@ Level HT Study Guide RADIOGRAPHIC METHOD American Society for Nondestructive Testing 4153 Artingate Plaza, P.O. Box 28518 _ Columbus, OF 41228-0548 free 1-800-222-ASNT © In Ohio £-800-NDT-ONLO 245347 © Fax 1-614-274-6899 Phone #.614-274-6003 0 TRSNo parl of this hook may be reproduced, stored in a fetricval system, or transmitted, in any form or by aihy means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying. recording, of otherwise, without the prior weitten permission of the publisher. . Nothing contained in this book is to be construed as 4 grant of any right of manufacture, sale, or use in connection with any method. process. apparatus. product or composition, whether or not covered by letters patent or registered trademark, nor as a defense against liability for the infringement of letters patent cr registered trademark. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, its employces and the contributors to this publication assume no responsibitity for the safety of persons using the information in this book. Completion of “Lover Ti Sis Guide RADIOGRAPHIC METIC yp % this book's exercises provides ao qual expressed nr linplicd, to pesfornt the t procedures here described. Copyright © 1983 by THE AMERICAN SOC NONDESTRUCTIVE TES All Rights Reserved TY FOR TING Published by the Americna Society Nondestructive Testing. 4183 Artingate Plaza PO Box 28518 Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Printed in the United States of Americ:TABLE OF CONTENTS iv, ¥ vi Basle Phystes of Radiography .... 1 Particulate and Electromagnetic Radiation... Radiation Interaction with Matter 3 Inverse Square Law 5 Radioactive Decay 6 Shielding and Facili tt Radiation Attenuation wn Half-Value and Tenth-Valie Layers cai Attenuation Equatis ad the ‘ Buildup Factor H Focitity Design Considerations 2 Radiation Sources. Ww Electronic Radiation Sources .. 17 Radioisotope Sources... a . 28 Imaging Detectors 25 Nonimaging Radiation Detectors... BF Radiation Instrumentation « 7 30 Persounel Safely sud Radiation Protectic: Potential Risks Radiation Measurement Units Personnel Monitoring, Exposure Control Techniques «. Contamination Sources and Coz Radiography Operating and Emicrgency instructions . Radiation Regulatory Standard Biological Effects of Radiation 6. The Radiographic Process Imaging Considerations Film Processing Viewing of Radiographs. Judging Radiographic Quality . Exposure Calculation 7. Radiographic Techniques ... 59 Blocking and Filtering Techniques 59 Multifilm Techniques o Enlargement and Projection 0. Stereoradiography. ‘Trianguiation Metho Flash Radiography .. In-Motion Radiography. 64 Fluoroscopy « 66 67 ‘Alcroradiography Tomography -ssscesesessee Control of Diffraction Scatter Effect Panoramic Exposure Real-Time Imaging . nage Analysis Technique: Radiation Gaging Techniques . Neutron Radiography + 8 8 Radiographic interpretation... Image-Object Relationships Material Considerations Codes, Standards, Specifications, and Procedures. Answers to Review QuestlonsCONTRIBUTORS ‘The Level IH Study Guide: Radiographic Method was prepared and coordinated by John 11. Weiler of Harris Corporation, Major contributors included: Frank A. tddings, Southwest Research Institnte (chapters 1. 3, 7) Louis J. Elliott, Babcock & Wilcox Corporation (chapters 3, 7, 8) B. Dane Harvey, Monsanto Research Corporation (chapter 6) Publication and review of this study guide was conducted under the direction of the Personnel Training and Certification Committee of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing: Krank 1, 83 Chaeles J. ‘Heller Floyd N, Masehi Ware, Runimel! Sobn L.. Summers Jobn H. Weiler William C. Phimstead Charles N. Sherlock Michact L, Turnbow ASNT Steff Contributors: Renekt 11. Selner Rekecen Decker0. 1 12. REFERENCES |. “General Safety Standards for installations Using X-Ray and Sealed Gamma-Ray Sources, Energies up to 10 MeV."" National Bureau af Standurds Handbook H14. Gaithersburg, Maryland: US Department of Commerce! National Bureau of Standards (1975). Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Volunte 3, Radiography and Radiation Testing, second edition. Lawrence E, Bryant and Paul Mctatire, eds. Columbus, Ohio: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1984). Richardson, Harry. Industrial Radiography Mannal. Wilmington, Delaware: E.1, du Pont de Nemours and Company (1981). Holmshaw, R. Industrial Radiology Techniques. New York. New York: Wykeham Publications {London Ltd.); Springer-Verlag (1971). Halmshaw, R. Pirssics of Industrial Radiology. New York, New York: Elsevier (1966). Sensitometric Properties of X-Ray Films. Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak Company (1968), . Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Robert C. McMaster, ed. Columbus, Ohio: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1959). Price, William. Nuclear Radiation Detection. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company (1964). Knoll, G. Radiation Detection and Measurement. New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons (1979). McGuire, Stephen and Carol Peabody. Warking Safely in Ganina Radiography. NUREG/BR.0024, Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Radiography in Modern Industry, fourth edition. Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak Company (1980). Annual Bock of ASTM Standards. Volume 3.03, Merallography; Nondestructive Testing. 14. “Standard Method for Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing, E-142." Philadeiphia, Pennsylvania: The American Society for Testing and Materials. Thielsch, Helmut. The Sense and Nonsense of Weld Defects. Morton Grove, Iliagis: Monticello Books (1967). Metals Handbook, Volume 11. eighth edition, “Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control."* Metals Park, Ohio: The American Society for Metals (1976). Additional References . Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 3.03. Metallography; Nondestructive Testing. Philadelphia, PA: The American Sociely for Testing and Materials. Basic Metallurgy for Nondestructive Testing. British Institute of Nondestructive Testing. Essex, United Kingdom: W.H. Houldershaw Lid. (1976), Johns, Harold. The Physics of Radiology. ‘Springfield, Minois: Charles C. Thomas (1969). Materials and Processes for NDT Technology. Harry D. Moore, ed. Columbus, Ohio; The American Society for Nondestructive Testing cast). McGonnagle, W. Nondestructive Testing, second edition. New York, New York: Gordon and Breach Publishing Company (1975). NDT Terminology. Wilmington, Detaware: E.1. da Pont de Nemours and Company (1981). Radtographic Testing. Classroom Training Handbook, CT-6-6. San Diego, California: General Dyrsamies Convair Division (1967). Thielsch, Helmut. Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels and Piping. New York, New ‘York: Reinhold (1966).FOREWORD This study guide was prepared under the direction of the Personnel Training and Certification Committee (PTCC) and the Education and Qualification Council of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing. The document is provided by ASNT as an aid to individuals who may be preparing to sit for the ASNT Level 111 Examination in the Radiographic NDT Method. Individuals are cautioned that the ASNT Level If examination is not simply on advanced Lovel If examination and its purpose is not merely to establish an advanced baseline of technical competence in the particular NDT method. ‘To determine this baseliae of technical competence in the examination, she individual must demonstrate 2 knowledge of radiography physics. radiation safety. technique development. radiation detection and meastirement, {aeility dlesiga, und the characteristics of radiation-producing Uevices and their principles of operation. In addition. the ability must be demonstrated to interpret codes, standards 2ad specifications, t0 interpret NDT test results and to establish acceptance criteria The degree of unde: standing of ail the abowe information must be at 2 level sufficientiy above Level ILtechnician status to allow the NDT Level [iT to provide chissroom instruction in the. princip: of radiography to lower level personnel and to demonstrate technical understanding to peers and subordinates with regard 0 the particular NDT methods in which certification: hes been achiev! The credibility of the stalificetion ead Certification Program for lower lev! porsennel hinges on tie competence of the NDT Level 115 ‘The material in this study guide can provice « review of the body of knowledge for the nulivgraphic NOT method. The Level HH candid shoul use this guide only as a review took, as it does net contain'all the information necessary to pass a typical Level {11 examination, in using this guide, the NDT Level if exe will be given specifie references where more information on each topic may be obtained. Level {11 candidate should be familiar wath veferences, and should be capable of answerin: questions. performing caleulations, and iaterpretin: stis developed from the references.i | Particulate and Electromagnetic Radiation Alpha Particles - Alpha particles are released from large nuclei such as those of radium. radon, polonium. uranium. and plutonium. Many of these large nuclei nt ature. When’the alpha particle is reieased fram the nucleus, the remaining nucieus is four mass units lighter and has an atomic number two.less than the original nucleus. An example would be HRa —72Rn + tHe Note that the alpha particle becomes an atom of helium as it picks up two electrons from the other atoins it passes, The alpha particle is released with kinetic energies of approximately 210.6 MeV, The alpha particie travels verv rapidly past most atoms in its path. pulling off electrons trom the atoms (ionizing the atoms). The ionization occurs at the expense of the alpha particle's kinetic energy: i.v.. the alpha particle slows down, The