Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • (Monographs of The Society For Research in Child Development 274) Zelazo, P. D. - Muller, U. - Frye, D. - Marcovitch, S, - The Development of Executive Function in Early Childhood (2003)

    Uploaded by

    Gustav RSR
    9 views83 pages
    monografia

    Original Title

    (Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 274) Zelazo, P. D._ Muller, U._ Frye, D._ Marcovitch, S, - The development of executive function in early childhood (2003)

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    monografia

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    9 views83 pages

    (Monographs of The Society For Research in Child Development 274) Zelazo, P. D. - Muller, U. - Frye, D. - Marcovitch, S, - The Development of Executive Function in Early Childhood (2003)

    Uploaded by

    Gustav RSR
    monografia

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 83
    ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Philip David Zelazo Ulrich Mialler Douglas Frye Stuart Mareovitch IN COLLABORATION WITH Gina Argits Janet Boseouski Jackie K. Chiang Donaya Hongwanishkul Barbara V. Schuster Alexandra Sutherland WITH COMMENTARY BY Stephanie M. Carlson Willis E Overton Series Editor ( Blackwell Publishing EDITOR aus F OVERTON, Te Unies omORIALASSStaNT CONSULTING EDTORS FOR THE MONOGRAPHS (2003) ‘wie Cara ad sche ae caret cnet a ta ‘Aon biti Deis aaa ee ses ete —— vont erga ay aos, ane cranes ote i ae “Geils {eden ft it men oeiese THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD ‘CONTENTS aasteat vi IL SUDY I MEMORY AND SRECUINEFUNCTON 28 I STUDY 2 RUE COURT ND STMLLUS CHARACTERS 1 STUDY 3 WHAT DO CHUEREN FERSEVEAIE ON WEN THEY FESEVERAE? 65 Y SIY 4 NEGATWEPRIUNG AND EXECUTE FUNCTION 73 THE OF RONEN OF XECUIVE FUNCTION COOMIVECOMMEDIVAND CONTROL REMSED 93 SMHARY OF VEEGONS OF THEDWENSONAL CHANGE C280 SORT USED 120 ERENCES. 124 AceNOMEDENENTS. 157 COMMENTARY eEuveRaCTONIN ConTeR peveNEN, "ReASUREMENT HEORY, AND ERENCE ‘Siphon if Caioe 138 conmesutons 152 SITOMENT OFEDTORALPOUCY 154 ABSTRACT zoo, Puiu Davis; MoLLas, Uisicw: Bart, Doveras, and Maucourten, Steaer The Developmen of txecative Faocion it Early Childhood. Sonapphs of he Sec Jr Resch nhl Deepa, 200868 (3, Serial No. 274 According to the Cogitve Complesty ne Comal (CCG) theory, the evelopment of exceatie function can be understood interme of 3g eluted increases i the maximum commplexty of the rules children can formulate and wse when solving problems. Thi Monograpt dexcbes four studies (9 experiment) designed to test hypotheses derived frm the CCC theory an om akernative theoretical perspectives on the development of fexecitiveRunetion (nemory account, inhibition accounts, nd reesei ‘don accounts). Each study employed version a he Dinensonal Change {Card Sort (DCCS) in whi hldren are required fry sort cards by ne of res (eg, color rls: "IT el dhe here, hue then sere"), ane {hom wort he sae ent by another, incompatible pai o rules (eg sh ules). Study 1 found that although most 3 co deyearoldy ed standard version of his task (ues they perteverated om the precvtch rues ‘dating the pontswitch phase), they usually performed well whem they were Fequited une four rules indudingbidinensonal rules) and those rales ‘were notin conflict (ve, they dl ot care eiudren to eespond I ewe 19) 1 pained sample test om scores from the 2+2-Rale dbidimensons fo overlap) sersion showed that hee wis no sinicantdilerenee between children's performnce inthe fist (A= 9°31, SD 250) snd sco all (A= 7.94, SD=-01) (15) = LUS, > 20 (se Figure 7). Next, chikdnen's performance om the 24°°Rley Gidimensanal. 0 overlap) version was compared with ehikdreny performance on the Mandar version fom Experiment 1. A heey mixed ANOVA with ‘erson (anlar v.22 Roe) and sex a eteecn-sbjerts wiles test half (itt hal second hal as a within-subjects variable revealed Siguiticant effets of version, (47) = 1221, p01 (elect sey = 95 and text Hall FUL, 47) = 17-70, f= 001 (elle size f=. well a interaction between version at test hall, #1, 47)= 7.24, p05. The interaction way dive tothe fact hat inte ital chien performed 4 ally well om brats yersons faandan sevson: = NE, SD = 2965 Res bitinensdonals no onesbap veri: =D, SD ~ 2.30) bat fae second Tall eden peste poor oy sessile seri [yea Th, SDs) and well on the 2#2Rukey hii, (evap) serins (M = 738, SD~ LOM} Laced aun. As i Hpesiment 1, success on the 242-Rules Insets, vests) sersion was lebined av 15 ot of 2 aed lined cortetl. Wineen (S18) of the 1 children in Experiment ied io this version, A'S ehikren who filed sorvet! 10 care k. tev Te thee eden sored by shape in bot aes the Ind the other chil sorted by color in beth aves chispuare test comparing performance on he 242-Rules Ibidinersonal, no ever) vernon ta perormance on the standard erin i Experiment sowed thatthe numbers of eidren passing Alepental on the version 20 N B21 j= 00, with a reater portion of clade pass tiles thidimensonal no ‘ner version Discson tn Experiment 2 che children perormed well on the 2+2-Rokes| Ubinas, no every) version of the DCCS, which required ‘he to sort soate teat cats by colo and seme teat cards by shape Gimp the standard version af the DCCS mel in Experiment signal miore chilven. pad the 242-Rules (idiwersional, ws ‘scrap version {Cire success on the 242-Rukes (iim, overlap) ‘ers sports the sggestion sha nenory liane ate nota primary ceria of chiens eifily sth the DUCS.. Morente. the ‘compare of eben’ performance on this sersion with their perfor bantam tester vers of he DCS Experiment {hej the source of hidden’ dificully om the atandat version, ‘These to “eho were similar in shat cide were told a eal Torres. tw fr Shing hy elo a or sting by sap hai Bath versions, ‘hive ere asked to swith Kron using wo rks Tor sorting by one Sinension To ang ewe Ties fF somting DY the other, However, a Key Siuiesence beeen the versions may be Hatin the 2 2-Raes (die Sion no overlap