated scanning of their components (eg see Section
6.1), which include the archiving of digital inspection data for review at a future
date, by other analysts and/or for audit purposes. Automated inspection
services are however more expensive in comparison to manual inspection, but
they may be valuable when considering building cases for plant life extension
requests and offer the possibility to quantify the ageing of metals in
components over time. The archiving of data for future analysis is also a key
requirement to realise emerging concepts for qualification as described below.

Inspection qualification is as an effective way for all parties to clearly identify

the influential parameters and quantify their impact on inspection performance.
Effective frameworks exist in the form of the European Network for Inspection
and Qualification (HSE, 2000) and in Article 14 of Section V in the Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) (ASME BPVC:2017). These frameworks allow for a combination of
simulations and practical efforts to understand the capabilities and limitations of
inspection techniques and procedures. For critical inspections to detect HTHA
the use of a qualification programme should be considered by procuring
entities. Qualification tests the physical basis of the ultrasonic techniques, the
instrumentation and the operators, with the aim to ensure that they all perform
satisfactorily. Again, qualification efforts are expensive (requiring the use of
simulation experts and fabrication of representative samples containing the
defect types of interest). However, a good qualification programme will give
confidence to all parties: procuring entities, service providers and regulating
agencies.

Lozev (2017b) has considered the issue of qualification and has proposed an
approach termed ‘progressive validation and qualification’ where ultrasonic
inspection results (both detection and sizing) from field inspections are retained
(digitally) for comparison with metals removed from service in which the
damage levels can be confirmed by metallurgical examination. In this way,
Lozev (2017b) seeks to validate the techniques on a continuous basis and
thereby keep them under assessment beyond initial design using metallurgical
information that becomes known as the large number of carbon steel
components active in industry age and are retired. In the absence of specimens
with actual or artificial representative damage to help design techniques and
validate them, this proposed approach to try and establish actual detection and
sizing capabilities may be a pragmatic way forward.

Another key issue identified by the CSB report (2014) and in conversations with
industry is the training and competency of operators. Training is a mechanistic

14
process that presents the technology to a candidate, shows how it is used in
industry, and then checks their understanding and ability to perform the task.
Candidates can pass a training programme but it then takes an amount of time
performing the tasks for which they are trained to be become competent in the
field. To be effective inspectors for HTHA, competency has been identified as
the key attribute. However, since this damage mechanism is relatively rare in
industry, the number of trained operators who will come across it in their
typical working environment is very low. Some techniques (such as those that
rely on identifying particular patterns in the ultrasonic signals) can only be
learned by experience. Hence, the infrastructure and facilities to allow operators
to be exposed to this damage mechanism in their training environment, and
thereby accelerate their path towards competency, is very important for
industry.

15
4 Ultrasonic Techniques Indicated by API RP 941:2016

4.1 Background
API RP 941:2016 indicates that the decision to inspect and the selection of
components that are inspected is the responsibility of the user, and it suggests
potential inspection techniques based on published information. The user is
expected to select components for inspection dependent on the likelihood of
them being exposed to HTHA, based on the materials used for construction, the
operating conditions to which they are exposed and the age of the components.
API RP 941:2016 provides some information on these ultrasonic techniques in
Table E.1 and lists their advantages, disadvantages and areas of application,
and these are the techniques most commonly cited in the wider literature for
the inspection of HTHA. API RP 941:2016 recognises that not all techniques are
suitable in any given case but that a combination of several should be used to
identify the existence of HTHA. The subsections below describe and analyse
each of the techniques presented in API RP 941:2016 Table E.1.

4.2 Velocity ratio

The velocity of ultrasound in metals is dependent on the material properties.
Metals are able to support several types of wave mode, but the longitudinal and
shear bulk wave modes are those typically used for NDT. Equation [1] relates
the velocities of these two wave modes to the properties of the metal
(Krautkrämer and Krautkrämer, 1990). HTHA leading to voids and fissuring
changes the mechanical properties of the metal and significant changes in these
properties will lead to changes in the velocities of the wave modes. Hasegawa
(1987) provides a detailed description of how this technique can be used
effectively, showing that the presence of cracking along grain boundaries led to
a reduction in the velocity of both the longitudinal and shear wave modes and
that this reduction was greater for the longitudinal wave mode. Hasegawa
(1987) proposed that the reduction in the longitudinal and shear velocities was
due to the reduction in elastic longitudinal modulus (Young’s modulus) and the
shear modulus, respectively, through the relationships in Equation [1].

𝐸𝐸(1−𝜎𝜎)
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿2 = [1]
𝜌𝜌(1+𝜎𝜎)(1−2𝜎𝜎)

𝐺𝐺 𝐸𝐸
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇2 = =
𝜌𝜌 2𝜌𝜌(1+𝜎𝜎)

where: CL is the longitudinal wave velocity

E is Young’s modulus
σ is Poisson’s ratio
ρ is the density of the material
CT is the shear wave velocity
G is the shear modulus

Hasegawa (1987) recognised a key problem for site measurement of velocities,

which is that it requires accurate knowledge of the local thickness of the metal,
as velocity is calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the time-of-flight
of the wave. On components operating in industrial plant, there is generally no
independent way of establishing the thickness of a metal at a given position
(since ultrasonic thickness measurement – the reverse process where a velocity
is assumed – is the primary technique used to measure thickness of metal in
pipework and vessels on site). Detecting progressive changes in a wave mode
velocity also necessarily requires historical knowledge of the wave velocity from

16
when the component was installed or by using an extremely faithful reference
specimen.

Using a large set of specimens, containing known damage and which could be
sectioned to establish the local thickness, Hasegawa (1987) undertook a
detailed exploration of the relationship between velocities and levels of damage
through the thickness of the specimens. The specimens contained hydrogen
induced damage causing cracking along grain boundaries that started from the
exposed internal surface of the specimen and progressed towards the outer
surface. Hasegawa (1987) firstly showed that, by taking the ratio of the
longitudinal and shear wave mode velocities, the problem of having to know the
actual thickness could be eliminated, since this ratio is equivalent to the ratio of
the times-of-flight of the modes, which is a dimensionless number independent
of the thickness. Hasegawa (1987) proceeded to show how this ratio was
related to the level of damage through the thickness of the metal, as measured
from the specimen set used for the trials.

Figure 1 illustrates the model, which treats the damage emanating from the
inside surface as extending over a certain proportion of the metal thickness;
Equation [2] formulates the model, which relates the through-thickness level of
damage to the times-of-flight of the two wave modes. Figure 2 illustrates the
trend in the data collected by Hasegawa (1987) which was found to fit the
model of Equation [2]. Here the y-intercept represents the shear to longitudinal
time-of-flight (equivalent to velocity) ratio of an undamaged material being
approximately 0.55, which increases to approximately 0.59 when the metal is
damaged fully through-wall. Based on this evidence, a time-of-flight ratio
between the shear and longitudinal wave modes greater than 0.550 would
provide a robust indication of the existence of hydrogen induced damage in the
steel. Hasegawa (1987) noted potential issues for implementation in the field
that may include changes in velocity due to material anisotropy and changes in
alloy compositions. However, the large data set used by Hasegawa (1987), and
the attempt to include variations due to potential complicating factors, gives
confidence that the effect can be relied upon as an indicator of damage.

Figure 1 Illustration of the hydrogen induced damage of the microstructure

starting on the inside flow-exposed surface of a specimen (termed the back
wall) and the use of ultrasonic probes to measure the times-of-flight of
longitudinal and vertically polarised shear wave modes (derived from Figure 6 in
Hasegawa, 1987).

𝑡𝑡𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

=� − � + [2]
𝑡𝑡𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

17
where: tL is the time-of-flight of the longitudinal wave
tS is the time-of-flight of the shear wave
VSA and VSS are velocities of the shear wave in attacked and clean
regions
VLA and VLS the velocities of the longitudinal wave in attacked and
clean regions
TA is the region through thickness of the metal that is attacked (see
Figure 1)
T is the total thickness of the metal

Figure 2 Relationship between ratio of damage through-thickness and the ratio

between shear and longitudinal wave mode times-of-flight (from Figure 7 of
Hasegawa, 1987).
Note that it is relatively straightforward to measure the time-of-flight of the
longitudinal wave mode using standard ultrasonic probes. In order for the
vertically polarised shear mode to be measurable, it must be transmitted
effectively between the component and the probe in order to be measured.
Typical water-based couplant used to transmit from the probe into the
component and vice versa is unable to support the shear wave mode. Hence,
the use of non-Newtonian fluids such as honey is necessary for measuring the
time-of-flight of the shear wave mode.

As indicated in API RP 941:2016 this technique is typically only suitable for

parent metal assessment rather than areas adjacent to welds and apparently
only after at least 10% of the thickness (ie TA ≥ 0.1T) has been damaged. This
technique is relatively insensitive to geometric conditions, in particular the
parallelism between the surfaces on which the probe sits and the back wall,
because as long as a signal is received then its time-of-flight to a known
position on the waveform can be measured. Discussions with service providers
indicate they have some confidence in the velocity ratio technique as a
supplementary technique to confirm the presence of fissuring damage but
recent evidence (see Section 5) is not favourable.