alpha particle produces 10.000 to 100.000 ion pairs ‘electrons and the row positively charged ions made by the electron removal trom atoms) ¢: along its path in a gas. This means that the alpha parte Wavels ‘Snly"A few centimeters in a gas and only a few micrometers in a solid (less than the thickness of a sheet of paper). After emission of the alpha particle, the new fucteus may emit gamma ray. If the aucleus is snstable. Hike Ra-77° in the above example, it may emit alpha or beta radiation. Beta Particles Beta radiation is released from nuciei that have farger numbers of neutrons in the nucieus than do Sable atoms of the same clement, Emission of the beta particle may or muy noi be followed by the felease of gamma radiation from the new auclets, The new nucleus will have essentially the same mass, as the original nucleus but will have ene more Proton (atomic number increases by one and one Aeutron disappears), An example would be RC IN & BT ey A tiny particle called an antineuiring (eLis also released along with the beta particle (B7) but no consequence to radiography, 2 ‘The beta particle is a high-speed electron coming from the nucleus and is slowed down by: pushing electrons off the atoms it passes. This produces a few 10 a few hundred ion pairs per eter in a gas, The beta particies will penetrate “several centimeters of air or shin layers of plastic or aluminum, After losing its kinetic energy, the beta particle becomes an electron orbiting around some atom, Beta decay precedes gammta emission in 1r-192. - 3-137, und Co-60. Neutron Particles Very few radioisotopes emit neutrons: the few that do are manufactured, Neutrons may be produced by mixing alpha-emitting radioisotopes, with beryllium. ee fticle accelerators, or by . nuclear reactors, When neutrons are made by any of “the three methods listed above, the neutrons possess considerable kinetic energy. Because the kinetic energy is evidenced by the large velocity of the heutrons. they often are referred 0 as fuse neutrons. ‘The fast neutrons slow down by scattering off the nuclei of atoms. The closer the mass of the Seittering nucleus to that of the neutron, the more the neutron’s kinetic energy is transferred to the nucteus and the fewer collisions are needed to stow (thermalize) the neutrons, The best.thermalizer is the qucleus of the hydrogen ator, the proton. A neutron may be thermalized in one collision with a proton. The slow or thermal neutrons have 0.026 eV at 20°C (68 °F) and travel ag 2.200 mys (7.218 fs). Fast neutrons may also interact with atomic nuclei. as in the following examples using aluminum as the target nucteus Fala = Ba eet HAI inp = Zt ue FAL +, in + 2 in + HSA 2 Le Ral + dn tHe + HNa Note that. in each interaction. a new radioactive nueleas is produced. Products and their properties may be determined using the chart of the nuclides.‘The probabilities for the fast neutron reactions are small. The probabilities ere called cross sections and carry units of area tem"), nee the neutrons are thermalized (slowed or moderated), the probability of the (a9) reaction {neutron in, gamma out) becomes much larger. The thermal geustroa absorption cross sections may be thousands of limes iarger than the fast neutron cres sections. Because the effective areas represented by these probabilities are so small, 10°” em? or so. the cross sections are usually given in barns (: barn = i x 10774 em*). Absorption of neutrons is described mathematically in the famillar exponentiat form Le Lens where 1, is the incident neutron intensity, 7 is the transmitted neutron intensity, 4 is the number of atoms per unit volume tom}, @ is the cross section fin cm}. and dis the absorber thickness (in cmp. Preduction of the radioactive products resulting from many of the neutron interactions is calculated from A= Nayth ~ @ Pry the activity of the product (in disintegrations per second fdps)), N is the total quraber of atoms in sample. is the cross section tin cm”). JF is the neutron flus tin acm “Fsee7), is the time of neutron bombardment. and T is the haielife of the product. In this fashion, the amount of Co-60 or ir-192 may ” be calculated from exposure of the Co-S9and Ir-19] to the thermal neutron bombardment in a nuctear reactor. Neuérons also cues fasion of snme sucker. s as 0.235. The tission resotion produces (wo to nevirons per fission. giving the large excess of neutrons available jas suciear reactor, Gamma Pusions Garama photuas are stemply bundles of caer, released from the nucless of un atom, The releay most often occurs after emission of an alpha or particle, Gamma photons may also be released a! interaction of a newton with the nucicus of the, ator, The snergy is in the form of electromagnet energy having very short wavelengths as corapar: 1 orhe saves: UV, visiole, and IR waves: andl som Having such high energy and eo charge oF mess, gamma rays are very diificult to absoro oF stop. ‘The grmma rays used in radicisotope