versions parielar test card didnot nce to b ea ier dentin on the gare being played That ere was scons ang he rl Th te avec ee Stay 2 4“ reRMeNT 9 In #xperimeny tad 2 hee version all require eile go ona homogenous sei of stale coring to ne inten other Morea, there sere annie tw relevant dntetsions Shape ot Color. It is posses therfore that hse versio allowed ikven chunk the iormation that they were required 0 remember, there Fedcing the deinands a minor. Altbough 1 seems unlikely tha he memory demands iy dhe 2#2-Rales (biden, no omerap) Version ‘ere lower than these in the anda version, Fxpernnt 3 8 condice tod waddres the queton of memory binitations fret a in dierent I Experiment 3, children were presented with 2 new version uF the DOCS. he ERs (nperortine) version, in whith they were Fequied 0 sort a relatively heteoescos eres of text cas according 0 Four disrete superorlinate etgoris. It wis expected tht the Rules superordinte) Sesion wonkt pose even greater memory demands tha the new versions sed iu Expevimens 1nd 3. and that eileen would not only need to remember the relevant rules bt als make relatively ile ferences deermine which rule was most approprite for eal test cal That nt sdion wo a store component there wn ako 3 considerable prices Component, Nonetheless, econ to CCE theory to teyearole hos peetform better on the--Rue(aperoiat) version than onthe standant ers af the DCCS became any the standard version of the DCC, Fequites the construction o's higher order rue, Motod eticjant. “Twenty 8-40 d-yeu-ohl(M =. months ange: 87a 47 months girs an 11 hon) ete tected in the same fon a Experiment [An additions chen were tested but excluded from ‘he inal sample hee the refuse to complete the experiaent (= Th for because of experimenter ervr t= 2) Pracinne. Baca cil received the standard version of the DOCS. ania Rules (superordinate) version, half the children receiving the Standard yersion Ist an half receiving the -FRies (uperordited xerion fst The standard serson was exactly lke the standard version in Experiment I. except that on gach te the experimenter labeled each test card bythe relevant dimension oul (eg. "Heresa lower". A elle Mower and a green boat were used target cad, and yreen flowers and yellow bouts were used a test cad, Dimension one Wak counter 2 “STUDY & MEMOMY AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTION, Iukaned sc that roughly half of dhe civ within each version order were ist tll to ort by eo Awinthe 4-Rules versions sein Expevimets Land 2, dren inthe ‘Rules (superordinate) version of dhe DCCS were shown four tage ‘aes tl four rales for arty tet cards. Target cada test cds ste shown in able 2 ne experimenter described cach thuetional,superondinate calegories ited ‘a alk things yo ca wea, things you can ride, an tings you ca ‘it. Then theexperimenter pointe to each target ear int ad aid, ‘one we're going to play card gate, inthis game, we pt al the ings sha ean walker here [pois the dog It someting that ca wal rt tin thio. We put al the things you can wear exer here [pains the sweater, Ft is someting you ean wean, put inthis box, We pat al "he things you ca ide over here [points othe bus, Hits some rect cord inte ithe rules (he things that 2 ca ide pt the Ho, We pl he things yn eam ea {in the apple i Sesomering tea yt tsb Tee experimenter dha sorted one ex et laren in eh Say to ilostrate wat chitlen weve supposed tote Ale igen seston trial cle recived 20 tnt als presente! exactly ke te Rs version in Experiments 1 ad 2 The taal procedure took appronimately 1 sinwtes yo administer eve Group nates. Proininary analyses revealed no flets of version rder or dimension order, wo these sarables were eluded Tom Subsequent analyses Iain, all eildeer perorsed perlety 9 the st hal ofthe standard version. so there wis anance In thiseell A, Iesnay mined! ANONA with sex ae etwecr-ajects variable and ‘ersion tundaed v--Rulesoperordinate) asa withit-subjcets aria Was eoncted on number af cornet trie (ont ol 20). Ths anal Feveslel that cuidien sorted more. cards eorveuty inthe Rey (superoidinute) version (M= 1725, SD =-498) shan in the standard serion (f= 1.35, D =4.60), FU, 18) = 48-03 elec se f= 61 Smile ress ere fou hen wy the hit 10 tas wee considered children performed. etter onthe second. ball of the Roles Usuperordinte) version (N= 815, SD than they i on the sect hall of the tatarl version (M= 1.35. SD" .60, #1, 18)= 7.24, e001 eet sce /~ 13, see Figate 7). Finaly, Pease corvlition sisted t determine that posite performance on the ‘andar version nas silly relate to overall performance in the 4-Rales(peroninate) version = by p69) Lndidand anaes. sin Kxpeviments Ian 2, eildven who sorted 1s or more cardevn the standard versine 0 the 4s (superordinate) eosin were clase epg, As shown [Skat the standard serin than he 1-Rules gsperainae) sersion, (ehiy = 2 =0, pe, Discsion Fsperiment 3 explore fier the posit has minory contains ane rsprsile for casi ealdeens perseveration the DOCS by Sinapanng shiklea's performance on the standard. serion to thst oiniance ont new “Hikes (seperordiate) version, The Rees eiperenlnae)nersion Hele posed even grester memory semana than {hu precions ks versions Decne theres were relatively atacand thelist wards weve heterogencos. Despite this chiven” performed “Sticny etter on ibe Sus (oapcrordinae) version, This fining Teteloe proves foaher evidence agua the wggestion tt lmiations fn hens memory capsety ply an importante fn So yea oke ron peor on the DCCS, (GENERAL DISCUSSION Study 1 invavedthece experiments that examined whether 3-104 pearl error an the DUCS am be attted to age-elae tations Son memory capac. Several Heures (eg, Case, M5, 1M, Gather "Wk: Cann fe Ole, 1908; Morton A Muna, 202) suggest that ge felis! changes i shorter, ative, or working. memory are map Aeterna ol chides pertormance on a wide variety measures Inching measires of exceive fiction, In the DCCS, to 4-year os ay simply have ilfielly Beeping the posite rules in mind