However, where the component is clad, this technique can become prone to
error if the propagation in the cladding is included in the calculations. API RP
941:2016 suggests that it may be possible to ignore the cladding, by using a
signal from the substrate/cladding interface, but this may be impracticable in
the field. Wang (1995) provides a specific procedure using a calibration block to
measure time-of-flight in clad components, indicating the change of phase in
the signal from the interface as a method to identify it. Attempts by TWI to
establish the thickness of weld overlay cladding has shown that measurements
of the substrate/cladding interface can be variable and subject to local

18
 geometric conditions at this interface. In the case where the cladding has been
applied metallurgically, it may not even be possible to measure a signal from
the interface between the substrate and cladding. Coupled with relatively small
changes in the velocity ratio as the criterion for sentencing damage, if a clear
signal from the substrate/cladding interface cannot be detected then the use of
this technique on clad pipework and vessels should be treated with caution.

It should be noted that a patent for the use of wave velocity measurement as a
means of detecting hydrogen attack was granted to Birring et al (1990). This
method made use of several wave modes travelling a known distance in order
to calculate the velocity. However, there is little evidence of these techniques
being used in the field at this time.

4.3 Attenuation
Attenuation is the effect where a propagating wave will lose its energy, both to
the material through which it propagates (absorption or damping) and by
scattering of the wave energy by small reflectors in the path of the wave. These
two components – absorption and scattering – are generally considered the
main causes of the wave attenuating as it propagates through a material
(Krautkrämer and Krautkrämer, 1990). Attenuation is strongly related to the
wavelength (ie the frequency) of the wave, where the level of scattering in
particular will increase rapidly as the wavelength of the wave approaches the
size of the scatterers. This increase in scattering related attenuation can be
very high, often leading to high frequency waves being attenuated so quickly
that they cannot be used effectively for inspection. Note that frequency and
wavelength are inversely related - ie when the frequency increases, the
wavelength reduces.
Ultrasonic attenuation is measured with the component and the probe in the
same configuration as shown in Figure 1. Whereas for the velocity ratio
technique discussed in Section 4.2 the quantity measured was the time-of-flight
of two different wave modes, in order to measure the attenuation in the metal
only the longitudinal wave mode is necessary. In this technique, the amplitude
of the reflected signal from the back wall is measured rather than its time-of-
flight. The technique is relatively simple to implement in the field, where
reduction in the amplitude of successive back wall reflections, as seen on the
ultrasonic instrument, are noted. Each back wall reflection represents a
successively larger distance travelled by the wave within the component. The
first back wall reflection is taken as a reference and so the attenuation of each
successive back wall reflection can be calculated using the standardised
Equation [3]. Using this convention, a reduction in signal amplitude by half
(50%) is approximately equal to 6dB drop.

𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 20 log � � [3]
𝐴𝐴

where: AdB is the attenuation in decibels (dB)

A is the signal amplitude
AREF is the reference signal amplitude (ie the first back wall signal
level)

The attenuation level AdB of each back wall reflection after the first is then
plotted vs the distance travelled by the wave (twice thickness for each back wall
position). This typically gives a linear relationship where the gradient of the line
of best fit is taken as the attenuation in the material, generally expressed in
dB/mm. Hasegawa (1987) showed that attenuation increased from 0.12dB/mm
in undamaged material to 0.35dB/mm in damaged material.

19
 A significant issue with measuring the amplitude of the back wall signal in
operating components is that it is very sensitive to:

a) the roughness of the surface where the probe is placed,

b) roughness levels or corrosion of the back wall surface, and
c) the orientation of the back wall with respect to the front wall (which should
ideally be parallel).

The reflection of sound is governed by the angle of incidence of the wave on to

the reflecting surface and changes in this angle of incidence by even less than
1⁰ can result in significant changes in the signal amplitude of the reflected
signal (Krautkrämer and Krautkrämer, 1990). Hence, unlike the velocity ratio
technique, the attenuation technique is strongly dependent on the geometric
condition of the component.

Therefore, even though there is a strong relationship between measured

attenuation and levels of hydrogen attack induced fissures along grain
boundaries, the attenuation technique in the field should be used with caution
(Hasegawa, 1987; API RP 941:2016). Changes in attenuation when used in a
monitoring configuration can also be problematic if the condition of the surfaces
(both that in contact with the probe and the back wall) change over time due to
environmental or process conditions.

As for the velocity ratio technique, the attenuation technique is applicable to

parent metal only, and similarly care should be taken in the presence of
cladding; weld overlay cladding in particular can display significant changes in
wave propagation characteristics due to the texture of the microstructure that
develops during solidification (IIW, 1994).

4.4 Spectral analysis

This technique is based on the frequency dependence of attenuation. The
configuration for this technique is again as shown in Figure 1 and is based on
the time history measurement of the echo amplitude from the back wall.
Modern instruments digitise the analogue echo signal and this must be done at
a sampling rate (also termed the sampling frequency) which is at least twice
the highest frequency of interest (Nyquist theorem); TWI recommends that the
sampling frequency is set as high as possible on the instrument when frequency
related work is performed. Most digital instrumentation nowadays is capable of
digitising at 100MHz, which should be sufficient for use of probes with a central
frequency of 10MHz.

Ultrasonic probes generate a wave pulse in the time domain (ie signal
amplitude vs time). The pulse train can be converted to the frequency domain
using a processing method called a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which
quantifies the frequency content of the pulse as amplitude vs frequency, where
the frequency with the maximum amplitude is typically the stated (nominal)
frequency of the probe. The bandwidth is a measure of the range of frequency
content in the pulse, and can be measured directly from the FFT. The bandwidth
in a signal is often expressed as the frequency content measured within a
boundary determined by an amplitude drop from the maximum value in the
frequency domain (see Figure 3(b)).

As discussed in Section 4.3, as the frequency of the sound wave increases the
wavelength reduces, and small reflectors interact with wavelengths that
approach their order of magnitude in size. Due to this, the higher frequency
components of the propagating pulse wave will be attenuated more than the
low frequency components by the scattering effect of any fissures in the metal.
Hence, the bandwidths of two different signals from the back wall can be

20
compared in the frequency domain and effects due to high frequency scattering
by fissures could be detected. This spectral analysis technique was described by
Wang (1993) where comparison of the bandwidth from a reference region of
the component which is assumed to have little or no damage with the
bandwidth from a damaged region would show increased attenuation of the
high frequency components in the bandwidth. Wang (1993) claims that in this
way (ie by using a reference bandwidth from the same material) other effects
on the pulse by factors such as metallurgy, inclusions, cladding and surface
geometry could be discounted.

Figure 3(a) shows a wave pulse from the back wall measured in the time
domain where the amplitude is the measured voltage signal by the instrument
plotted in time (the time domain expression). Figure 3(b) shows the same
signal processed using FFT expressed in the frequency domain, which shows the
strength of different frequency content of the wave pulse as a normalised
amplitude value with respect to a central maximum frequency (which is
typically the nominal frequency of the probe). Figure 3(c) shows how the
presence of damage reduces the amplitude of high frequency in the received
signal bandwidth, due to the scattering related attenuation by the HTHA
fissures, when compared to a signal bandwidth from a clean area.

Figure 3 (a) Time domain wave pulse reflected from the back wall, (b) pulse
expressed in the frequency domain using FFT and the 6dB bandwidth, and (c)
the loss of high frequency amplitude due to HTHA damage when compared to a
clean reference area.

However, discussions with industry indicate that the spectral analysis technique
(similar to the velocity ratio and attenuation techniques) is a supplementary
technique that would not be used as a primary means to detect hydrogen
damage. The choice of reference area is important and there must be good
confidence that the metallurgical conditions in all respects apart from HTHA
damage is similar. For this reason, several different reference signals should be
used in the analysis.

21
 Note that this technique is applicable to parent metal due to the use of the back
wall signal but is related to a technique for assessment of welds and their HAZ,
as described in Section 4.8. In the case of a spectral analysis technique for
welds, instead of looking for a decrease in the high frequency content in the
bandwidth of the back wall signal, it relies on detecting an increase in the high
frequency content of the received signals from regions of interest adjacent to
welds.

4.5 Backscatter

4.5.1 Introductory comments

This is an approach based on signals received from fissuring damage in the
metal and is composed of several techniques that are separately described in
the following subsections. An inspection procedure using this approach will
incorporate some or all of these techniques depending on access to the
component, feasibility for semi- or fully-automated scanning of the component,
and dependent on findings during the inspection. The techniques are all based
on a model of backscattering from fissures that was described by Wang (1993)
and is presented in Section 4.5.2. API RP 941:2016 indicates that apart from
the purely amplitude based technique of Section 4.5.2, which is applicable to
parent metal only, the other backscatter techniques are generally applicable to
both parent metal and for welds.

4.5.2 Amplitude based

In the standard ultrasonic testing (UT) approach, the amplitude of signals are
routinely used to detect discontinuities and decide if those flaws are acceptable
or not (acceptance criteria). The key to such amplitude-based sentencing
procedures is the use of amplitude thresholds that are typically taken from
standardised reflectors such as 2mm flat bottom holes (FBHs), 3mm diameter
side-drilled holes (SDHs) or surface breaking electrical discharge machined
(EDM) notches. In addition, correction for increasing attenuation as the wave
propagates in the material, so-called distance amplitude corrections (DACs), are
used in the setup of the probe and instrument prior to testing. The amplitude of
backscattered signals from fissures (especially at early stages) are very weak
and may closely resemble backscattered signals from nominal as well as locally
abnormal microstructure (scattering from grain boundaries), small laminations
and inclusions. Hence, discriminating between the signals due to these different
sources is very difficult and several conversations with industry indicate that
confusion has caused false call events in the past. Areas suspected of HTHA
damage based on amplitude response alone have been found to be devoid of
such damage when the component was removed from service and sectioned,
but evidence of inclusions and abnormal microstructures were found instead.

