Basic Rules and Properties of Algebra

We list the basic rules and properties of algebra and give examples on they may be used.
Let a, b and c be real numbers, variables or algebraic expressions.
1. Commutative Property of Addition.
a+b=b+a
Examples:
1. real numbers
2+3=3+2
2. algebraic expressions
x2+x=x+x2

2. Commutative Property of Multiplication.

a×b=b×a
Examples:
1. real numbers
5×7=7×5
2. algebraic expressions
(x 3 - 2) × x = x × (x 3 - 2)
3. Associative Property of Addition.
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Examples:
1. real numbers
(2 + 3) + 6 = 2 + (3 + 6)
2. algebraic expressions
(x 3 + 2 x) + x = x 3 + (2 x + x)
4. Associative Property of Multiplication.
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
Examples:
1. real numbers
(7 × 3) × 10 = 7 × (3 × 10)
2. algebraic expressions
(x 2 × 5 x) × x = x 2 × (5 x × x)
5. Distributive Properties of Addition Over Multiplication.
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
and
(a + b) × c = a × c + b × c
Examples:
1. real numbers
2 × (2 + 8) = 2 × 2 + 2 × 8
(2 + 8) × 10 = 2 × 10 + 8 × 10
2. algebraic expressions
x × (x 4 + x) = x × x 4 + x × x
(x 4 + x) × x 2 = x 4 × x 2 + x × x 2
6. The reciprocal of a non zero real number a is 1/a.
and a × (1/a) = 1
Examples:
1. real numbers
reciprocal of 5 is 1/5 and 5 × (1/5) = 1
7. The additive inverse of a is -a.
a + (- a) = 0
Examples:
additive inverse of -6 is -(-6) = 6 and - 6 + (6) = 0
8. The additive identity is 0.
and a + 0 = 0 + a = a
9. The multiplicative identity is 1.
and a × 1 = 1 × a = a

The Formal Rules of Algebra

Summary of the formal rules of algebra on the set of real numbers 1. The axioms of
"equality" a = a Reflexive or Identity If a = b, then b = a. Symmetry If a = b and b
= c, then a = c. Transitivity These are the "rules" that govern the use of the = sign. 2.
The commutative rules of addition and multiplication � + � = � + � �· � = �· � 3.
The associative rules of addition and multiplication (�+�)+�=�+(�+�)
(�×�)×�=�×(�×�) 4. The identity elements of addition and multiplication: � + � = � +
� = � �· � = �· � = � 0 and 1are the identity elements for addition and multiplication
respectively 5. The additive inverse of a is −a � + (−�) = −� + � = � 6. The
multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of a is symbolized as � � (a 0) �� �=� �=�, The
product of a number and its reciprocal is 1 Two numbers are called reciprocals of one
another if their product is 1. 1/a and a are reciprocal to each other. The reciprocal of p/q
is q/p.
7. The algebraic definition of subtraction � − � = � + (−�) Subtraction, in algebra, is
defined as addition of the inverse.
1
8. The algebraic definition of division �÷�=� �=�×� �, �≠� Division, in algebra, is
defined as multiplication by the reciprocal. Hence, algebra has two fundamental
operations: addition and multiplication.
9. The inverse of the inverse −(−�) = � 10. The relationship of � − � 𝒕� � − � � −
� = −(� − �) 11. The Rule of Signs for multiplication, division, and fractions �(−�) =
−��. (−�)� = −��. (−�)(−�) = ��. � −�=−� �=−� � and −� −�=� � Note:
"Like signs produce a positive number; unlike signs, a negative number." 12. Rules for 0
�· � = �· � = � If �≠�, then � �=�, but � � is not defined 13.
Multiplying/Factoring �(� + �) = �� + �� The distributive rule/ Common factor
14. The same operation on both sides of an equation If � = �, then � + � = � + � If
� = �, then �� = �� We may add the same number to both sides of an equation; we
may multiply both sides by the same number.
15. Change of sign on both sides of an equation If −� = �, then � =−�. We may
change every sign on both sides of an equation.
2

16. Change of sign on both sides of an inequality: Change of direction (sense) If � <
�, then −� > −�. When we change the signs on both sides of an inequality, we must
change the direction (sense) of the inequality.
17. The Four Forms of equations corresponding to the 16. Four Operations and their
inverses If � + � = �, then � = � − �. If � – � = �, then � = � + �. If ��
= �, then �=�� If �� ⁄= �, then �=�� 18. Change of sense when solving an
inequality If −�� < �, then �>−� � 19. Multiplication of fractions � �×� �=�� ��
and �� �=�� � 20. Division of fractions (Complex fractions)
� �÷� �=� �×� �=�� �� or equivalently Division is multiplication by the reciprocal.
21. Addition/Subtraction of fractions � �±� �=� ± � � Same denominator � �±�
�=�� ± �� �� Different denominators 22. Power and exponents Let n be a natural
number, then �� =�×�×�× . . . ×� �−𝒇��𝒕�𝒓� Here, �� is called power, n is
called exponent and a the
3