Experiment [tested this memory account by comparing. chiden's Detlritance on the standard ers ofthe DCES wo their perform fon te new setsions the Kher (unidinensinaly and 2+2-Ralex “cient versions, that were sina to the standard ers in ta ‘ey rented dten to srt by four rk meme consents ae nj detesninant of een’: pertormance, the the twa ew veson should be at kes edifice 36 Me standard version and possibly more ihe eeanse hikdeen ate told the far rok staan, Ress stoned tat perfarmance was signify worse in the sandard ¥en ined on hen filed he sana eran bat atthe he 0 wldeesed the pny that hired not realy need ‘ules in_iind inorder tn sacceed on the 4Rules inensional) and 2+2-Role (unidimensional) verons I ern 45 sinply vemeere the single relevant clension, dey could pevtaps fer teat went weve inven if Experient 2, even were gen te 24 2s bidimensintal no overlap) ero, whi they wer told sort inst by tn rules bel ose desi ecb) ad en by Fakes hed om the other dimension (eg shape) tn thi version cen ‘edd wo remember wiih crdsto sort by cor ind whch cards o sent by shape: Revols revealed that to years pevforted well on the 2+ ales bidimensionah no overiap) version Experiment 3 presented chien sith the Rules (superordinte) serio which likely posed even greater meron desman than the 4-Raley ‘erions used in Experiments [and 2 becase kt iwolved superordinate Tues ana hevrogeneous series of tea cade. Nonetheless, cikdveng tly better nthe 4s (nuperordinate) vernon an on ‘erst ofthe DOCS, Take together, finding on the Iles experiments provide strong evidence agaist a memory account of pevformatnce on the DCCS, The findings ako help iotate what may bea crucial determinant of siticuty. tv eae of the mored versions of the DCS, there was m0 Confit among rules and ire did not have t son the ste test card I two diferent ways, Bersuse each test ear was uniquely avoid i titferent ole, clen anguably di ot ned formate ad we higher border rue for seleaing among conflicting rules. The findings are thus Conese with the OCC theory according to which is higher order ile te and ve mermorythat pone a problem for to 4-year Ta sila vei, sing the Day-Night Stroop tsk, Damond and collegues (Diamond, Kirkhai, 8 Amo, 2002; Gerad ct a, 1908) have ss sw that ite the confi Between ules al not memory demands that creates elifiuly for 3- to --yeurolds In the Day-Night Soop tas, children were insrced to say “ey” when shown a fine drawing othe ‘moo and stats, and “aight” when shown w Tine diawing of the sum CGerstadt et al found hat year dren generally led to comply wth the tusk instructions, und that performance improved between 3.5 and 7 year the percentage cnree inereasel rot 71 corte to 25 cored Fy contra, Sto 4yearold cildven had few liiuies in a contd cuvulion in which chikiren were instructed to say “day” and “night” I Fespomse to abstract ine drawn pertormance was aleady very good! (01% corre by age 3 years Although the ining ported Study Laugest that 3-10 4yearoldt Aiticuty onthe DCCS cannot be atte maton on memory in ay Scraightorward sion. dhe ndings do ofcourse leave open the psy that ebildren's memory fr theres ited way at permits them sicced in sme uations (ie, thos without confi) Bt not ethers (hone ‘ith conf. Morton and Manat’ 2002) model i one uel account 4“ foc sh Munakata, McClane 1987) ease eevee tht conic ean scresse te metry demand as ene presence one, The pais ofthe findings rom Study oe ead setnory accounts willbe issued farther in Chapter VL Kenting aso ave ape the possi a working memory plays sweeten he DCS and nee ateaues of exec Fanci. ice ts ponsbiy is supported by the nding that the 4Rbex dine kan he wand ron mere signin correlated ping then prorat) appa 0 9 sete or pasing the DUCS. indeed, according CC theory. the pctStte am meant alee, eps children to format expt else tina then in working menor. ad then se them ogi hei ‘eto hat the ning oon Sty sugges tat to eae Tian depends more om he conf song rue tha on the imple feet that ris be remembered Stay 2 facses on how children resets conic and when they are requited odo. sige ” ML, STUDY 2: RULE COMPLEXITY AND STIMULUS. ‘CHARACTERISTICS IN EXECUTIVE FUNCTION INTRODUCTION ANO SUMMARY hh resus ro Study 1 guest thal 3:10 seal dlcy with the DCS ean be atid sah oraed Fashion nitions on shorttera or wurking memory fe dics keeping the posts les ini. Children pertormed wel on several new vera ofthe DCS i thi ehey weve required sort acording to ales. one version he 24.Raleetidimemsinna no eri) version, ike were required sort some west ah by cola somes ead shape Fee tes prvi shunt either messory or balimenionaliy per se appeared {be the see hike’ ili on a staan sexs, However ene possi is that children have difiulty on the DOCS Tease they cot eat te sae tins ie test carn tw dierent seas in he comest a single tak Fr example, cin lo mate red abit ave ty color ny se dlc matching the very same card byshape toa blve rabbit subacyuent iia This hypothe ellos both inition aout CCS fe irk ean press: Perner IH) and from Pere’ redeseipion hypothesis (erner et aly 2002} Talbiion acts old at peste tespoines andr attention {he prewtch emerson become prepotent, ad 3 wo 4year-oks Lack he inkfbury control to suppres them, The reexcription hypothe holds tat Seto scars have deny appreciating Hat a single sins con he describe nlp way, Tn conta, CCC theory pedis that 3-ta years tet asngle stinnlan i to dileyent ways toler sone ctcumsances namely, Ienever doing s0 dacs ou require the wef higher order re According 9 OCG theory, higher arder vue wil be required wheneser fs ate meted under dilevent seg conditions in hcrachiel ee firacire ke that in Figure 3. Under these enemstancescidsen need fist consider a seting conion and then onl the appropriate rl Althouglst sometime supped tht higher oder rules are reine only when there are sw pry ening ves esr ens & Kl, 4“ 202), we biev that they ae neared whenever there colt in at least two of the outcomes that span the with ofthe sree” (Frye 