On a practical level, the amplitude of signals from HTHA related fissures can be
very small and can be close to the grass or background noise levels of the
instrument. Hence, the inspection setup should use filtering to remove
incoherent noise and frequency content of irrelevance – ie those that are not
part of the input bandwidth of the pulse. In addition, averaging of the signal
data taken at the same position can greatly increase the quality of the recorded
data where incoherent information is lost and coherent signals due to reflectors
are retained. Most modern instrumentation is able to record the average of at
least eight sets of signals.

Furthermore, setting the instrumentation gain levels (which are related to

amplitude thresholds in conventional ultrasonic testing) specifically for detection
of HTHA can be done more effectively and confidently if reference specimens

22
 with the expected flaw exist (rather than the use of standardised reflectors such
as FBHs, SDHs and EDM notches). Generally, however, such reference
specimens, which should be identical in every respect to the metallurgy of the
components to be inspected, do not exist for field inspection campaigns.

Wang (1993) considered the backscatter technique in detail and showed that
this phenomenon is affected by two factors as captured in a mathematical
model of the backscattered amplitude given in Equation [4].

𝑥𝑥
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝐴𝐴0 𝑇𝑇�2𝐷𝐷[𝛼𝛼0 + 𝛼𝛼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 (𝑥𝑥)]∆𝑥𝑥 ∗ 𝑒𝑒 −2 ∫0 [𝛼𝛼0+𝛼𝛼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻(𝜏𝜏)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [4]
where: As(x) is the backscattered amplitude as a function of x
x is the distance from the back wall (hydrogen exposed) surface
A0 is the amplitude of the incident sound wave
T is the coefficient of sound energy transmitted from the probe into
the material
D is the fraction of the scattered energy that is received back at the
probe
𝛼𝛼0 is the nominal attenuation of the material
𝛼𝛼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 (𝑥𝑥) is attenuation due to HTHA as function of x and increases
with frequency
Δx is the pulse length of the wave

In the model of Equation [4], the level of hydrogen induced damage emanating
from the back wall (as considered in Figure 1) is represented by the parameter
𝛼𝛼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 which has two opposing effects on the level of backscattered energy. The
first is through the increasing term 𝛼𝛼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 .Δx that represents enhanced
backscattering of the high frequency components due to the fissures. The
second is the exponential term that represents attenuation due to scattering
from those same fissures which leads to a reduction in the backscattered
energy received at the probe. Wang (1993) showed that the model fit well with
experimental measurements taken on specimens with known levels of damage
inspected using a high frequency (10MHz) probe.

The model represented in Equation [4] indicates an interlinked relationship

between backscattered amplitude, scattering from fissures, attenuation due to
this scatter, and hence input frequency. This model also implies that the
presence of hydrogen damage could give rise to little or no backscattered
signals as the attenuation term could dominate in some scenarios. Hence the
API RP 941:2016 recommendation that this technique based purely on
amplitude be used only for initial screening should be respected, and any
decision regarding the presence of HTHA must be made based on positive
evidence from one or ideally several other techniques.

4.5.3 Pattern recognition

Based on Equation [4], Wang (1993) proposed that the term representing the
increasing amplitude due to scattering dominates when the wave first arrives at
regions damaged by hydrogen, but that the exponential term due to the
attenuation begins to dominate quickly as the wave travels further through the
damaged region, leading to a rapid drop in the measured backscattered signal.
This then gives rise to a tell-tale signal pattern due to the fissures that is a rise
in the signal to a crest then a rapid fall: this pattern is the basis of the
technique. See also Section 4.5.6 which describes how this phenomenon, as
described by the model of Equation [4], can be used to discriminate between
HTHA damage and other reflectors such as inclusions.

23
 Discussions with industry also indicates that this technique is the one most
suited for determining whether a signal from the metal is due to HTHA or due to
other reasons; API RP 941:2016 similarly recommends this technique as a first
step for assessment but indicates that other techniques should also be used.
This technique is especially powerful when used with encoded scanning where
semi-automated or fully-automated systems collect data at several positions on
a component (termed the scanning area or scan plan) along with the positional
information. This allows graphical representation of the data in what are termed
B-, C- and D-scans that provide a view of the internal volume of the component
projected on to various planes through it. Hence, in addition to the tell-tale
pattern in the time domain response from a flawed region (also referred to as
the A-scan), the inspector can simultaneously look for patterns in the response
from within different regions of the component, damaged and clean. The human
eye is particularly well suited to interpreting changes in the information when
presented in such a visual fashion, and benefits from the amplitude and time-
of-flight data being presented using colour scaling to represent different values.
This advanced approach, which requires software to process the raw data, can
also convert times-of-flight of signals to the correct positions within components
(especially when using angled beams for weld inspection – see Sections 4.6, 4.7
and 4.8) so that the damaged regions can be positioned correctly within the
component. All these aspects can significantly aid the operator to make a
confident assessment of the data in comparison to manual inspections.

An additional issue with manual inspection is that, especially at early stages,

the HTHA damage could be highly localised and so there is a chance of the
operator missing them. When an inspection is automated and when the data is
collected at fine increments in position (often every 1mm but could be coarser),
the chances of missing critical areas is reduced. Furthermore, there is a
permanent digital record of the inspection having taken place and the data can
be referred to again in the future. In general, automated scanning is more
expensive to acquire as a service, but techniques using array probes provide an
improved level of volumetric visualisation even when implemented manually by
an operator, and so could in themselves provide improved inspection
performance (see Section 6).

The use of a pattern recognition technique necessarily implies that the operator
has been exposed to the patterns. Since every scenario is likely to present
subtle changes in such patterns the competency, as dictated by experience of
the operator, is the key to effectively implementing this technique in industry
(see Section 3.3). The success and cost-effectiveness of the technique relies on
detailed analysis of the response patterns. This in turn requires complex
procedures and potentially NDT qualification efforts prior to inspection
campaigns, with careful planning and setup of the equipment, especially when
using probes of different frequencies (see Section 4.5.6).

4.5.4 Spatial averaging

This technique is described in the patent submitted by Wang (1995), where the
aim is to eliminate backscattered signals from the grain structure by making
use of their incoherent nature. The technique requires the instrumentation to
rectify signals collected from the probe (or square the amplitude of the
unrectified signal) and, while the instrument is set to average the collected
signals, the probe is moved slowly away from its initial location by a short
distance. In this way, the system will collect and average a number of signals
from within the material but from slightly different positions so that signals
from the grain structure will become incoherent (ie out of phase with each
other), and be reduced by the averaging effect.

24
 This technique forms part of the procedure as described by Wang (1995).
However, there was little evidence of its use in publications elsewhere or in
conversations with inspection service providers. In cases where the
backscattered signals from suspected HTHA are close to the grain noise, it may
provide improved clarity. It is noted by API RP 941:2016 as a complementary
technique, being particularly useful for measurement of indication depth when
this cannot be measured readily using other techniques. The implementation
described in the patent by Wang (1995) is manual but this technique should be
more effectively realisable in an automated scanning system with specific
programming.

4.5.5 Direction dependence

In general, HTHA damage initiates on the internal surfaces of pipework and
vessels, progressing outwards towards the outside surface. The backscatter
patterns when implemented from the inside and outside surfaces can be very
different due to the different relative positions and extent of the damage
(Wang, 1995). If it is possible to get access to the internal surface, this
difference can be utilised and forms the basis of a supplementary technique
that can be used to firstly confirm the presence of HTHA, but also to confirm
that signals measured from the outside surface are not due to inclusions or
other forms of microcracking that may be localised to a particular position.
Wang (1993) shows with reference to Equation [4] how the same tell-tale
pattern from damage close to the internal surface, which rises and falls when
looked at from the outside surface, will instead display a pattern which shows a
constant decay from the outset of the signal trace when looked at from the
inside surface. If the signals were being generated by discrete indications (not
HTHA damage) at some position away from the internal surface, then looking at
them from either surface should generate sharp rises and falls in the signal on
the time base corresponding to the positions of those indications.

4.5.6 Frequency dependence

Wang (1993) showed the consequence of changing frequency on the shape of
the signal response from the damaged region using Equation [4]: as 𝛼𝛼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
decreases due to a reduction in the input pulse frequency, the consequence is a
longer wave train from the damaged region, as the rate of decay of the
exponential term is reduced. This effect can be used to differentiate between
HTHA damage and reflections from other discontinuities such as inclusions and
laminations, as their response should not show a change in the wave train
profile due to inspection by probes with different frequencies. Physically, the
model of Equation [4] fits a scenario where the influence of HTHA is described
over some region through the parameter 𝛼𝛼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 , which is a unique characteristic
of the damage that other discrete reflectors such as inclusions and other forms
of microcracking do not display. Hence, this technique, combined with others, is
an effective way to discriminate between HTHA and other forms of damage and
allows for confident characterisation of the damage. The method is described in
Wang (1995) as a procedure using two different probes of 5 and 10MHz. This
could be readily implemented in an automated scanning system with an
appropriate mechanical configuration where these two probes take data during
the same scanning operation, and the two data sets are then accurately
overlaid on each other prior to analysis. While the operator analyses the scan
data from the 10MHz probe, if the tell-tale pattern of Section 4.5.3 is seen then
the 5MHz scan can be called up through the software on the same indication to
check if the extended wave train effect exists.

25
4.6 Conventional shear wave UT and TOFD
API RP 941:2016 indicates that these techniques are applicable to welds as well
as parent metal and are considered most effective once significant
macrocracking has taken place. Conventional shear wave UT typically uses
angled beams and sound frequencies between 2 and 5MHz, and is generally
insensitive to fissures but will become sensitive as those fissures coalesce into
macrocracking. See Section 4.7 for a detailed description of this technique when
using higher frequency probes.