radiography are primarily those from 1-192, C3 zad Co-60. fn each case. the gamma photons folic the emission of x beta particle aud remove the excess energy remaining in the nucleus. After the release of the gamma photon. the nucleus in cach the above cases is stable. . ‘The position of gamma rays in the electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 1.1. omagnatic radiations: cadio ans T Ke X-Ray Photons Xeray photons may be released when electro change kinetic energy. tn radioisotopes, elector may drop trom high-energy orbits into lower-ene: orhits and release X-ray photons whon electrons < missing trom the lowerenergy orbits. The jow-energy urbital electrons may have been remo by radioactive decay or interaction of a gamma photon with the electrons. The most familiar source of X-ray photons is electron accelerator or X-ray achive, In the X-i machine. electrons are expelled from a heated wi filament. accelerated through @ vacuum. and. FIGURE 1.1. The electromagnetic spectrum RADIATION WAVELENGTH IN ANGSTROMS [NANOMETERS for 11) oO} RROD) HOY HO RADIO mem INFRARED ——-w Visite ! | uurRas f xoRAYS, 3 vicuet $3078 1958 Got tase tos HO-Y [O"% HON HOM) Ore omy —— cosiic Ravs— AGAMA RATS 10-* >> Ore sort 1078 TO ager PHOTON ENERGION Mey From te Nenciniragive Testing Moncton, eeomd ection, Volus= stopped by a heavy metal target, When the rapidly ¥ moving electrons are stopped in the metal target, Esome of their encray is given up as X-ray photons. {Much more of the energy is given up as heat or light. The approximate efficiency of the X-ray {production is given by i EM = 10-(¥Z) ‘where Vis the accelerating voltage and Z is the atomic number of the targei. Photons produced in this fashion can have energies from ~ 0 to that of the accelerating voltage, Because all energies are present in this envelope, the radiation is often called white radiation. A complete X-ray spectrum is shown in Figure 1.2. Radiation Interactio: with Matter Ionization Tonization (see Figure 1.3) is the removal of electrons from an atom or group of atoms: (molecule). If the electron is moved only to a higher-energy orbit in the same atom, the process is excitation, Ionization and excitation are the major ‘jiodes@f interaction for alpha and beta particles. Alpha particles remove (or excite) clectrons by their attraction for the outside orbital efectrons an the atoms atong their path. The electrons that are removed from the atoms do not travel along with the alpha particle but are left along the path of the alpha particle, as are the positive ions created by the electron removal. These ion pairs — electrons and positive fons —— slowly recombine if nothing interferes. The alpha particle leaves a trail of 10,000 y FIGURE T2. Complete Xray tpactrunt wire LEXOTR Prom tne Nendestructive Testg Hen oet, racond dtfom, Vokame $e FIGURE 1,3, tontzatlon by @ charged particle tha ejects an orbital electron from an atom . to 100,000 ion pairs per centimeter in air, whic means it loses its kinetic energy in a very few centimeters in air. The range of an alpha particle i air is approximately 0.5 cm per MeV of kineti energy. The range of the alpha particle in liquids and solids is on the order of a few micrometers. Alf ssc! alpha particles with the same energy travel the same: distance in a given material. : ao ” “Beta particles semove (or excite) electrons of « { the atoms along their path by repulsion. Again this teaves a trail of ion pairs at the ‘expense of the beta . particle's kinetic energy, Because the beta particle travels faster per MeV of kinetic energy and has only half the charge of an alpha particle, the beta particles travel farther in a given material than do alpha particles. Beta particles only produce a few hundred to a few thousand ion pairs per centimeter of travel in air. Therefore, beta particles travel several centimeters in air and are stopped by thin sheets of metal or thick sheets of plastic. Because beta particles released by a radioisotope have alt energies up to the maximum available from the jpucleus, they travel different distances (unlike alpha particles from a nuclide, all of which have essentially the same pat th). This behavior results in the following imate mathematical expression for beta particle absorption fede where J, is the incident beta intensity, Tis the transmitied beta intensity, 4 is a constant, and d_ is the absorber thickness, ‘The constant & is determined for each absorber materia! and maximum energy of beta particle. Photoctectric fiffeet The photoelectric effect is the mode by which low-energy photons interact with matter. Low-energy phototts (up to about 0.3 MeV) mostoften interact with high-atomic-number ‘materials: Such us fead by the photoelectric effect. In this type of interaction, ail of the photon's energy is transferred to an inner orbital electrow: the electron then has too much energy to remain in orbit and is ejected from the atom (Figure 1.4). The