2000, 1.158) Thisspecfeaion sugges that a higher onder ae willie fen fora singe prof rues when the sale are need inde dilfevent Inijor branches uf a hierarchical eve structure. For example, in many standard measures af theory of min, such ae alse bell weston a ibe Sole tee structure televant (eg. Maxi, the re cpu me then blue cupour, but as long ae two cifevent rules mst be meted tude diferent sein contin, then a higher rer vule i required Facnnse Om Discusion Thce-yearolds inthis experiment exhibited considerable dicot using evens singe pai of sles conta to Eaperiment 2 in which ‘Silica perioral” we when repired 10 nse four nonoverlapping ‘klimensnal rey he majority ofS to 436m olds aed te Prone “Tice ingle te cr version iv Experinen 3. Ts finding underscores the inportce of conic among rules and compen wih the sugges soit yeaa han ily hee ey ae ee te Tulsa span tjr branches in a iearchio ce stir coding CEE thoy en cen ed py he ela sien rabbit gate wid reference to single ins, they mus formulate a higher order role select dnnemson eset condon), a dea sect the appropriate role xreRIENT 5 Experiment 4 demonstrated thit 3: 10 4-year fled to svt Aexiby even when dhey were required wo use a single pai of rules opposed to oo pais af ele in he sandard DOCS). According wo CO se Jw: flare on dhe Prunes ee (ingest can version rested fm ‘he inal to cnatret higher onder rule Hameve also pense gts Sy napa of mrtg he seo Tiers 98 ety a experimental unten, Experiment Sw dlesighedo est is hypothesis directly by presenting 5-1 hears with «vers of the DOCS in which only ne dimension (ge cabs) was used the Caidimensiona (ingle tes ear). hah the wording of the rales in this version way idemtal to the “origin the Prned hve (single text cad version (resis sme pt it ere, but i's the game pu these"), CCC thy predic! that fo -year-olds would peor well this version becuse ‘nly one dimension, and therefore only ene inajee branch ofthe tee Figure, need be considered. tn contras,nnevet i cidten weve nse ‘ovsrt singe tes care io lifrent ways eter lease of weak Inhibition or because of eiicaly ceeseriing stimu then they would be spc fil his version, Method Pustcpunts ond design. Sixten 3: to year-olds (M = 41.7 months ange: 38 co 47 months 7 git nd 9 foys) weve recruited i the sang fesion atin Experiment All chikren received two instances ofthe Unidimensional (single est. card) version, one with color rules and one with shape tue in ‘counterbalanced "order In this version, the target ane were idiensional (eq a blue patch vs. green paich, onan oun of 2 ‘ars the outline of a lower). The test cat onthe other han displayed bth values ofthe flevant dimension only (se Figure 10) Rot olor ules, the tes card was half green and half Be or the shape les, the test card displayed the outline of 4 fower on one lateral tle und the ‘outline ofa ear on the wther lateral side foreach task, half ofthe cidsen ere tered io fist sort by one evel of the dimension (ese play the srcen game) and then switch tothe second level e- play the Bl ge, Procol. The Usiimensional (single test car) version was “alministered in asia fashion wo the Pruned ive single test cd) ‘ers in Experiment 4. On text tri chiklven were shoven the green ‘ie cid and wold, F's the green game put it here, but ii he blog ‘sume putt here. Let’ play the yen (blue) game. Where des this one 0°" Aer the frst ash children were given abr imermission approms "uel 2 minutes) Then the second tsk wae administered in wide “shin (except with cards and le rom the other dimension). The toa Procedure wok approximately 10 minutes to administer 55 Rests Group anaes, Anna repeated-measures ANOVA filed n detect, any ferences tn nunc of covvec ponte ta he 10 SO Thus, to simply. the, analyses. and to keep then comparable 1 Experiment 4; he rests were averaged acsosshoth tasks. A oneoway {Order ANOVA wis then conducted totet for possible order effects The nals revealed wo scant elec ot order, and therefore this arable tras extded from further analy, ‘A one-way (Sex) ANOVA failed to reveal any effect of ex, ULM) 098, ns tm general, cildren performed very well on this task, averaging L2 nu of on the pontch phaee SD ~ 24). signi ficanly above the chance level of 25 oot of 5, (15) ~ 5.6, 9-< 0001. These Fesuls retained siaiicant even ater exclding children who fled the preswich pase (averaging fewer than 4 out of correct, "=. Mean postewtch performunce on the Unidinensional single est card version) was then compare o performance om the raved Tree ile test cand) veraon wed in Fxperiment 4, using a onceway (Version) ANOVA, Reslsreveaeda msi effet of version, FU, 30) = 72, p< 05 (etic sie f= 47), confirming superior performance on the Unidised Sonal split simul version (se Figure 11) Indiviucl anise, Taose ehidron who passe the preswitch phase were alo classified 4 citer passing (averaging 4 oF more ou OF correc) Dr fang (averaging fener than 4 out of = corre) the postite phase leven aut ofthese 12 children pgsis the postswteh phase, which is Sigifcantly greater than chance, 0, N= U2) = 8.93, p< O1 Dieutlon the rests of Expesiment 5 indicate that children are capable of sorting the sane tins ard two diferent ways when onl one dimension Nlomidered, Although the wording of dhe roles was idenueal to the slowing of the rules in the Pruned Tyee (single test cad) version in Taperimentdieg,Iieethe _—gameitgoesheresmdificsie game ictues here. Wee playing the ganve. Where docs ic go?" laren pelfermed: mich beter on tie Undimensona! (spe simul) version, ecoding 1 (4 theory, hia because only the Pramed Tree (single test {hid} version requires the wse of a seting eondion wo bridge the 10 ules Because each rule corresponds to afferent dimension In contra ho vetng condition fe nec bythe Unidznensional pli simul version beause the rules correspond to level mth the same dimension, “The results of Experament 8 ure inconsistent wih uch inhibition account ofthe DOCS (eg, Kirbhan et a, in pres; Peres K Lang, 2002) 56 and Perner’sveessipton hypothesis (erner et al, 202). 