API RP 941:2016 notes that the time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique

remains under development. However reports from an ongoing large
programme reported by Nugent et al (2017) indicates that TOFD is being
trialled through multiple vendors over a large number of specimens collected
from industry and containing HTHA damage. The technique has also been
identified as promising by Birring et al (2005), but since TOFD is sensitive to
many types of discontinuities, its findings will need to be verified by other
techniques. There is no validated evidence at present whether TOFD is sensitive
to early-stage fissuring damage in either parent or near weld metal.

TOFD is based on a forward scattering setup using two probes, where one probe
transmits a sound wave and the other receives. The wave front from the
transmitting probe is highly divergent and the basis of this technique is the
detection of diffracted signals nominally at the tips of cracking but also from
other discontinuities (Slesenger et al, 1985). Diffracted signals are much
weaker than reflected or backscattered signals and so TOFD instrumentation
makes use of low-noise preamplifiers and high quality electronics in order to
detect these signals. However, a crucial difference between TOFD and most
other techniques is that it makes use of the time-of-flight of the signals to
analyse them, rather than use the amplitude of those signals. A relatively large
volume of the component in which the divergent transmitted beam is incident
can be interrogated from a single scan point. The technique by necessity
requires the transmitting and receiving probes to be mechanically positioned
facing each other with adequate tolerances on distances and relative
orientations, and scanning parallel to the welding direction is a characteristic
feature of this technique. Figure 4 shows a typical configuration of the TOFD
technique for weld assessment, where the probes are arranged so that the 60°
longitudinal wave beams interrogate the HAZ region adjacent to the weld root
where fissuring may take place.

26
 Figure 4 Illustration showing the TOFD technique setup to interrogate the HAZ
region near the weld root for presence of fissuring or cracking using 60°
longitudinal wave beams.

TOFD is usually applied from the outside surface of a component and with
probes either side of the weld cap. The technique can interrogate a large
volume of the component depending on the probe characteristics and the
physical setup, and the measurement of time-of-flight allows accurate
positioning of indications that enables sizing of cracks in weldments. The
technique could however have ‘blind zones’ near the scanning surface due to
the lateral wave between the transmitter and receiver, and similarly due to the
back wall echo at the inside flow exposed surface especially if offset from the
centre line of the overlapping beams (Charlesworth and Temple, 2001). Since
HTHA damage is likely to start at the flow exposed back wall surface, the
sensitivity of this technique may likely be limited to detecting (including any
sizing) early-stage damage once it has progressed some distance into the
metal.

Bleuze et al (2006) developed a high temperature system for inspection of

HTHA that made use of the TOFD technique and they present positive evidence
for detecting known damage in a service exposed specimen, but no
metallurgical view of this damage level was provided. The current ongoing work
in industry using TOFD to scan HTHA damaged samples may be reported in due
course and it may also provide evidence for the viability of this technique for
early-stage detection of fissures.

4.7 High frequency shear wave UT

This technique is implemented using one probe to both transmit a high
frequency (equal to or greater than 10MHz) shear wave beam and receive
reflected echoes from within the component. The beams propagate into the
component at specific angles, which are typically 45, 60 or 70°. Shear wave
testing is particularly suitable for reflecting (termed skipping) from the internal
surface of the component in order that the beam is incident in the ideal
orientations for reflection to take place from typical weld discontinuities. Figure
5 shows two typical scenarios where a 60° shear wave beam is used to assess
the HAZ region near the roots of two welds with different bevel profiles. In
Figure 5(a) the beam is incident directly in the region of interest and at 90° to
the local fusion face, and in Figure 5(b) the beam is similarly incident at 90° on
the local fusion face but only after skipping off the internal surface.

27
Figure 5 Illustration showing the typical configuration used for shear wave
testing: (a) a double-V prep weld, and (b) a single-V prep weld, where the
shear beam is incident in the region of interest directly and by skipping off the
internal surface, respectively.

Wang (1999) presented and described this technique in detail, along with some
evidence to support its use in field inspections. There is an assumption by Wang
(1999) that HTHA damage will be confined to the HAZ region of the weld close
to the root and this is supported by Bleuze et al (2006), and TWI's own
conversations with industry. A key aspect of this technique is the use of high
frequency probes that may need to focus the sound energy at the region of
interest to cope with the increased attenuation from the material at high
frequencies (see Section 4.3). Wang (1999) recommends probe frequencies of
10MHz or more if feasible and mainly discusses the use of 45° shear wave
beams. Note that this technique will be sensitive to all reflectors in the region of
interest and so a further technique, described in Section 4.8, is required to
discriminate between valid HTHA related reflections and reflections from other
typical weld related features or flaws.

High frequencies will be sensitive to the small fissures of HTHA in stage 2;

however, high frequencies are also sensitive to many other factors, including
the inspection surface roughness and the internal surface condition if skipping is
used. The internal surface conditions of typical components taken from service,
which TWI was shown by industry, indicate that when skipping is required this
technique may suffer significant reduction in performance with a high likelihood
of the beam being scattered and dissipated in unfavourable directions. The
specific conditions of the inspection therefore will have significant impact on
performance.

28
4.8 Angle Beam Spectrum Analysis (ABSA)
This technique is described in detail by Wang (1999) and further described in
procedural details in a patent (Wang, 2000). This technique has some similarity
to the spectral analysis technique discussed in Section 4.4 in that signals
measured in the time domain are looked at in the frequency domain. However,
the effect being sought is subtly different. Whereas the spectral analysis
technique in Section 4.4 relies on the attenuation of high frequency content due
to scattering by fissures, the ABSA technique relies on detecting high frequency
content in the reflected signals from those fissures. A prerequisite for this
technique is being able to detect the reflected signals from the fissures, which is
achieved by implementing the technique discussed in Section 4.7, and
comparing it with a reference signal obtained from the parent metal.

Wang (1999) describes how this reference signal should be collected by using
two identical probes in a pitch-catch configuration, where one probe transmits a
beam at the same angle as used for the inspection in Section 4.7, and the other
probe receives the signal after skipping off the internal surface. The reference
signal is then transformed into the frequency domain to view its frequency
content. The signal from the suspected HTHA fissuring is also then converted
into the frequency domain and compared to the reference.

In polycrystalline material the attenuation coefficient due to scattering φ can be

expressed as a function of the grain size, Dg and the parameter a, which is a
function of the anisotropy inherent to the material (Papadakis, 1965).
Furthermore, this scattering coefficient φ can be modelled separately in three
distinct frequency domains: the low frequency (Rayleigh) region where the
wavelength λ>>Dg, the intermediate (stochastic) region where λ~Dg, and the
high frequency (geometrical) region where λ<<Dg. Equation [5] presents the
relationships between the scattering coefficient φ and frequency f (ie
wavelength – see Section 4.3) in these three regions.

𝜑𝜑𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅ℎ �𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔 , 𝑓𝑓� = 𝑎𝑎𝑅𝑅 𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔3 𝑓𝑓 4

𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 �𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔 , 𝑓𝑓� = 𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 2

𝜑𝜑𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔 � = 𝑎𝑎𝑔𝑔 𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔−1 [5]

where: φRayleigh is the scattering coefficient in the Rayleigh regime (λ>>Dg)

φstochastic is the scattering coefficient in the stochastic regime (λ~Dg)
φgeometrical is the scattering coefficient in the geometrical regime
(λ<<Dg)
Dg is the size of the grain (usually an average size is taken)
f is the frequency of the sound wave
aR, as and ag are values of the parameter a related to the material
in the corresponding regimes

Wang (1999) claims that scattering from fissures can be modelled similarly to
that of grains, and when the size of fissures in comparison to the smaller
wavelengths at higher frequencies puts the scattering regime in the Rayleigh
and stochastic regions, the scattering coefficient becomes proportional to f4 and
f2, respectively. In comparison, reflectors such as inclusions and typical weld
flaws that are much larger than the wavelength are modelled in the geometric
regime where there is no dependence on the frequency of the wave. Hence,
when the spectra of the reflected waves from fissures are plotted in the
frequency domain they show increasing amplitudes of the higher frequency
content and little or no low frequency content. Wang (1999) showed that this

29
differed markedly from the spectrum of the reference signal and from signals
due to other discontinuities in the geometrical regime of scattering, which
allows for clear discrimination and identification of HTHA fissures.

Wang (1999) describes three cases from implementation in the field where two
were reported as HTHA and one was not, but all three were sentenced by the
spectral content of the suspected signal in comparison to the reference as
described above. Figure 6 shows how the frequency domain profile of a signal
from HTHA fissures would differ from the reference and from a reflector (such
as a macrocrack) in the geometrical regime. Note that in this technique it is the
profile of the signal that is important not the absolute comparison of actual
amplitude between different signals, which may be very different.

Figure 6 Illustration of frequency domain profiles (spectra) of signals from: (a)

HTHA fissuring damage, (b) reference reflected signal from the internal surface
collected by two probes of the same angle in pitch-catch mode, and (c) a signal
from a typical weld flaw or inclusion.