photoelectron then loses its energy as a beta particle does —- by ionization and excitation of atoms along its path. The photon, having yielded up its energy. ceases 10 exist, Compton Scattering Compton scattering deseribes ihe mode by which moderate-energy photons (about 0.3 to 3.0 MeV) interact with other than high-atomic., ‘Rumiber materials. In Compton scattering. the photon loses part of its energy to an outer-shell electron of an atom, The electron is ejected from the atom, as is a lower-energy photon (Figure 1.5). The photon may leave the atom in any direction relative to the direction of entry: hence the term scatter, Note that the energy range of the photon most Tikely to interact by Compton scatter includes the energies ot the most common radioisotopes used in.cadiography Also, the most likely materiats to be involved ia interactions tiron, water, concrete, ofc.) will most likely preduce Compton scatter. The low-energy photon leaving the Compton interaction will interact by another Compton interaction or by @ photoelectric interaction, depending on its energy, Pair Production Pair production is the mode of interaction predominant for high-energy photons (above > 0 MeV) and high-atomic-number absorbers. Suth interactions are most often important in rediography that uses machine sources of radiation for radiography of very thick-walled steel vessels. High-energy photons may convert into an electron and & positron (positively charged electron mass} when passing near the nucleus of a large atom, like dead (Figure 1.6). The creation of the two particles Teguires 1.02 MeV. which is then she threshold energy for the conversion. Any energy above this FIGURE 1.5, Photoelectric interaction of an incident photon with an orbital electron: Eyrey j 5) ora tng Handesrouing Fasting Hancook, taco etn, Valen? Frain tr FIGURE 1.6. Pair production of an electron 2 porltron from on insidont photon amount is shared by the wo pa energy. Each particle loses its Kinstic ene: ionization and excitation, The positron is" ‘at the end of its path, and two 0.51 MeV photenr. released in order to conserve momentum. Tike ti: 0.51 MeV photons travel in opposite directions ar interact by photoelectric or Compton scatter, Rayleigh Scattering Rayleigh. or coherent. scattering is impor for low-energy radiation. The low-energy photon the orbital electron into oscillation when absarive: An identical photon is then emitted by the elecze rather than the electron being expelied from the atom (Figure 1.7), Obviousl rent scattering gan occur only with atoms in which the electrons lighily bound, The secondary photos is Wentical energy 10 the initial photon but travels in a diffe direction: therefore, the process is described is FIGURE 1.7. Coherent sease without loss of enezgyof the incident photons from a beam, uation fi The processes listed above, as well as a few foiners of generally less importance, produce jsbsorption of the radiation. The absorption of beta particles, neutrons, X-ray photons, and gamma photons can be described by similar mathematical expressions Tele J, is the incident beta imensity/ 1 is the transmitted beta intensity, kis aconstant, and dis the absorber thickness (in cm): and / Gruen is the incident neutron intensity, “ I is the transnitted neutron intensity, Ay is the number of atoms per unit volume (com), ois the crosssection (in cm"), and dis the absorer thickness tin em): and . Ta Lew where 1, is the incidentamma intensity, fis the transmitd gamma intensity, wis the tinear abarption coefficient (a constant), and d_ is the absorbenickness (in cm). These mathematicaxpressions are oversimplifications of treal-world processes (they, require point source anigint detection with none of the interacted phototteaching the detection point), Actually, scatten processes complicate matters and must be incled for accurate calculations. These ideahuations are satisfactory for most circumstances iadiography, When more accuracy is needed. scattcontributions are considered by adding a blup factor. For example. for photon absorption. thavation becomes = lw where B= truth is the bup factor. ‘The buildup factor for neutrons ranges from 1 t0°5, depending upon the energy of the neutron and the” absorbing material. Additional information can be obtained in several of the references. Figure 1.8 shows components of total . attenuation coefficient for uranium. Inverse Square Law ‘The inverse square law describes the reduction in radiation intensity when no absorber is present and the source of radiation approximates a point. In such a case, the radiation intensity decreases:as the square of the distance from the source; ive,, ° inversely with the square of the distance. inverse-square law is expressed mathematical Id) = 1d) . where > - : . . Jy represents intensity at Jy represents intensity at dy, and 4, and d; are distances from the source. fn circumstances in which the source is large compared to the distance