1F to eae his uitheuty or the standard seri i due to am imate inhibition Schaninn predcing lek of response conve ot representational intesiy. then eildren should perlorm poory on she Unadimensional {Single can version” Similarly, thcy should perform poorly wn this Serton if they ave cMRCuly appreciating What sige sims ca be esrb in mall ays Tincontas, CCC sheory predic tha 3-o4-oatoldscan reata single ssimulie in quo diferent ways ander some cvcnnsances nantly, Ithenever diay so does not tequive the we of higher order rule Arcrding 19 OCC theory a higher order rule wl be required whenever fuler are neved under different seting cnuiions in the Niesarchial tee “Sructreshowa n Figure 3. Under these cieunatnees children aced at to-consider «sein condition and dhen ro welche appropriate rl However im defense of Pemer et a's (2002) relesripton they, ‘ould be angued sharin Experiment 5, hidden da nou treat the tnidimensional stimulus single en or Gexn, bt instead focueed ‘on differen specs of the stings in he pre- aad posteitl phase. this Were the cae then pttap cildven did ut aed to coordina ahevaatve perspectives in Puperiment 5. Experiment 6 examined ths possbihty by presenting children wit bidimensonal version ofthe DOCS tha volved ‘pal separated dimensions, Following the log of this defence of the Teslesrptton theory, children should ssn do well on this version ofthe DCC because ia allows them to focus on diferent aspects of the es cards without reqting them to cooedinae thee aypects By contrast, COC eory would predt tha childecn do poorly om thay balimensional separated version becane it requires cheno crow major branches of & (oceike sre, exeEeWENT 6 “Experiment showed that 3-ta year-olds hd dieu sorting on 3 version ofthe DCCS in which they were required sorta singletstcard in two diferet ways acorn to two diferent dimensions the Praned Tice (ingle tescard) version In Experiment 5, a group of 3- a 4-yer-olds was able to Sort single vest arin to illerent ways when doing 20d ot euie sorting coring to two dimensions. Experiment 6s eogned 0 test direct the prediction, rade by the CCC theory that 3. w 4year-okls Areable to wea single stimulus ine ferent way when doing so does hot require crossing maper branches ofa ree structure ke that in Figure 3, This eaperiment also axed the effec of 2 pulentally important sliference ithe sunt sed in Experiment 4 terse Use sed. Ea Experiment 3—whcther test card wee integrated vernar separated. In this imeninen,Experinent 6 examined the pont, raed im eleense of the ‘edetcripiion thon thar when presented wih separated stimu dren evil slernate tetween focusing om diferent aspects of the simulus Iihous coordinating two alernative perspectives. hen spy seri kernated beowecn ferent perspectives in Experiment 5, then they thoold do well on a bidimensional version of the DCCS that involved Separated stim ‘Shepp and colleagues Barret Shepp, 1088; Shepp & Bareet 1991; Shepp, Barrt, A Kolber, 187, but ace Ridderinkho, van der Molen, Ram & Rashore, 1977) have wggested shat there ate age read changes inthe way in which young children dats pereie objet (eg. colors abit). Whereas Younger cildren perceive these sim olay lmegrated whole, older children an aie ate eter at aalring these simul nto separate dimensions or features, Support for this suggestion ‘Comes from findigs that tn matching ask, the performance of prunger aldren (eg, 5 t-6:year os) ie more closely related to whether the ‘simul are spatially inteyrated or separated than i the perlormance of ‘older cikiven and adult According to this separably hyposhess, chives performance on the CCS shoul he teste to shether the dimensions ofthe target ad es ‘ards are presented in an inegtatel or separated fashion. Indeed, ‘lens city with the DCCS may be due o icy anslying the ‘simul ino separate aributes, located on diferent dimensions. Tabi experiment, four versions of the DCCS were created by crossing two variables, rl cimensionshty (biimensonal vs. unidimensona) and Whether the test cards were iategrated or separated (ee Figure 12) [coring o CCC theory children weve expected a peror well on both ‘idmemtonal versa becae, although these vernon solve confit ing rules, they donee requir the we of rules need under differen jor branches of the tee structure in Figure 3. tn contest, children were ‘expected to perform poor in the bidimensional versions becase thee ‘etsions do require the use ofruls nested under diferent major branches, ‘The separsblty hypothesis was texted by comparing childrens perfor: mance othe two bilncraonal versions, Method Pastcpants and design. Forty-eight 3+ to Seyearolds (Mf = 42.3 months: range: 87 to 40 months; 28 ire and 25 boys) were recruited {uae same fashion as in Experiment I, except that 13 ofthe children {este in this experiment abo partipaied in Experiment 5. Thete 13 dhildcen were evenly distibuted across the four experimental versions 38 (children in one version and 3 ach i the other theee versions), an femoval ofthese cre irom he analyses did noc alter dhe results. AN sidonal children were tested But excluded from te final sample ibeuuse they elas to compete the experiment Tehe children mere. ssigned randomly to cach of the four conditions: unihmensional separated (US). unidimensional integrated (U.bilimensional separated (BS) and bidisensional integrated (1). 