30
5 Discussion of the Techniques Currently Being Used in the Field
API RP 941:2016 makes reference to work by Wang (1993, 1995, 1999 and
2000) who proposed specific recipes of the techniques therein (in Table E.1),
which have also been presented in Section 4, for the inspection of parent (base)
metal and welds. These recipes, which are detailed procedures for how to
evaluate and sentence components, were captured in two US patents (Wang,
1995 and Wang, 2000). The techniques indicated in API RP 941:2016 and
procedures making use of them are referred to by many publications when
discussing or indicating their approach to inspection for HTHA (Kot, 2001;
Sharp and Mostert, 2007; McLaughlin, 2007). However, the foundations of
these techniques and procedures were laid in earlier works during the 1980s
that are reviewed and discussed by Birring et al (1989). A term often used by
industry is Advanced Ultrasonic Backscatter Technique (AUBT) and several
service providers claim to provide this capability. However, as noted below, it is
unclear how similar the offerings from different service providers are when
considered in procedural details, which are critical to their performance (for
example the probe frequencies used).

A recent Joint Industry Project (JIP) in the USA that commenced in 2012 has
reported on a practical assessment of a number of techniques using a library of
samples (Nugent et al, 2017). It is reported that the key aim of Phase 1 of the
JIP was the development of a model that relates damage to typical operating
conditions in refineries (temperature, hydrogen partial pressure and time) but a
programme of work involving five major NDT service providers was
commissioned (Nugent et al, 2017). The aim of the NDT programme was to
evaluate the capabilities of most of the techniques in API RP 941:2016 in a
round robin fashion with metallographic work done to confirm the findings of
the techniques. A number of other ultrasonic techniques were also investigated
which included phased array techniques (see Section 6.1). Nugent et al (2017)
report that more than 150 areas were identified by the NDT work as containing
HTHA damage and the publication states:

‘The results of metallurgical analysis indicated a “positive” confirmation rate of

less than 5% of the sites identified with suspected damage. In other words,
95% of the areas identified as potentially HTHA-damaged material were false
positives with no confirmable evidence of HTHA damage observed. It is also
worth noting that a few locations that were identified by all of the NDE
providers to be free from HTHA damage were randomly sectioned
metallographically, and evidence of HTHA, significant in some cases, was
observed. The results of the round robin showed a significant number of both
false positive and false negative calls.’

Nugent et al (2017) report that the raw data submitted by the service providers
were analysed by an independent expert who summarised the capabilities of
the various techniques according to three categories as shown in Table 1. The
distinction between those techniques deemed to be of limited effectiveness
(column 2) and those which were classed as unreliable (column 3) is unclear;
presumably this classification is based on probabilities of detection (PODs), false
positives and/or ranges of application, but the publication offers no insight. In
addition, despite having reported that TOFD and phased array techniques were
investigated, the performance of these techniques was not classified as in Table
1 by Nugent et al (2017).

31
Table 1 Categorisation of ultrasonic techniques in terms of effectiveness based
on inspection data collected on service exposed samples verified to contain
damage (Nugent et al, 2017)

No apparent Limited effectiveness Unreliable

effectiveness for for detection of HTHA for detection of HTHA
detection of HTHA
Velocity ratio, Attenuation, spectral Conventional shear
backscattered amplitude analysis, backscattered wave, high frequency
and spatial averaging pattern recognition, shear wave and angle
directional dependence beam spectral analysis
Notes: and frequency
dependence Notes:
(a) Not useful for
scanning. Notes: (a) Amplitude based and
spatial averaging
(a) Attenuation, spectral techniques have also
analysis and frequency been found to be
dependence techniques unreliable based on
are not able to scan large evidence outside of the
areas; 150 samples used in the
(b) Reasonable to use as trials.
confirmatory techniques;
(c) False positives noted
due to weld repairs to
cladding and
imperfections in original
steel manufacture.

The report by Nugent et al (2017) indicates that the techniques above were
implemented as part of variations of ‘AUBT’ and ‘ABSA’ procedures but it is not
possible to appreciate from this publically available information the similarities
and differences in the procedures used by the different service providers. It is
possible that they may have offered similar-sounding services but their exact
implementations may have had significant impact on their performance. A
search of the internet for AUBT/ABSA services returns several major service
providers but it is not possible to evaluate their approach without a detailed
assessment of their procedures.

The patents by Wang (1995; 2000) do contain detailed descriptions of how to

take the techniques in Section 4 and implement them in a practicable way for
site inspections. The procedures are based on a systematic approach with
decisions to be made captured in flow charts. There are procedures for
assessing parent metals (Wang 1995), and for welds and their HAZ (Wang,
2000). However, it is not known whether the service providers who took part in
the study reported by Nugent et al (2017) made use of similar approaches to
those in the patents or whether they had modified methods. Both the patents
by Wang (1995; 2000) and API RP 941:2016 are clear that sentencing of HTHA
should be done using results from multiple techniques, and Figure 9 of Nugent
et al (2017) indicates that 9 out of 10 service providers had implemented at
least three different techniques. However, it is not clear if they cross-checked
results across these techniques but, given the reported poor performance, the
evidence indicates that these techniques may not be complementing each
other.

In the case of Wang (1995), for parent metals, the component is initially
scanned and the backscattered pattern is monitored. The operator is required to
know and identify the emergence of one of four different A-scan patterns. Each

32
of these patterns may indicate different damage morphology in the metal. A
number of questions are then asked in the case when each of the patterns is
found, which are based on the ability to implement and the results of velocity
ratio, attenuation, spectral analysis and spatial averaging techniques. A trained
operator would follow the procedure indicated by the flow charts that eventually
leads him/her to sentencing the metal as having no damage or containing
laminations and/or inclusions, or different levels of damage extending from
back wall to fully through-wall. Supplementary methods such as field replication
are also called for to confirm any damage.

For welds and their HAZ, the techniques as described in Sections 4.7 and 4.8
are similarly made practicable by Wang (2000) using flow charts to help an
operator take a systematic approach and make decisions on the findings in a
component with welds. Wang (1995; 2000) provides detailed information on
how to set up instrumentation and typical parameter values for probe
frequencies, sensitivity levels, reference target sizes, couplant types and even
specific instrumentation models that should be used. There is sufficient detail in
both patents for operators to be trained to a high level of specialism but there is
also scope for modifications, such as the algorithms used for measuring times-
of-flight, methods for capturing signals for amplitude measurements and how to
process these in the frequency domain (hardware based discrete Fourier
transforms for example).

Nevertheless, recent evidence indicates that the techniques presented in

Section 4, and the way in which they are being used within procedures for
practical inspection, appear not to be fit for purpose to a level that is currently
required by industry to deal with increasingly ageing components. The
conclusions of CSB (2014) with regard to the inspection situation does appear
to be supported by this most recent body of work (Nugent et al, 2017),
reportedly involving a group of nine refineries and petrochemical entities.

The reports from the two service companies tasked with the post-failure
inspection of the Tesoro heat exchangers E (exploded) and B (intact but having
experienced similar conditions to E), when analysed against metallographic
findings of the investigation, are inconclusive with regard to inspection
performance (see appendices G, I and J of CSB, 2014). The inspection reports
state that no HTHA was found in the parent metal and that, since
macrocracking was evident adjacent to welds, the AUBT technique did not give
a positive identification for fissuring. By contrast, the metallurgical report
concludes that there was significant evidence of HTHA in the two heat
exchangers in parent metal adjacent to the welds and along the fracture paths.
In summary, it is not possible to make a conclusive assessment of the
performance of the inspection techniques used by either of the service
companies because their commentary indicates that the areas where they
focused were either irrelevant (in parent metal far away from the welds) or that
the presence of macrocracking negated the ability of AUBT to detect fissuring,
instead detecting the macrocrack.

Hence, a critical assessment of the evidence collected here indicates that the
inspection techniques widely publicised for the purpose of HTHA detection are
not being reported to be reliable in practice. The physical basis for the
techniques, as presented in Section 4, seems to be sound but perhaps some
aspects of the practical realities – such as scanning and back wall surface
conditions, inclusion levels or cleanliness of the metal, competency of operators
- are resulting in unreliable inspection outcomes.

33
6 Ultrasonic Techniques Using Array Probes

6.1 Phased array techniques

Birring et al (2005) present an early usage of phased array technology for the
detection of HTHA alongside the traditional techniques based on single element
probe and TOFD. Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) is a sophistication,
based on the same fundamental principles as conventional ultrasonic testing
(R/D Tech, 2004), but using an array of elements capable of transmitting and
receiving ultrasound independently of each other. When Birring et al (2005)
investigated the use of PAUT techniques, cost-effective portable phased array
instrumentation had been introduced to the market that allowed for the
implementation of PAUT in field conditions. Birring et al (2005) considered
whether the use of PAUT techniques that presented an image, as well as the
traditional A-scan representation of the signals, could help to better interpret
the signals from within the metal, discriminating, for example, between
stringers (inclusions) and HTHA. Using a 5MHz 16 element array probe, Birring
et al (2005) showed how discrete reflectors like stringers look different in a
typical PAUT data representation (in that case the sector scan) when compared
to HTHA damage connected to the back wall.

The quality of array probes has been improving steadily since the mid-2000s
when the advent of portable instrumentation in the market saw an increase in
the utilisation of PAUT in all industries. With the emergence of standards such
as BS EN ISO 13588:2012, which addressed the use of PAUT in carbon steel
materials, this trend has been accelerating, with PAUT operators also becoming
more widely available (it should be noted that to be a PAUT operator it is a
requirement to have also trained and be able to implement conventional
ultrasonic techniques). It is important to note that phased array ultrasonics is
simply an extension of conventional ultrasonics and that it provides primarily
greater versatility to design complex techniques that allow a more intuitive
visual interpretation of the signals.