Laws of Exponents

Laws Examples 1) �� = � 𝟔�=𝟔 2) ��=� 𝟕�=� 3) �−� = �/� � −�=�/� 4) ���� =

��+� �𝟐�� = �𝟐+�= �� 5) ��/�� = ��−� �𝟔/�𝟐 = �𝟔−𝟐= �� 6) (��)� = ���
(�𝟐)� = �𝟐×�= �𝟔 7) (��)� = ���� (��)� = ���� 8) (�/�)� = ��/�� (�/�)𝟐 = �𝟐 /
�𝟐 9) � −�= �/�� �−� = �/�� And the Laws about Fractional Exponents: 10) ��/�=
√� � ��/�= √� � 11) �� �= √�� � = √� � � �𝟐 �= √�𝟐 �
= √� � 𝟐 Proof of 11): �� �= √�� � = √� � � follows from the fact that � �=�
× (�/�)=(�/�) × �
4
Exponent rules
Exponent rules, laws of exponent and examples.
·0 What is an exponent
·1 Exponents rules
·2 Exponents calculator
What is an exponent
The base a raised to the power of n is equal to the multiplication of a, n times:
a n = a × a × ... × a
n times
a is the base and n is the exponent.
Examples
31 = 3
32 = 3 × 3 = 9
33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 81
35 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 243
Exponents rules and properties
Rule name Rule Example

a n ⋅ a m = a n+m 23 ⋅ 24 = 23+4 = 128

Product rules
a n ⋅ b n = (a ⋅ b) n 32 ⋅ 42 = (3⋅4)2 = 144
a n / a m = a n-m 25 / 23 = 25-3 = 4
Quotient rules
a n / b n = (a / b) n 43 / 23 = (4/2)3 = 8

(bn)m = bn⋅m (23)2 = 23⋅2 = 64

bnm = b(nm) 232 = 2(32)= 512

Power rules
m
√(bn) = b n/m 2
√(26) = 26/2 = 8

b1/n = n√b 81/3 = 3√8 = 2

Negative exponents b-n = 1 / bn 2-3 = 1/23 = 0.125
Zero rules b0 = 1 50 = 1
 0n = 0 , for n>0 05 = 0
b1 = b 51 = 5
One rules
1n = 1 15 = 1

Minus one rule (-1)5 = -1

Derivative rule (xn)' = n⋅x n-1 (x3)' = 3⋅x3-1

Integral rule ∫ xndx = xn+1/(n+1)+C ∫ x2dx = x2+1/(2+1)+C

Exponents product rules

Product rule with same base
an ⋅ am = an+m
Example:
23 ⋅ 24 = 23+4 = 27 = 2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2 = 128
Product rule with same exponent
an ⋅ bn = (a ⋅ b)n
Example:
32 ⋅ 42 = (3⋅4)2 = 122 = 12⋅12 = 144
See: Multplying exponents
Exponents quotient rules
Quotient rule with same base
an / am = an-m
Example:
25 / 23 = 25-3 = 22 = 2⋅2 = 4
Quotient rule with same exponent
an / bn = (a / b)n
Example:
43 / 23 = (4/2)3 = 23 = 2⋅2⋅2 = 8
See: Dividing exponents
Exponents power rules
Power rule I
(an) m = a n⋅m
Example:
(23)2 = 23⋅2 = 26 = 2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2 = 64
Power rule II
a nm = a (nm)
Example:
2 32 = 2(32) = 2(3⋅3) = 29 = 2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2 = 512
Power rule with radicals
m
√(a n) = a n/m
Example:
2
√(26) = 26/2 = 23 = 2⋅2⋅2 = 8
Negative exponents rule
b-n = 1 / bn
Example:
2-3 = 1/23 = 1/(2⋅2⋅2) = 1/8 = 0.125

Exponentiation Rules
For any real numbers a and b, and any rational numbers p q
and r s
,
ap/qar/s = ap/q+r/s Product Rule = aps+qr qs ap/q ar/s = ap/q−r/s Quotient Rule =
aps−qr qs (ap/q)r/s = apr/qs Power of a Power Rule (ab)p/q = ap/qbp/q Power of a
Product Rule a bp/q = ap/q bp/q Power of a Quotient Rule a0 = 1 Zero Exponent
a−p/q =
1 ap/q
Negative Exponents
1 a−p/q
= ap/q Negative Exponents

Basic Rules of Algebra

There are basic properties in math that apply to all real numbers. When working with
variables in algebra, these properties still apply. We will apply most of the following
properties to solve various Algebraic problems.