10 uch conn, children received two take (oe, replication of the ‘ersion ised in that condiion), one invulving color anclor shape, and the other involving pater anor size ke ordr in which rule pats were presented was counterbalanced across paricpaats Moses Two ses of cards were used The fs et vated in color (ed oF Ble) snd shape aso lowers) The second act varied ins arge or sal) and pater (dots ot stripes). ta the unidimensional versione, separated text Sarde depicted the two ponble response options (eq. red and blue) ‘nlacenty om a single cart, whereas dhe megrated tes cards epic the tw aspects ofa dimension ina single form, such aya red and ble abe The target cards for such 4 werson mou bea fed rabbit and a bh abhi (ace Figure 2), For the separated text er, one level of the relevant ‘mension was presented on the ll de of the card for alfof thera and fom the rght ide fr the remaining eal ch wh oe Se h Hl & (a 9° he bidimensional versions required sorting by tw dimes sch bs Sige and pater Kn thse nevn, hr the seperately bah dirs were presente adpecily ma singe ard elem one Stead rat onthe eter. The inegrated ima contd incrinnspreseted ina singe form, sca re rabbic. The ange cds forth yeratn conse of He eas a ed ba ce igre 12) For ‘he separated ts car one level ofthe relevant dimers wax preset tnt seo ecard for bale iad the righ se fr the ening ia Tal or versions, the same te cat but with eral se varie for separated tet cad) was presente! forall five pret ra a al five psc ia Procdary. “The procedure for all versions wis identical 1 the procedure for she Unicimensional (single test cted) version used it Experiment. Hamever, fr dhe bilinersimal version children were rol dimensional res fe ifs re tyes here bu its le there”) on the pre-and posisnte pases Ty al cases, est cards were labeled simply ay "one" (rg, "Wie dae this one go?) Chikren were sven a short break approximately 5 mimes) between the teu sks, THe Tora procedure took sppreninately 20 ninates to administer esas Grp anaes. Asin Experiments 4 an 5, corvect responding was scored the numberof corvet poatiiteh wala To age the ell of the particular re prs wed (ies there blue pr or the striped par for the US and Ll versions the cokoshape pair or the numeri pair for the BS and BI versions) sad the order in wich they were ed, mixed (Role. Phir Order) ANOVAs. were conducted, one for the {nidimensional version and sme forthe bidimensional versione, Ril pir was a withinsuhjer variable and order was a belween-aubjcet arable ‘The only sghitiant finding was that in the Unidimension terion, cillren performed sgnfeanly beter on she redblue rake pal than onthe striped rule pat, FU, 28) = 4.38,p-< 0 elle se = 3), These awalboer were folnted by a setiey of uneway” (Presi Dimension) ANOVAs that sessed sshether within each Tale pai the particular rule (or rules) used i he preswtch phase was related 10 performance. The only siguica fing was that chiklen performed Frtcr when the hive rules opposed to the red le wok wed in the pest psc, FU, 22) = 30, p05 eller size) = 8), Hecase al the esions were counerbalmiced an in, general there were few order ‘Mets, we vunvdte! the remaining analyses collapsed across rule pa fren and presi eules “0 An overall repeated measures ANOVA filed to detect any differences Ineeen numberof correct postitel xasFr the fist al second tasks that ehildeew seceived. Thin, to sinphify the ataees and heep them ‘compatible withthe analyses of Experiments 4 and 5, the rests weve “revaged across both tasks ice Figure (3). Hhreeseay (Ses ® Dimen= Stomalty x Separalty) ANOVA revealed hat children performed beste fon the anidiensionsl version than on he bidimersional versions, Tia 40)= 20, re0} feller size f= 78). Alo, the interaction between Sex and dimensionality way significant, FU, 40)=46, p03. Tets of Simple effects indicted tha the ele of dimensionality was sgaicant Ton bots boys, Fl, 28) = 267, ps0001 elec sire /~ 1.08), nd ges FA, 31) =67, 2.05 feet sve f= 56)- although the effet was more ponomnced for baa. The reals dd wo cange when those chide ‘xa ied he prewitc pave ie hase average sore on the presvitch [have wa wer than 40 Invi nalpe. Children were csi passing the pstsiteh ihe if they averaged at eas tof 3 corre (ee Table 8). Analyses Feveale that fr these chilien who pase the presi phase. sucess fn the: postswitch phe sepeinted on ¥ersion, 20. N= 40} = 18, 6 Pe can beeen the unidimensional versions tended to. pass the postwich phase, whereas children in the bidimensiona versins tended vo il Drcuion Experiment 6 danomtrtes desl that when there is ont among tule, to 4yeaee perform well on unidimensional versions of the 13CCS but pory on dimes versons These res epics in single experiment the ey findings from Experiments and namely hat Sosyearaiscanstasingleteat cain wodiferen way when dang soconl ree the we oft sgl henson hence cst ee roid ma anes of ee srt eta Hare’), ken together, the esse these experiments pone sng ence agin Seth nhbiton cout othe BOs eg. Kika ean press: Permer Lang 2012 and Prvers eden hypothesis (erent, 2008) The resuls af Taperinen 6 ho mec potently important dterence inthe presentation of he smal sed Pepeiment es those used in Experincnt whether et cards were iterate erat ‘eparate—and showed that chad elle This nding suggests at ‘hiden's aay on the standard yrs of the DLS anor be ‘te sea te stl re presen ply ete Finally, the resus revealed Sex x Dimessionaity interaction india ing thatthe effect of cimensionay, although significant for both boys and fot, is more pronounced for boys. Insofar ath interaction as nics that girls perform beter than boys te mere sifelt bidimensona versions, irate the possibility thatthe cognitive processes underlying 2 formance onthe DCCS develop mere quickly in girls. This sue ill be Petpened further in the Diession of Experiment 8. ‘GENERAL DISCUSSION “The results of Study show that 3-0 4-yeatolds do ntinevtbly “look |g on Sng ay offesponding o (or representing) & specie ts card Thvce-en-ois ate able to teat single test card in two diferent ways ‘Thon doing so dos not require using bidimensioal rules. tn Experiments sein 6. hidsen were shown tage cards that ifleed only om one dimension (eg a blue rabbit and ard abi. They wer then presented ‘itratestsrd that could be matched cher target card (ea beand ‘Gtariped rabbi and were ldo sacone rule or oting (eg, "wee ying the re game, then put kere") After evra ia, they wer ok Duwi and wee a dilerenincompacble role eq, "Hwee paying the ‘ue game, then put there’), Under ese Greumatances, to earls (Mech switched and ceed thei of way of responding cote Experiment 4, sorting by even 3 single pai of res was dificult for 3: w0 ‘Cyearalds when the two rules spanned major branches athe hcrarchical {reesructoe shown in igure ogee these Bindings demonstrat that Denevraon 2a pry fancton of le complesity nl annot be Ztrbuted solely toa problem with inhbitry controler athe level of ‘sponses ora dhe level of representaions “Petes are ao inconstent wis version of Perners description yore (Renee Lang, 202) bern chien shou perform poorly tithe nidimersiond verse i they have diay appre that 2 Ingle stimulus can be described in lip ways. Ax predicted by CCC {hor redescripon in she coment the DCCS appears wo be ea ot Alea depending on wheter or nthe rules cll fr sorting win ot Sos major branches inthe tree sractre in Figure 8. Final, Experiment 0 abo shoved that whether stimulus dimensions ae presented in spinal orscparated kon ha ie effet ce. Ths nding contra the, prediction derived fom Inypothess (Shepp fe Bare, 191) that children may fall the DUCS beens they proces spatial integrated stimu hoiically and have diicuy atending selectively to particular dimensions or attbutes, sul frher sandy of thefts lap negation veri separation in measures of children’s executive fncon (ei the Stomp tet sce Archibald Kerns, 199) leary warranted ‘iow the spt separa cf diensional information was not seated to hillens performance dhe DCS, emis pssble tha a understanding dimensional structure i cely related to the cognitive ‘hangesindexed bythe DCCS, lade ending to COC theory, thei to formulate higher ovder ruler iv necenary forthe costruction of the neept of dimensions nd for subsequent analytical procesing of wales ‘on thine dimensions. As Zchr and Frye (1997) suggested, ivi only by ‘isancing themscles Tow dacsninations akin dimension and ‘onsiering tea or mare dimensions in contraditncion th children are ble to concepivalze dimensions qua dimensions (eee abo Smith, 1989) ‘This se wil be adesied farther in Chapter Vi IV, STUDY 3: WHAT DO CHILDREN PERSEVERATE ON ‘WHEN THEY PERSEVERATE?, INTRODUCTON AND SUNMARY Sey indicate that memory per xe does no appear to be Ue primary ‘cause of to year-old lifuly wi the DCCS. Thice-yearoldr can use four nies to sort serie of eatdh when those res are notin cont. In Experiment 2, thi sucess was found even for bidimensional res (wo shupe rules and wo color cules) bidimensonaity per se does ao appear to be the problem ether Study 2 focused on cases where there was cet finong rules, atl Hound that 3. 10 4yesrolds had ica sing Inlet rules even when ony single pir of rules CH ned then here frit, then there") was tequired. Taken wyether the resuls of Studies and 2 suppor the claims of the GCC dhcry that Sto 4yearokls are able to represent and use pts of lomerordc rules, atone level Rierareh, bu have diiuly formulating and wing » higher order ral According 10 COC theory, iemay be pose o formulate a higher onder re inmany stuations bu iis neasary to do so when a single mul most he tesponded ta in terme of more than one dimension. Under these incumstanes, 3 to Syearolds will have dllfculy reslsing conte, DDenwcen inconpatle rule pairs. Stay 3 examined further what spes of ‘nie poe problems for 3-1 year-olds by asking what tis that chien Ste perseverating on whi they peraeverae onthe standard version of the bets. ‘The CCG theory predict that when children persverste, they peseverating on specie lower order rules (eg, "Ite then here: The, them there’) prediction that may be refered to asthe sie rue Ingato. Cidresselet and uses pir of roles during the preswtch phase, tee rales become acted, and this actvation persis nto tae potevitch phase (Murvovitc de Zelzo, 2000, In contrast, children who persevere ould be atenlng to stim soley in terms of te Birt dimension ve the ‘lmpuonlppthest). This ype of percveration would seem wo correspond to the atentonal bases dewsibad by Zeman ana House fg Howse 1989: Zeaman & House, 1963, and would rele sn cention on a 6 an A Ee & B a 3 a yk am em “ee a a re 14 Sam ay ad (pom) to he se imeasion regres of dhe particular value of that dimension. Single Gfimernion ceraion f cenal tothe Thagetian characterization ofthe preoperatonal il (Unbekter Paget, 196), and ore resent work has Provided cridcoce fore soe tn variety of coment, ranging fom {scrimiration earning (Caron, 1969: Medin, 1973: Odom & Mumbaver, Topi, Sey Wei, 1966) to conservation (Glan, 199) 9 word learning win, 1989) Tnmter posi, which night be refered toa the spi tina Apo shat 3 o year-olds perseveration on the standard version ethe BICCS reflects respames to uniqle simulus configurations (or ompourds that are nt conceptalized eter as stances of snensions er ec along donors Cole, Gay Click. Sh, 1971) 1th Stee the ease en culven should erseverate only i the presence of {ice pore ana periment was designed to tsthexe thre hypotheses by examining aro dears’ performance ot two new versions ofthe DOCS (see Figure (1, inthe Toa Change version the vahus of the dimensions were changed between the pre snd potoitch paws (eg children were Tequired to sove vel and ue tabhite and boats by color during the presitch phase, tno sn yllow al green foaers and cars by shape ‘uring the posewiteh pee. to year-olds al the post phase oF fhe standetl seraom Docnse they coninge to attend 10 he preswch Uimenon, then they shuld continue to perseverate during the postich {talbin the Toil Change version, However they perseverate On spec iol or specie rules, ube they shoud not persevrate of die Tal Change vert becuse he specie tial are dffvent ad the preswic tales longer app ‘rhe socond new version insole a change in the specie simulta sl not prelude te pont of perseveration the fst pair of specific fk, I ths versio, called the Paral Change version, only the ales of the dimetsion that way nda onthe prema tial were changed. For xan, iden fire sorted red and ble rabbis and bose by cole ‘Ging the peeswitch phase, they would e requted