As indicated earlier, an array consists of several independent but (typically)

identical elements. The array controller is essentially composed of standard
ultrasonic pulser-receivers, either equal to the number of elements or based on
multiplexers to address larger arrays than the available independent pulser-
receiver units. The instruments are required to operate each element of the
array independently, and relative delays in the excitation times − the so-called
‘delay laws’ − between adjacent elements give rise to the ‘phasing’ effect. The
two primary ways in which arrays are used to manipulate the sound field are by
focussing the sound energy and by steering the energy in a predetermined
fashion, and both focusing and steering can be done independently or
simultaneously. Hence, the use of delay laws on arrays of elements to
manipulate the sound field forms the key functional concept of phased array
technology.

In the description of focussing and steering below, a linear array is considered -

ie a number of elements arranged in a straight line; linear arrays allow the
manipulation of the sound field in one plane only and are used in the majority
of PAUT techniques. However, two-dimensional arrays are also used in
industrial ultrasonic testing, permitting the manipulation of the sound field in a
three-dimensional volume. All phased array systems require software modules
that perform the calculations necessary to build the delay laws and that process
the received signals for analysis.

Figure 6 shows the parameters of a linear array, which are input to the
instrumentation software, which then uses them in calculating the delay laws

34
for the required beam manipulation. Each element is an independent sound
radiating entity. Figure 7 is a representation of the 16-element array placed on
a solid medium with the first element transmitting a sound pulse into the
medium.

Figure 6 The primary parameters of an array used in the calculation of delay

laws; element width (e), gap (g), pitch (p), width (W), active aperture length
(A) and number of elements in aperture (n). Note that the aperture length is
variable, depending on the number of elements chosen for a particular
application.

Figure 7 Representation of element 1 of the array propagating a sound wave

front within a medium ahead.

Each element of the array can be independently addressed but by ‘firing’ all
elements simultaneously a plane wave front can be generated within the
medium, as shown in Figure 8. However, note that whether a single element is
fired (as in Figure 7) or several elements are fired simultaneously (as in Figure
8) the sound field will behave similarly to that from a single element probe
having a similar aperture. In effect, phased array technology makes use of
known characteristics of single element probes to adapt and manipulate the
sound field in order to develop advanced techniques.

35
Figure 8 Generation of a plane wave front ahead of the array by firing all 16
elements simultaneously.

To focus the sound field the array is phased using delay laws, eg to focus a
normal beam (as illustrated in Figure 8) the outer elements of the array fire
first, with the central elements firing at a relatively delayed time. The degree of
delay applied bears upon the range (or depth) at which the sound energy is
maximised. Focusing is made possible by the constructive and destructive
interference that takes place between the wave fronts of the elements as they
propagate into the medium. Instruments make use of software modules to
calculate the delay laws to focus the sound field (or beams) in the desired
region of the component. Figure 9 illustrates this concept using an aperture
with eight elements (Elements 5 to 12).

Figure 9 The development of the sound field during focusing using 8 elements
of the array. The illustration shows the wave fronts generated by the elements
interfering to give rise to regions of maximised sound pressure (focus region).

Delay laws are also used to steer the beam, ie to control the direction in which
the sound beam propagates. To steer the beam, elements are fired
successively, as illustrated in Figure 10. Interference gives rise to the actual
locus of maximum energy propagating in a direction dependent upon the times
at which the elements were fired.

36
Figure 10 The development of the sound field during steering using 5 elements
of the array. The illustration shows successive elements being fired to
propagate the locus of maximum energy in the desired direction.

An array probe can be used to generate a single beam at a desired angle and
perhaps focusing (or not) at a particular position within the component − indeed
a lot of techniques in industry make use of arrays in this way. However, usually
a PAUT technique is composed of many beams, which are successively steered
at different angles, and possibly all of them configured to focus at a particular
depth (for example the back wall). Each of these beams gives rise to a
conventional A-scan but an operator will not be able to analyse all these A-
scans – the task would be too cumbersome and tiring. Instead, the software
modules on the instruments effectively collate all these A-scans into an ‘image’
that represents the echoes from within the component.

Imaging of this kind however is not restricted to PAUT. Before the advent of
phased array technology, conventional ultrasonic techniques had also been
creating visual representations of the echoes from inside a component. In order
to do this the key requirement is being able to scan – as referred to in previous
sections when discussing the different conventional techniques from API RP
941:2016. The A-scan is the fundamental signal form measured in ultrasonic
testing. Regardless of whether the instrument used is a conventional flaw
detector with a single element probe or a phased array instrument, the data
captured from the material under inspection is fundamentally of the signal
amplitude vs time history form (A-scan). In the case of conventional ultrasonic
testing, further data representations are possible, with yet more possibilities in
the case of phased array testing; a few of these are described below.

The B-scan is in fact a composite of several A-scan data arranged in one-

dimension, designed to show a distance vs depth (time) plot of the data
collected from the component; the B-scan gives information about the depth of
echoes from within the component and their length along one dimension. The
depth is evaluated from the time measured along the x-axis of the A-scan
(when the sound velocity in the component is known). The C-scan is a distance
vs distance plot of the data arranged in two-dimensions and it gives information
about the lateral distances (area) of any defect; it represents a plan view of the
data from above the scanning surface. To obtain a B-scan the probe must be
moved in a line on the surface of the component and for a C-scan a raster
scanning pattern must be implemented, with the position of the probe encoded
with the recorded A-scan. These concepts are illustrated in Figure 11. Together,
the B-scan view and the C-scan view can be used to visualise an indication
within the three-dimensional volume of the component being inspected.

PAUT allows a form of visualisation termed the sector scan. This view is made
possible by the ability of an array to steer the sound field. Hence, a sector is
composed of the A-scans generated by the beams from a probe being steered
from a start angle to an end angle. The sector scan gives the same information

37
as a B-scan (distance vs depth) but unlike a B-scan the probe (ie the array) is
not required to physically move along a line. The sector scan is illustrated in
Figure 12. As for the single element probe illustrated in Figure 11, B-scans and
C-scans can also be generated using phased array data as the constituent
ultrasonic information is again fundamentally the A-scan.

PAUT allows a further form of visualisation termed the linear or electronic scan.
In this case, a number of elements are selected on an array to generate
(typically) one particular beam. The aperture is then translated along the array
(which must be larger than the aperture) to simulate electronically the
movement of a conventional probe in one direction. The beams are then
presented in a view that is similar to the B-scan.

Array probe based techniques and their related visualisations offer a wide
number of modes for operation. This method is being increasingly adopted for
industrial ultrasonic inspection and this is indicated by the vibrancy of work in
many industrial sectors using this technology. The work related to detection of
HTHA reported by Nugent et al (2017) includes the two main configurations of
using array probes in PAUT - linear (electronic) scanning and sector scanning –
both of which are included in BS EN ISO 13588:2012. However, the results of
the PAUT techniques are not presented or commented on by Nugent et al
(2017) but TWI contacted the author when writing this report, who indicated
that efforts in the JIP had significantly improved the success rate of TOFD and
PAUT as evaluated on a library of samples taken from components removed
from service containing HTHA damage.

38
Figure 11 Illustration of the B-scan and C-scan data representations that are
constructed using the A-scan raw data collected by the probe. The B-scan gives
information regarding the position of the defect in the through-wall direction
and the C-scan gives the size of the defect in a two-dimensional plane. (FW –
front wall, BW – back wall).

39
Figure 12 Illustration of the sector scan composed of many A-scans from the
beams being steered through a range of angles. Note that in addition to
steering the beam, the focal law may also be focusing the sound field to
improve defect detection and spatial resolution.

Lozev (2017a) presented work on evaluating the performance of PAUT

techniques for the detection, characterisation and sizing of HTHA, with the
starting point that the manual ultrasonic techniques specified in API RP
941:2016 are unreliable and that TOFD has limitations for detection of fissuring
damage at stage 2. On this basis, Lozev (2017a) proceeded to undertake trials
of PAUT techniques and imaging techniques (see Section 6.2) using
commercially available portable equipment. In addition, a number of other
technological developments related to array probes − the use of flexible wedges
or shoes on the probes that allow them to conform to uneven surfaces and the
use of two-dimensional arrays − were explored by Lozev (2017a). The work was
done on components that had been in service a considerable amount of time,
ranging from 12 to 53 years (Lozev, 2017a). Using array probe frequencies of
5, 7.5 and 10MHz Lozev (2017a) was able to illustrate how the techniques
became sensitive to smaller reflectors that were subsequently confirmed by
metallographic sectioning to be related to damage connected to the back wall.

The sample set used by Lozev (2017a) was broad enough to exhibit (by
metallographic sectioning) damage classified as both stage 2 and stage 3, and
data appearing to correspond with metallographic sections indicate that damage
at both these stages could be found. From a practical viewpoint, the PAUT and
imaging (see Section 6.2) techniques investigated by Lozev (2017a)
increasingly eliminate the reliance on interpretation of A-scan signals (as
required in the techniques currently indicated in API RP 941:2016), and focus
more on a data representation which corresponds more closely with how
damage would look visually (ie metallographically). This similarity is not exact,
and indeed still requires a trained eye, but it is relatively easy for even

40
 untrained personnel to recognise the existence of a region of damage close to
the back wall (as illustrated in Figure 1) when compared to a view where there
is no damage (Lozev, 2017a).

6.2 Advanced imaging techniques (FMC/TFM)

The imaging techniques considered in this section are similar to PAUT
techniques in many respects, but there is a greater reliance on mathematical
processing algorithms of the raw data prior to presenting it to the operator for
interpretation. It must be noted that the underlying fundamental information is
still the A-scan – ie the amplitude vs time history – as for all other ultrasonic
techniques considered in this report.

