Contents

Preface xi

Authors xiii

List of symbols xv

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Ground improvement and geotechnical engineering 1

1.2 Brief history of jet grouting 2

1.3 The reasons for success 4

1.4 Why a book on jet grouting? 5

2 Technology 9

2.1 Technological features 9

2.2 Jet grouting procedure 10

2.3 Jet grouting systems 13

2.3.1 Single fluid system 16

2.3.2 Double fluid system 16

2.3.3 Triple fluid system 16

2.3.4 Technological evolutions 16

2.4 Columns overlapping 18

2.5 Columns reinforcement 20

2.6 Grout mix and spoil 20

2.6.1 Grout mix 20

2.6.2 Spoil 21

2.7 Jet grouting plant 22

2.7.1 Fundamental tools 22

2.7.2 Grout mixing 23

2.7.3 Pumps and compressors 23

2.7.4 Drilling and grouting rigs 23

2.8 Treatment parameters 24

viii Contents
3 Mechanisms and effects 27

3.1 Preliminary considerations 27

3.2 Submerged jet 29

3.2.1 Experimental observations 29

3.2.2 Numerical modelling 38

3.2.3 Simplified formulations 40

3.2.4 Specific energy 43

3.3 Jet–soil interaction 45

4 Column properties 53

4.1 Introduction 53

4.2 Treatment efficiency 53

4.3 Diameter of columns 56

4.3.1 Experimental evidence 56

4.3.2 Mean diameter 58

4.3.2.1 Simplified prediction of mean diameter 61

4.3.2.2 Advanced prediction of mean diameter 62

4.3.3 Variability of diameter 70

4.4 Deviation of the columns axis 72

4.5 Jet-grouted material 76

4.5.1 Material composition 76

4.5.2 Unit weight 77

4.5.3 Mechanical properties 78

4.5.3.1 Strength 80

4.5.3.2 Stiffness 87

4.5.3.3 Variability of mechanical properties 90

4.5.4 Permeability 94

5 Jet-grouted structures 97

5.1 Elements and structures 97

5.2 Foundations 99
5.3 Retaining structures 106

5.4 Water barriers 111

5.5 Tunnels 116

5.6 Other applications 120

Contents ix

6 Design principles 123

6.1 Basic considerations 123

6.1.1 Design goals 123

6.1.2 Guidelines and codes of practice 126

6.2 From columns to structures 132

6.3 Design approaches 139

6.4 Design properties of columns 142

6.4.1 Diameter of columns 142

6.4.1.1 Deterministic approach 142

6.4.1.2 Semiprobabilistic approach 143

6.4.2 Inclination of columns 144

6.4.2.1 Deterministic approach 144

6.4.2.2 Semiprobabilistic approach 145

6.4.3 Mechanical properties of the jet-grouted material 145

6.4.3.1 Deterministic approach 146

6.4.3.2 Semiprobabilistic approach 146

6.4.4 Mechanical behaviour of reinforced columns 147

6.4.5 Probabilistic approach 150

7 Design examples 155

7.1 Selected applications 155

7.2 Foundations 156

7.2.1 Jet-grouted block 157

7.2.2 Jet-grouted raft 163

7.2.2.1 Soil–column interaction 163

7.2.2.2 Column resistance 167

7.2.2.3 Calculation example: Vertically

loaded jet-grouted rafts 168

7.2.2.4 Laterally loaded single column 171

7.3 Tunnel canopies and vertical shafts 175

7.3.1 Jet-grouted canopies 176

7.3.1.1 Semiprobabilistic approach 181

7.3.1.2 Probabilistic approach 186

7.3.1.3 SSI in the probabilistic approach 188

7.3.1.4 Calculation example with the

probabilistic approach 189

7.3.2 Jet-grouted shafts 191

7.3.3 Three-dimensional effects 195

x Contents

7.4 Hydraulic cutoffs 196

7.4.1 Single row cutoff: Deterministic approach 197

7.4.2 Single row cutoff: Semiprobabilistic approach 197

7.4.3 Single row cutoff: Probabilistic approach 199

7.4.4 Double row cutoff 200

7.5 Bottom plugs 203

7.5.1 Mechanical scheme and design goals 203

7.5.2 Deterministic approach 207

7.5.3 Semiprobabilistic approach 209

7.5.4 Probabilistic approach 209

8 Controls 217

8.1 Objectives of controls 217

8.2 Field trials 218

8.3 Control rules and guidelines 221

8.4 Materials qualification 222

8.4.1 Cement 223

8.4.2 Admixtures 225

8.4.3 Water 225

8.4.4 Reinforcements 226

8.5 Treatment control 226

8.5.1 Grout preparation 226

8.5.2 Drilling and grouting 228

8.5.3 Spoil return 233

8.6 Properties of the jet-grouted structure 234

8.6.1 Diameter of columns 235

8.6.2 Continuity and homogeneity

of jet-grouted elements 243

8.6.3 Physical and mechanical properties

of the jet-grouted material 251

8.7 Performance of the jet-grouted elements 252

8.7.1 Load tests 253

8.7.2 Permeability tests 256

8.8 Monitoring of the surrounding structures 258

References 265

xi

Preface

The jet grouting technique has become very popular all over the world as

a practical means for solving several geotechnical problems. Sometimes,

however, the inappropriate use of jet grouting has led to unsuccessful

results raising relevant concern on its efficiency. Nevertheless, these failures

usually stem from ignorance about the actual possibilities and limitations

of the method rather than from the value of the method itself.