Algebraic Properties
Let a, b, and c be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions.
Commutative Property of Addition
We can add numbers in any order.
Commmutative Property of Multiplication
We can also multiply numbers in any order.
Associative Property of Addition
We can group numbers in a sum any way we want and get the same answer.
Associative Property of Multiplication
We can group numbers in a product any way we want and get the same answer.
Distributive Property
When we are adding and multiplying with a parenthesis, we can distribute the
multiplication through the addition.
For an in depth discussion, see Distributive Property
Additive Identity Property
If we add 0 to any number, we will end up with the same number.
Multiplicative Identity Property
If we multiply 1 to any number, we will end up with the same number.
Additive Inverse Property
If we adda number by the opposite of itself, we will end up with 0.
Multiplicative Inverse Property
If we multiply a number by its reciprocal, we will end up with 1.

Keep in mind that subtraction is also considered addition, but with a negative number.
Similarly, divison can be thought of as inverse multiplication, but with a restriction that
the denominator cannot be equal to 0.

Properties of Negation
We must be careful not to make arithmetic mistakes when dealing with negative signs
and subtraction.

Properties of Equality
Add c to each side
Multiply both sides by c
Subtract c from both sides
Divide both sides by c
Properties of Zero
0 added or subtracted to anything equals itself
0 multiplied by anything equals 0
0 divided by anything equals 0
We cannot divide by 0
Zero Product Property

If the product of two or more things equals 0, at least one of the values must be 0

Properties and Operations of Fractions

Let a, b, c and d be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions such that b and d do
not equal 0.
Equivalent Fractions
cross multiply
Rules of Signs
the negative can go anywhere in the fraction and two negatives equal a positive
Generate Equivalent Fractions
multiplying the top and bottom by the same thing keeps the fraction the same value
Add/Subtract with Like Denominators
if the denominators are the same, add or subtract the top of the fraction
Add/Subtract with Unlike Denominators
find a common denominator
Multiply Fractions
top times the top and bottom times the bottom
Divide Fractions
when dividing two fracitons, multiply the divisor by the reciprocal

FRACTION RULES
Fraction Rules
Algebra rules for combining fractions. These rules apply for both proper fractions and
improper fractions. They apply for all rational expressions as well.

A. Special Fractions Examples

1. simplifies to b.

2. does not simplify any further. does not simplify.

3. simplifies to 0.

4. is undefined. is undefined. So is .

Special note: Why is it OK to have 0 on top (in the numerator) and not on the
bottom (in the denominator)?

Consider for a moment what division means. The reason that is because 2·5
= 10.

The fraction because 2·0 = 0.

The fraction can't equal anything. There is no number you can multiply by 0 and

get 10 as your answer. The fraction is undefined.

What about ? It's undefined, too, but for a slightly different reason. If you
multiply the 0 in the denominator by any number at all you get the 0 in the

numerator. It seems that can equal any number. As a result we say is

indeterminate, which is a special kind of undefined expression.

B. Negative Fractions Examples

1. is the same as and

2. simplifies to

3. is NOT the same as

C. Cancellation (a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0) Examples
1. cancels to 1

2. cancels to

3. cancels to

4. cancels to

5. cancels to b

6. cancels to b

D. Addition Examples

1.

2.

3.

E. Subtraction Examples

1.

2.

3.

4.

F. Multiplication Examples

1.
 2.

3.

Careful!!

1.
2. Mixed numbers are shorthand for addition and not multiplication. For example,

means and NOT .

G. Division Examples

1.

2.

3.

Pronunciation: /ˈfræk.ʃən rulz/ Explain

Fraction rules are a set of algebraic rules for working with fractions. A fraction has a
numerator and a denominator. A fraction represents a division operation. The
numerator is the dividend. The denominator is the divisor.
Figure 1:
Fraction

Fraction Rules

Operation Equations Examples Description

 To add fractions, transform each
fraction so they have a common
denominator. Add the numerators
Adding two (a /b )+ (c /d )= (a d + b c )/(b d ) (1 /2 )+ (2 /3 )= (1 * 3 + 2 * 2 )/(2 * 3 )= (3 + 4 )/6 = 7 /6

and use the common denominator

fractions[2] as the denominator. Reduce the
fraction. See Operations on
Fractions: Addition and
Subtraction.