to srt red and ble Fowersand carby shape during the possvtch phate. Thiol wi alone ‘hildren to perteverate on spetifc rules, sich a, “If re then pu it here, a is bv, chen pati there," but it would prevent them fom pereceraing oa tesponses io specific mul, such a a red boat Tiadinon to these two new sersions, children wer alo administered 1 morlfied standard versio, cad the standard arget cards rlrebed, previ fedhack) version. The standard version wt mole! to rmae t ‘omparible othe rwonew versions. In oth the Paral Change version ane the Toul Change version, the larget cards had ta be taken dows sd replace between the pre-and postwich phaser Therefor, in the Sadat (arget cars relresed, preswieh feedback) version. trgec cards were abo taken down momentury, and. were then replaced as the Caperimenter proceeded tothe pouch pave ‘One other feature ofthe standard version was alo moxie (and was ‘onsstent wih the procedure forthe two ew verse). Because he fase ‘of thiexperiment wason the level at which cidrenperseverate wh thy ‘do persererate we wanted to increne the Hkeinood that children woul indeed perseverate Therefore, in the standard (get cards relrshed reste Leedback) version a i the Paral Change and Total Change Sersous children were told whether or not they sonted cards coreecty ‘ring the presmtch pase Given ut $- to 4yeur-ud rarely erred uring the pressiteh phase, thi modiiaion seems unhey to have affected Preswitch performance, although tis possible that it increased overal levels Ot postswitch preservation ths swe was addrese hn Expeviment 8 it hice no feedback was pronided daring the presi phaw). ‘The thee different hypotheses regarding what it dat 3 40 yoo" ‘lds perseverate on in the standard sersion make iferent predictions egarding How children well respond on the Paria Change ad Total (Change versions ofthe DOCS, I children perseverate in thelr responses o pclae configurations hea they sl nok pervert om fier ew version. htnen ersererate om nave he they Shon perseveate on Wath ne serson Itty peeves Fey ‘pectin ales fa chen fe sed preted by the COC theory, then they should peseveat onc Paral Change versions tot the Total Change version [APERIENT7- Mathod unicponts. Niney-cight 3-to4-year-olds(M = 41.0 months: ranges $88 t 48 months: 50 girls and 48'boys) were recruited in the same fasion 4s in Experiment 1. Three additional children were tested Dut Mot included i the inal sample becase color ames were not kaown (© ‘or because English was not the cil’ fs language (8 = 2. _Daign, Children at each age were randomly assigned to recive one! of dee versions of the DCCS: the standaed (target cards relreshed, presrich feedback) version (n= 81 16 boys and) 13 gis) the Tou Ghange version (v=34, 16 boys and IS gis), or the Partal Change ‘etson (r= 83, 10 boys and 17 gi). For all version, the dimen (color or shape) that was relevant during the presetch phase wa ‘counterbalance! and crossed withthe sof eards they eeceived. Two seth ‘ot cards were used (et 1) ret ad blue rabbits and boas, and (et sellow and green cars and flowers Roughly half ofthe children reclvig the standard (anget cards refreshed, preswitch feedback) version sorte fone ae of ead ad the rematng children sorted the other, nthe Total Change version; roughly hal ofthe children sorted ane of these ses fs fund then sorted the uther set. Children receiving the Paral Change ‘erson also sented one of these two sete of cards first, However in he Dostowitch phase, they sorted one of the four set of cards that weve rete by crossing the to pits of colors and shapes sed inthe Bist Sets Thus for example, roughly one quarter othe parcipaats reeling the Partial Change version fist srted yellow and green ets and flomet Land then sorted yellow and green rats and boats, Procedure. All nee versions of the DCCS were comprised of 140 phases. a presntch andl a postevitch pha, The sondard ange card Fefreshed, preswitch feedback) version was administered exacly ke He Usual standard version (ee Chaptet 2), withthe following parameter ‘Seating and slifeaions (a) Test cares for buth pre-and posswitch) oo phases were labeled any bythe relevant dimension.) In contrast woth ert chikdren were given leach on the presch ils an Jreseteh tral were administered uni children correctly sorted 3 Minaecntine cards (@) Alter children corvely sorted 3 consecutive fuente cords, the tanget cards were taken down momentaely and eve then replce as the experimenter proceeded to the post pase. (@) There were 5 posteitch ras administered without Feedback, Tine provedes for the Total Change ad Partial Change versions were ilembcal to that for the standard (arget cards refreshed, preswitch Teeck) sersion; only the cords to be sorted dilered. The total procedure took approximately 10 minutes w administer onl Gronp ean. Chilren were given feedback duing dhe presttdh phase and all childven reached crverion. Ninety-one ehildren (087) Feared criterion in the minimum number of tals A preliminary to tet (Version x Dimension Order) ANOVA ‘on the number of correct Dpowwkch trials indicated no elle of dimension order and. 0 ersion x Dinension Order interstion. Consequently, dimension order ssi deopped fem subsequent anaes. '\twonnay (Sex Version) ANOVA on number of corret postswitch tsa revealed only a main effect of version, FU, 92) = 7.19,p-<01 elect, ‘re [= 40), Newnan Keuls pst hoc tests = 05) showed that children fectiving the Toral Change version (Af =3.06, SD = 1.82) made more Correct responses than children recesing the standard (anget cards telteshed, preswitch feedback) version (M= 203, 8D ~239) and the "ntl Change version «M= 267, SD=2.85), which cid not dir (sce gute 13) Individual anaen.On the postsitch trials ach cid was cssiied according to whethe he or she did oF didnot use the postitch pir of Toles (a ant covect ot of 5). Table 6 prevents the mumbers of children in each responve class by version. A chisquare est revealed that the number of

    You might also like