The first step of the imaging is the collection of data, which is termed full matrix
capture (FMC). The same array probes as in PAUT techniques are used and the
same physical laws that govern the sound radiated by those elements apply.
However, delay laws are not used to create a sound beam (either focused
and/or steered) from an aperture. For this reason, these imaging techniques
are also referred to as non-beam forming techniques – as opposed to PAUT
techniques, which do use delay laws to form beams, as described in Section
6.1.

Hence, in FMC data collection the data (signals) collected are not due to the
interaction of a sound field generated by an aperture containing more than one
element of the array – ie it is not phased array. The signals collected from the
medium are in fact due to the sound field of one element of the array, but
every element on the array listens to the signals generated in the medium.
Because each element of an array is small, it is considered a point source that
generates a widely diverging beam front that propagates into the medium into
a large volume. Figure 13 illustrates this data capture method in time steps
from when a wave front generated by one element propagates into the
medium, to when the reflected wave fronts from within the medium are
recorded on all elements of the array. The process is repeated with the second
element firing, leading to the response from within the medium again being
recorded on all elements, and then repeated again with the third and fourth
elements firing, and so on until finally the reflected signals from the last
element are recorded.

41
Figure 13 Points in time describing the FMC data collection process: (a) Shows the firing
of the first element and a wave front travelling into the medium; (b) Shows the wave
front just prior to being incident on a target in the medium; (c) Shows the reflected
echoes from the target returning back in the direction of the array; (d) Shows the wave
front just prior to being incident on the elements of the array; (e) Shows the signals
being collected on all the elements of the array. Here t is time, Δt is the time resolution
of 1ns, a, b, c and d are arbitrary constants selected to show the sound field from the
array at a particular time.

This gives rise to the data matrix that is illustrated in Figure 14 where the response from
reflectors within the medium due to the firing of all elements is captured. For each
transmitter, there are n receivers (n being the number of elements in the array). This
gives rise to a very large data set, and indeed one of the disadvantages of FMC based
methods is the very large volume of data that needs to be collected, stored and
manipulated. This can also have a detrimental effect on scanning speeds depending on
the volume of the recorded component.

42
Figure 14 Illustration of the FMC data matrix, where the fundamental
information is still the amplitude time history of the A-scan that is now digitised
into this matrix.

Imaging algorithms can now be applied to the FMC data matrix in order to
visualise the reflectors, discontinuities or flaws based on assumptions of how
they may have interacted with the sound field within the medium or
component. This makes imaging techniques based on FMC data powerful but
confidence in these algorithms is yet to be fully established within industry.
Development of standards to refer to when developing techniques using FMC
data is a key part of gaining this confidence and at present such efforts are
ongoing with support from the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and
ASME.

There are a multitude of algorithms that can be applied to the FMC data matrix
and one such method termed the total focussing method (TFM) (Holmes et al,
2005) is the most widely used. On its introduction to the industrial ultrasonic
inspection market, the instruments capable of implementing the process in
Figure 13 and the computing requirements to wield the algorithms manipulating
the FMC data matrix of Figure 14 were cumbersome to deploy in the field.
However, with the arrival of portable instrumentation on the market in recent
years, imaging techniques are now being increasingly explored for field
inspection work (similar to when portable PAUT instruments first appeared in
the mid-2000s).

Lozev (2017a) undertook such an exploration of FMC/TFM techniques (and a

modified adaptive TFM technique to deal with uneven surface conditions) on
specimens containing HTHA damage. The results give rise to a more intuitive
way for operators to interpret the condition of components, with the human eye
being relied upon to detect patterns in the images. Lozev (2017a) claims that
the FMC/TFM techniques are able to resolve HTHA flaws at stage 2 with a size of
300µm (0.3mm). The report by Nugent et al (2017) did not include imaging
techniques but in private communications with TWI, the author indicated that
FMC/TFM was evaluated in Phase 2 but that there were no plans at the time of

43
the communication for wider public release of information related to this effort.
TWI was also informed that Phase 3 of the JIP had recently commenced with a
greater focus on training of the operators on the use of TOFD, PAUT and
FMC/TFM techniques for detection of HTHA using the library of samples
containing actual HTHA damage as found in components removed from service.

More evidence is required, but there is a strong indication that, along with PAUT
techniques, these imaging techniques may offer improved inspection
performance, enabling the reliable detection of stage 2 damage. It must be
noted that sentencing of a component suspected of having damage should be
done using multiple techniques, as already implicitly codified within the API RP
941:2016 guidance − but the API document does not at present acknowledge
either PAUT or FMC/TFM imaging techniques. Discussions with industry indicates
that there is now a realisation that API RP 941:2016 guidance for inspection as
encapsulated in Table E.1 is outdated. During the course of this review TWI was
made aware that the relevant task groups within API had started revision of
Table E.1 with a view to incorporating changes into the future API RP 941:2020.

44
7 Acoustic Emission Techniques
Acoustic emission techniques are different from the other techniques described
in this report in that they rely on detecting events that occur transiently in time
when there is a dynamic change in the condition of a component, such as the
initiation or propagation of cracking. For this reason, they are better classed as
monitoring techniques that passively ‘listen’ for events in the volume of the
component, and hence must necessarily be deployed on components while they
are operating at elevated temperatures. The development of the technique, in
particular the selection of instrumentation and sensitivity levels, are dependent
on the energy that is released during either isolated or multiple (but closely
spaced) events and the existence of background noise is a key challenge in this
effort.

This technique has been used for some time for the monitoring of pressure
vessels under test and it is of interest currently for the monitoring of wind
turbine structures, in particular the blades (Tang et al, 2016). There is
marketing evidence of products being developed for a damage mechanism
related to HTHA termed hydrogen induced cracking (HIC). However, discussions
with industry indicate that there is limited confidence in this technique for the
detection of HTHA, which would require deployment of the system at the
elevated temperatures at which critical areas of pipes and vessels operate. It is
also considered doubtful whether the system would be able to detect the small
energies released during methane induced voiding at the early stages.

However, provided a practicable system can be effectively deployed and ‘tuned’

to the frequency ranges of HTHA damage events, then such a system could
potentially provide early warning of the transition from stage 1 to stage 2, but
there is no evidence at present and significant level of technological
developments will be needed. It must be noted that the likelihood for false-calls
is high with acoustic emission techniques due to the presence of noise and its
weakness in detecting irrelevant events. Therefore, validation of any proposed
techniques is very important prior to acceptance for use in industry.

45
8 Non-Linear Ultrasonic Techniques
McGovern et al (2017) presented recent work on the use of non-linear
ultrasonic techniques for detection of HTHA and discussion with industry
indicates that work in this area is presently ongoing. Non-linear techniques
have their foundation in high amplitude waves propagating in an elastic medium
where a number of phenomena can be used to detect discontinuities. McGovern
et al (2017) present such a technique termed non-collinear wave mixing, which
involves two probes each simultaneously generating continuous waves of two
different frequencies. Where these wave fronts of two different frequencies
intersect, a third non-linear wave front with a frequency equal to the sum of the
other two can be generated. Parameters that control this interaction between
the three wave fronts and how the presence of a discontinuity (HTHA in this
case) affects this phenomenon forms the foundation of the technique explored
by McGovern et al (2017).

Importantly, to realise the technique three probes are required (two to generate
sound and one to receive) in a particular configuration that involves finely
tuning the angles generated in the metal (McGovern et al, 2017). This level of
coordination is mechanically demanding but also potential changes in surface
conditions may lead to small changes in refracted angles that could adversely
affect the technique. McGovern et al (2017) reported significant scatter in the
measurement data for the non-linear effect taken at different through-wall
positions in a specimen with service exposed damage, but there was no
comparison made with metallurgical evidence of the level of the through-wall
damage by sectioning – the authors simply claim that the sample was heavily
damaged.

The setup used by McGovern et al (2017) and for many of the techniques based
on non-linear phenomena is presently laboratory-based and field deployment of
the large form factor equipment used in this case is currently impracticable.
Another area of exploration for non-linear techniques is the detection of small
fatigue cracking in their earlier stages of development. Recent reports indicate
that array controller instrumentation used for linear wave mode imaging (such
as PAUT and FMC/TFM) can be used to detect and thereby use non-linear
effects for detecting fatigue cracks (Cheng et al, 2017). The use of linear and
non-linear techniques simultaneously using the same instrumentation in this
way may allow for enhanced assessment where the strengths of both
techniques could be harnessed (Cheng et al, 2017).

In summary, non-linear techniques are currently being investigated for the

detection of HTHA damage and the practical conditions for their implementation
in the field appear to be improving. Further systematic validation evidence is
required to evaluate their potential and capability for early-stage detection of
HTHA.

46
9 Early-Stage Detection of HTHA
Stage 1 is characterised by methane-filled voids at grain boundaries, which
grow and coalesce into fissures at grain boundaries leading into stage 2 (API RP
941:2016). Hence, detection of fissures as early as possible in stage 2 will give
plant operators improved safety margins to better manage the risk of operating
components exposed to HTHA. In practice, since inspection is likely to be
performed when damage is expected or suspected, the likelihood of finding the
component close to, at or beyond stage 2 is high at some point during the
inspection programme. However, it is noted that even components susceptible
to damage may never display detectable levels of damage using techniques
currently applicable in the field. In addition, there is increasing evidence that
the focus should be on weldments (see Section 3.1) and the early detection of
risk to the joints needs to be the priority.