To subtract fractions, transform

each fraction so they have a
common denominator. Subtract
Subtracting two (a /b )-(c /d )= (a d -b c )/(b d ) (2 /3 )-(3 /4 )= (2 * 4 -3 * 3 )/(3 * 4 )= (8 -9 )/1 2 = (-1 )/1 2 = -1 /1 2

the numerators and use the

fractions common denominator as the
denominator. Reduce the fraction.
See Operations on Fractions:
Addition and Subtraction.

To multiply fractions, multiply

the numerators and multiply the
Multiplying two
denominators. Reduce the
(a /b )* (c /d )= (a c )/(b d ) (5 /1 2 )* 4 = (5 * 4 )/1 2 = (5 * 4 )/(3 * 4 )= 5 /4

fractions[2]
fraction. See Operations on
Fractions: Multiplication.

To multiply a fraction and a

whole number, multiply the
Multiplying a
numerator by the whole number.
fraction and a
(a /b )* C = (a C )/b (1 /2 )* (2 /3 )= (1 * 2 )/(2 * 3 )= 1 /3

The denominator remains

whole number.
unchanged. Reduce the fraction if
possible.

To divide fractions, flip the

divisor upside down then
Dividing two
multiply by the dividend. Reduce
(a /b )/(c /d )= (a d )/(b c ) (2 /3 )* (3 /4 )= (2 /3 )* (4 /3 )= (2 * 4 )/(3 * 3 )= 8 /9

fractions[2]
the fraction. See Operations on
Fractions: Division.

To divide a fraction by a whole

number, convert the whole
number to a fraction, the divide
Dividing a the fractions.
fraction by an
(a /b )/C = a /(b * C )

integer. (a /b )/C = (a /b )/(C /1 )= (a /b )* (1 /C )= a /(b * C )

Raising a fraction (a /b )^ m = (a ^ m )/(b ^ m ) (2 /3 )^ 3 = (2 ^ 3 /3 ^ 3 )= 8 /2 7

See Operations on Fractions:

to a power. Exponentiation.

To convert a mixed number to an

improper fraction, multiply the
Converting a whole part by the denominator
mixed number to 2 + (3 /8 )= (2 * 8 + 3 )/8 = (1 6 + 3 )/8 = 1 9 /8

and add the product to the

an improper numerator. The denominator
fraction. remains unchanged. See How to
Convert a Mixed Number to a
Fraction.

To convert an improper fraction

to a mixed number, divide the
Converting an numerator by the denominator
improper fraction 2 1 /5 ,2 1 = 4 * 5 + 1 ,2 1 /5 = 4 + (1 /5 ) 2 + (3 /8 )= (2 * 8 + 3 )/8 = (1 6 + 3 )/8 = 1 9 /8

using a remainder. The mixed

to a mixed number is the quotient plus the
number. remainder divided by the
denominator. See How to Convert
a Fraction to a Mixed Number..

Applying the property of

multiplying by zero, a zero
Zero numerator. numerator with a zero
0 /a = 0 ,a != 0 0 /5 = 0

denominator is zero. See Property

of Multiplying by 0.

Since division by zero is

Zero
undefined, a zero denominator
a /0 = u n d e fi n e d 8 /0 = u n d e fi n e d

denominator.
makes the fraction undefined.

One minus sign. Since

(-a )/b = -(a /b ),a /(-b )= -(a /b ) (-3 )/2 = -(3 /2 ),3 /(-2 )= -(3 /2 )

-a = (-1 )* a

, apply the associative property of

multiplication to get
 (-a )/b = (-1 )* a /b = (-1 )* a /b = -(a /b )

Since

-a = (-1 )* a

Two minus signs. , apply the associative property of

(-a )/(-b )= a /b (-3 )/(-5 )= 3 /5

multiplication to get

(-a )/(-b )= (-1 )* a )/(-1 )* b )= (-1 )/(-1 )* a /b = 1 * a /b = a /b

If a fraction has
the same nonzero
numerator and a /a = 1 ,a != 0 (-3 )/(-2 )= 1

Anything except 0 divided by

denominator, the itself is 1.
fraction's value is
1.

Since

1 /1 = 1

Any integer can , apply the property of

be made into a multiplying by 1:
a = a /1 5 = 5 /1

fraction.
a = a * 1 = a * (1 /1 )= (a * 1 )/1 = a /1

. See Property of Multiplying by

1.
 Given two arbitrary values a and
b, and values c, d, and e such that
a = c · d and b = c · e,
Reducing c * d = a ,c * e = b ,a /b = (c * d )/(c * e )= d /e a /b = (c * d )/(c * e )= d /e

fractions. a /b = (c * d )/(c * e )= d /e

. See Reducing Fractions.