In fact, in order to manage a jet grouting project, it is essential to have a

detailed knowledge of the various technological procedures that could be

used and, above all, to understand the possible effects of jet grouting on

different natural soils. In recent years, this latter aspect has been subjected

to thorough studies, which have substantially increased the knowledge

of the complex jet–soil interaction phenomena. The results of these studies

have recently provided enhanced and reliable methods to estimate the

effects of jet grouting, relating them to both soil properties and treatment

procedures. However, such studies are still mostly confined to the scientific

literature, known only to a small academic community, and are not yet sufficiently

widespread among practicing engineers.

Another crucial issue is the analysis of the so-called jet-grouted structures,

that is, the various possible assemblages of jet-grouted columns conceived

to provide a required geotechnical function. This topic is of paramount

importance for providing rational design methods, which are urgently

needed for establishing jet grouting as a fully reliable and mature technology.

Again, rational solutions are nowadays available, yet not known to the

majority of practicing engineers who still tend to rely on purely empirical

rules of thumb, mostly proceeding on the basis of personal experience or

employing some sort of trial-and-error procedure.

In order to try and fill these gaps, this book presents an overview of

engineering practice and research activity on jet grouting, with the perhaps

ambitious aim of putting them into a unique, interconnected and consistent

framework. For such a purpose, the authors have tried to tie together the

technological issues, the interpretation of the mechanisms taking place during

jet grouting, the quantitative prediction of their effects, the design of

xii Preface

jet-grouted structures and finally the procedures for controlling the actual

jet grouting results.

The authors are well aware that they may fall short of achieving their

aims for this book. Clearly, some of the topics dealt with could be further
refined, while others may be added. Moreover, some of the proposed solutions

may raise questions and require more debate with particular regard

to the design methods. Finally in certain cases the authors have pointed

out some problems but have not been able to provide the relevant answers

yet. Therefore, the book may be seen as a work in progress dealing with an

ever-changing technique for which criticisms, discussion and contributions

are most welcome and will help to fill possible gaps.

As far as contributions are concerned, it is finally important to recall that

information and data on applications are essential, mistakes being more

important than successful applications. Therefore, a close and collaborative

interaction between researchers, designers, contractors and equipment

manufacturers is required to enhance both construction procedures and

design methods with the final goal of improving rational and justified confidence

in jet grouting.

The book is the outcome of a long-lasting cooperation among the authors

and has gone through the interaction with many colleagues and friends.

The authors are deeply indebted to all of them for sharing experience and

knowledge.

xiii

Authors

Paolo Croce was born in Napoli, Italy, in 1954. He graduated in civil engineering

at the University of Napoli, Federico II, in 1979. He finished his

master’s degree in civil engineering from the University of Colorado in 1982.

He is a professor of geotechnical engineering at the University of Cassino

and Southern Lazio, Italy, where he is currently teaching courses on

soil mechanics and on slope stability. He is a member of the American

Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and of the Italian Geotechnical Society

(Associazione Geotecnica Italiana [AGI]), where he is a member of the

AGI Committee for the Guidelines on Jet Grouting. He is also a convenor

of the European Work Group on Ground Improvement (EG14 [CEN/TC

250]) and a member of the European Committee on Execution of Special

Geotechnical Works (CEN/TC 288).

He has 30 years of professional experience regarding earth and rockfill

dams, tunnelling, foundations, earthworks and landslide control. He has

authored several articles in geotechnical journals and conferences.

Alessandro Flora was born in Campiglia Marittima in Livorno, Italy,

in 1963. He graduated in civil engineering at the University of Napoli

Federico II in 1989. He finished his PhD in geotechnical engineering jointly

from the University of Napoli Federico II and Roma La Sapienza in 1995.

He is a professor of geotechnical engineering at the University of Napoli

Federico II, where he is currently teaching ground improvement and geotechnical

works. He is the author of approximately 100 research articles

published in main international journals, in conference proceedings and in

books. He is a member of the Italian Geotechnical Society (Associazione

Geotecnica Italiana [AGI]), where he is a member of the AGI Committee

for the Guidelines on Jet Grouting. He is also a member of the following

International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering

(ISSMGE) committees: TC211: Ground Improvement (Italian delegate) and

TC301: Preservation of Monuments and Historic Sites (secretary). He is

also the secretary of the European Work Group on Ground Improvement

(EG14 [CEN/TC/250], Eurocode 7).