Nugent et al (2017) realised that ‘concern rightly exists about the minimum size
of HTHA that can be detected’, reflecting their findings that areas confirmed to
have significant levels of damage were not reported by any of the service
providers even though they were using many different ultrasonic techniques
between them. The consequence of not detecting damage once it reaches stage
2 can be severe depending on how the component is categorised. If it is
categorised as one that operates nominally below the Nelson curve and the
damage may have occurred by transient migrations above the Nelson curve
over time, then likelihood of eventual failure by macrocracking could be high
(API RP 941:2016 and Rothwell, 2018). If the component is subject to periodic
inspection then there is a chance that cracking at stage 2 or 3 prior to failure
may be detected – though the findings of Nugent et al (2017) regarding the
apparent impotence of current techniques is concerning.

Ultrasonic techniques are generally implemented from the outside surface of

components, not the internal flow-exposed surfaces. They may be
complemented by field replication on the outside surface, as well as from the
internal surfaces when possible. Most inspection campaigns take place during
an outage of the plants when the components reach ambient temperature
conditions. There have however been developments to enable inspection during
operation at elevated temperatures (Bleuze et al, 2006) and several companies
offer commercially available equipment to enable inspection at the temperature
regime when carbon steels are susceptible to HTHA damage.

To improve sensitivity, it is important to use specimens containing

representative damage in order to calibrate the inspection system but this has
been identified as a significant area of weakness in most industrial inspection
campaigns that rely on standard reflectors to set sensitivity. If representative
damage is not available, smaller reference targets may need to be used and
0.5mm SDHs was suggested by Birring et al (2005) who also indicated that the
analysis for damage should take account of all indications above background
noise levels rather than using amplitude thresholds based on standard
reflectors. Without access to the procedures of all the service companies that
are involved in HTHA inspections it is not possible to establish if sufficient
sensitivity is likely to be achieved in each case.

Nugent et al (2017) indicate that Phase 2 of their JIP is underway, with a

greater focus on NDT capabilities. They indicate that newer techniques not used
in Phase 1 are under evaluation, and preliminary results suggest that these
newer techniques are more effective, based on validation by destructive
metallography. Nugent et al (2017) indicate that the outcomes of the Phase 2
work will be reported in future but no potential dates were indicated in private
communications with TWI.

47
The evidence presented by Lozev (2017a) is promising that consistent, reliable
detection of stage 2 HTHA damage may be possible using advancing ultrasonic
technology but this must be tempered by the negative reporting by Nugent et al
(2017) on established techniques, which appear to have been based on sound
physical reasoning. Parameters related to implementation – such as preparatory
activities, geometries and operator quality – might be having a worryingly
dominant role in the current adverse situation. In order to reach the goal of
confident early-stage detection, these implementation aspects must be
effectively addressed.

There is consensus between the governing code (API RP 941:2016), past

evidence and discussions with industrial stakeholders that no one technique has
proved to be – or indeed likely to be – consistently reliable for stage 2 damage
detection. Several techniques must be used to confirm any suspicion of damage
and several independent service providers should be used to inspect the
suspected damage, prior to final sentencing and decision regarding
repair/removal. The economics of getting the benefits of multiple perspectives
must be balanced against the consequences of potential catastrophic failures,
with due regard for the environment and human life.

48
10 Conclusions
The key findings of this report are summarised below.

1 Industry is using the techniques indicated in API RP 941:2016 to inspect for

and try to confirm the existence of HTHA, and these techniques have become
prevalent.
2 The techniques indicated in API RP 941:2016 appear to have good physical
basis and in some cases are supported by empirical evidence. These
techniques are recognised as difficult to implement practically and not all are
suited to scanning large areas.
3 Several major service providers offer inspection services for HTHA and many
of those promote the use of Advanced Ultrasonic Backscatter Technique
(AUBT). It is however not clear how the procedures used by different
vendors compare with each other as many of the techniques that constitute
the AUBT procedures rely on how the operator executes them.
4 There is consensus that backscatter pattern recognition techniques
supplemented by other techniques to confirm suspected areas for damage is
the most effective way forward, both for parent metal and regions adjacent
to welds.
5 Automated scanning where positional information is encoded with ultrasonic
data has been identified as a benefit when done effectively with good data
quality checking during the inspection. Automated scanning services are
more expensive but there is reduced scope for missing areas in comparison
to manual inspection, as early-stage damage may be highly localised. It also
allows for digital archiving of data that allows for future analysis and
comparative investigations as the component ages.
6 Welds and their heat-affected zones (HAZs) have been identified as critical
areas. However, the techniques indicated in API RP 941:2016 for these areas
have been found to be unreliable according to an ongoing industry project.
Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) is a technique suitable for welds and there
are ongoing efforts to assess its effectiveness.
7 Array transducer based techniques (PAUT and FMC/TFM) have been
presented recently with evidence of their ability to detect stage 2 HTHA
damage verified through metallurgical sectioning. It is unclear at present
how consistently reliable these techniques will be for this purpose when
utilised in the field.
8 Non-linear techniques are being explored with a view to gain sensitivity to
early-stage damage but the evidence presented to date is inconclusive,
requiring validation against metallurgical data. There are also difficulties with
field deployment due to the relative complexities of the techniques and the
large form factor instrumentation that is required.
9 Training of operators appears to be a key issue, being needed to increase the
pool of available personnel as components and plants age. Due to the lack of
representative specimens, operators may be achieving certification but their
competency is in doubt.
10 Industry is increasingly pooling resources to address the issue of HTHA
following the Tesoro incident; these resources include financial resources but
also representative specimens. These specimen libraries are being used to
trial existing techniques, validate them through metallurgical analysis to gain
confidence in their performance and test emerging techniques.
11 These specimens are also helping to generate a wider pool of inspection
personnel who have the opportunity to experience this damage mechanism
in their training environment so that they become more competent and
confident when providing their services to industry.
12 New concepts for continuous or progressive validation and qualification of
techniques using specimens extracted from service with known levels of
damage have been proposed which offer a pragmatic way to improve
confidence in the techniques over a period of time.

49
13 At the time this report was issued TWI was made aware that a task group
within the API was actively working to review and update the inspection
guidance in RP 941.

50
11 Technical Recommendations
The recommendations below are based on the findings of this report.

1 Multiple techniques must be used as part of any procedure to confirm the

presence or absence of damage; it is recommended that at least two, ideally
three, well-suited techniques should be implemented. All procedures must
also be validated and must reference the specimens used for calibration and
setting sensitivity.
2 The use of two independent service providers to verify findings of potential
damage should be considered prior to decisions regarding continuing
operations, repair or removal of the component.
3 Newer techniques such as array ultrasonics, TOFD and non-linear ultrasonic
techniques should be included and updated within the API RP 941:2016
guidance in order to raise awareness of these inspection techniques among
plant operators.
4 The region adjacent to the HAZs close to the root of the weld have been
identified as a critical area to improve inspection capability; hence
techniques using array transducers (PAUT and FMC/TFM) and possibly TOFD
(working complementarily) should be further investigated as they are most
likely to give good capability.
5 Plant operators should consider creating baseline scans of those components
that will operate close to the design limits or risk going beyond design limits
transiently during service. These baseline scans should ideally be performed
at installation, which also gives the plants the opportunity to prepare
effective inspection procedures (ideally with formal qualification) that can
then be used on those components during service. This approach (starting
from a baseline and using well-designed procedures containing techniques
suited to those components) should aid in better monitoring of the
microstructures as they age, thereby helping to detect early-stage damage.
6 Training for operators should focus on competency and exposure to HTHA
damage in all its different stages and guises so that they become effective
and confident in its assessment.
7 Stakeholders need to increase their openness with knowledge urgently so
that industry as a whole can find practicable ways forward and find solutions
that address the threat level due to HTHA.

51
12 Acknowledgements
The technical content of this report was reviewed by a number of individuals
selected to represent the stakeholders. Those who gave permission to be
acknowledged are listed below and the author is thankful for the time they
provided to review this report. Note that the conclusions and recommendations
were arrived at by TWI alone based on the findings of the work.

Mark Lozev of BP Products North America, Inc., USA

Olivier Roy of M2M, France
John Lilley of Sonomatic, UK
Sieger Terpstra of Shell, Netherlands

The author is grateful for the invaluable reviews and comments from Charles
Schneider of TWI to make this report fit for purpose.

52
13 References
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55
56
Published by the Health & Safety Executive 11/18
Maintaining the integrity of process plant
susceptible to high temperature hydrogen
attack. Part 1: analysis of non-destructive
testing techniques
Carbon steel process plant that operates with hydrogen at
elevated pressure and temperature can be weakened by a
phenomenon known as high temperature hydrogen attack
(HTHA). Hydrogen diffuses through the steel and reacts
with carbon to form methane which builds up and
degrades the steel’s mechanical properties. If this
phenomenon is taking place and continues undetected, it
can potentially lead to failure of the process plant and a
major accident. A fatal fire and explosion at the Tesoro
Refinery in the USA in 2010 was caused by rupture of a
hydrocarbon containing heat exchanger which had been
weakened by HTHA.
HSE commissioned research to give a better understanding
of maintaining the integrity of process plant operating in
high temperature hydrogen service susceptible to HTHA.
The research is described in two reports which should be
read together. Part 1, RR1113, gives an analysis of the
performance limitations of ultrasonic non-destructive
testing techniques when searching for the presence of
HTHA, and emerging technologies that may offer improved
detection. Part 2, RR1114, discusses factors affecting HTHA
for carbon steels including: the safe operating pressure
and temperature envelope for plant (‘Nelson Curves’);
steel type, welds, stress and other material factors; and
equipment operating history.
This report and the work it describes were funded by the
Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Its contents, including
any opinions and/or conclusions expressed, are those of
the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect HSE policy.

RR1133

www.hse.gov.uk