Given a fraction a / b and a

Building 5 /4 = ? /1 2 .4 * ? = 1 2 .4 * 3 = 1 2 .(5 /4 )* (3 /3 )= (5 * 3 )/(4 * 3 )= 1 5 /1 2

number d that is a multiple of d,

fractions. find e such that b · e = d, then a /
b = (a · e) / (b · e).

To manipulate a complex
Simplify the
Operations on fraction, convert it to a simple
complex fractions,
complex fraction, then follow the rules for
4 /(3 /5 )+ 1 /2 = 4 * (5 /3 )+ 1 /2 = 2 0 /3 + 1 /2 = 4 0 /6 + 3 /6

then use the rules for

fractions. simple fractions. See Complex
simple fractions.
Fraction.

To convert a decimal to a
Converting a fraction, change the decimal to a
decimal number whole number and divide it by
.b
A c d = A b c d /1 0 0 0 4 2 .8 9 5 = 4 2 8 9 5 /1 0 0 0 = 8 5 7 9 /2 0 0

to a fraction. 10n where n is the number of

digits after the decimal point.

To convert a percentage to a
Converting a
fraction, use the percentage as the
percentage to a
a % = a /1 0 0 3 2 % = 3 2 /1 0 0 = (8 * 4 )/(2 5 * 4 )= 8 /2 5

numerator, 100 as the

fraction.
denominator, then simplify.

0 iff a<c; (a/b)=(c/b), To compare fractions with like

b0 iff a=c; (a/b)(c/b), ?27/8-(23/7)<27/7" denominators, compare the
Comparing
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fractions with like
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denominators.
fractionruleseqn48.p " as the relationship between the
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 ?24/5-(37/7)*(5/5)<=?
(24/5)*(7/7)-
185/35<=?168/35-
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Comparing src="../../equations/f/f To compare fractions with unlike
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(a /b )= ? (c /d )

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ractionruleseqn52.png
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Table 1

ABSOLUTE RULES
Factoring Rules
Algebra formulas for factoring.

1. x2 – (r + s)x + rs = (x – r)(x – s)

2. x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 and x2 – 2ax + a2 = (x – a)2

3. Difference of squares: a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b)

4. Difference of cubes: a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)

5. a4 – b4 = (a – b)(a3 + a2b + ab2 + b3) = (a – b) [ a2(a + b) + b2(a + b) ] = (a – b)(a + b)(a2 + b2)

or, more simply, a4 – b4 = (a2 – b2)(a2 + b2) = (a – b)(a + b)(a2 + b2)

6. a5 – b5 = (a – b)(a4 + a3b + a2b2 + ab3 + b4)

7. an – bn = (a – b)(an – 1 + an – 2b + an – 3b2 + ··· + abn – 2 + bn – 1)

8. Sum of cubes: a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)

9. a5 + b5 = (a + b)(a4 – a3b + a2b2 – ab3 + b4)

10. a7 + b7 = (a + b)(a6 – a5b + a4b2 – a3b3 + a2b4 – ab5 + b6)

11. If n is odd, then an + bn = (a + b)(an – 1 – an – 2b + an – 3b2 – ··· + a2bn – 3 – abn – 2 + bn – 1)

12. Sum of squares: a2 + b2 = (a – bi)(a + bi) Note: a2 + b2 does not factor using real numbers.

13.

1 Factoring Formulas
For any real numbers a and b,
(a + b)2 = a2 +2ab + b2 Square of a Sum (a−b)2 = a2 −2ab + b2 Square of a Difference
a2 −b2 = (a−b)(a + b) Difference of Squares a3 −b3 = (a−b)(a2 + ab + b2) Difference
of Cubes a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 −ab + b2) Sum of Cubes

RADICAL RULES
Radical Rules
Root Rules
nth Root Rules
Algebra rules for nth roots are listed below. Radical expressions can be rewritten using
exponents, so the rules below are a subset of the exponent rules.

For all of the following, n is an integer and n ≥ 2.

Definitions Examples

1. if both b ≥ 0 and bn = a. because 23 = 8.

2. If n is odd then .

3. If n is even then .

4. If a ≥ 0 then . and

Distributing (a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0) Examples

1.
2. (b ≠ 0)

3. ( multiplied by
itself n times equals a)

4. (m ≥ 0)
Rationalizing the Denominator Examples
(a > 0, b > 0, c > 0)

Example
Careful!! Examples

1.

2.

3.