from the source, intensity FIGURE 1.8. Curves for uranium. showing the various components of the total attenuation coefficient a3 2 function of energy by kyeare by ABSORPTION EDGES, MASS ALIENRAHION COEFFCANT Ee onwill be observed to decrease inversely with distance but not with the square of the distance, This is not normally a problem with sources used in radiography because they are smal}, Radioactive Decay Half-Life Half-life is a unique property of all radioactive materials. Half-life is the time required for one-half of 2 quantity of a radioactive material 10 decay. After one half-life, half of the radioactive material remains and half has changed to another material {usually stable}. AS an example, half of any quantity of Co-60 is converted to stable Ni-60 in 5.26 years. Half of the original Co-60 remains. In another half-life (5.26 years), one-quarter of tie original Co-60 remains and three-quarters of the onginal quantity is Ni-60. This property is treated mathematically by . Ne Ne™ where 1X, 15 the original quantity. fg the quantity at time ¢. + 4 is the decay constant. and 1 is the time of decay. Note that the dee capivatent to where 9.693 is the natural iog of 2, aad Tis the halflife. Now the equation becomes: Half-lives of other radioisotopes important in radiography are 74 days for ir-192 and 30.1 years Co-137, Halblife is extremely important to the radiographer because the source decays constantl: not just when in use. The decay must be acceunte for in the exposure time in making the radiogrspa and in elevating the cost of doing. bust Curie (Unit of Activity) tity (er 4, nah The unit of material is the curi mass ur volume, The cure repre a pert quantity of material in which 37.26 10" atoms decaying par second ( wo! ‘The now unit beginning t9 Fe the becquerel (Bay. per secon, Thea I Ci decor ‘The curie will romain in we fer some tee, be the NDT Level 1H needs ta aware of this ST as well as the pretixes for iw und other St ur micro. milli, kilo. and giga,Qhe QLs Obs ee eo as REVIEW QUESTIONS Q.t-4, Emission of an alpha particle decreases the mass of the nucleus by ____aind the atomic number by ALA 4,2 2.2 24 24 ission of an alpha particte is most likely from what kind of a nucleus? . Large a Smalt C, Neutron-rich . D. Neutron-poor + E. None of the above Emission of a beta particle is most likely from what kind of nucleus? A. Large B. Smatt ©, Neutrom-rich D. Neutron-poor . None of the above Emission of a gamma ray is most likely from what kind of a nucleus? A. Large ff B. Smatl 1 C. Neutronrich : D. Neutron-poor E. None of the above Emission of a neutron is most likely from what kind of a nucleus? A. Large ? B, Smatt C. Nevtron-ricty 1. Neutron-poor 3 “E, None of the above . x Gamma emission is usually preceded by emission of, . ‘ B. C. dD. E. Emi A. B. \ A. an alpha particle B. a beta particle C. ancutron D. ancutrino E. cither an alpha ot a beta particle Which of the following reactions is most often used to produce a radioactive material for radiography? A. Neutron in, proton out abs B. Neutron ia, two neutrons out C. Neutron in, helium nucleus out D. Neutron in, gamma out E. Neutron in, neutron out . peQ.1-8 Gamma and X-ray photons are part of the A. periodic chart . \ 8: char of the nusides C. electromagnetic radiation spectrum . particulate emission from the nucleus - companion emission with neutrons D, E. X-tay tubes produce A. monochromatic energy photons B. c, D. . White radiation alll types of radiation (aipha, beta, etnies - . only high-energy photons only low-energy photoas Q.1-10, Most of the electrons acceterated in an X-ray tube produce AL X-rays 8. alpha particles C. beta particles D. gamma rays “SB. heat Q,l-LL Alpha particles interact principally by } 40" dpm D. 2.22 x 10!" dpm SB. 3.7 x 10" aps2 ‘The design of radiography facilities, including ‘he arrangement of radiographic equipment within he facility, as well as the permanent and temporary shielding required to afford adequate protection of ‘eccupationally and nonoccupationally exposed nel, is of paramount importance to the NDT* Level IH. All materials act to some degree as radiation shields, The etfectiveness of shielding depends on the absorption characteristics and the thickness of the material used. | Radiation Attenuation Because the attenuation of alpha and beta radiation of less than 2 to 5 MeV is relutively straightforward and is treated extensively in the references. the discussion of radiation attenuation will be directed toward penetrating photon radiations. ‘The absorption of X-radiation arid gamma radiation is the consequence of a series of single events. During each such event a photon is removed from the beam after undergoing an interaction with vant atomic nucleus or an orbital electron. The primary interactions that occur are photoelectric sorption. Compton scattering, and pair production, The probability for absorption or scattering for any Particular radiation type aad energy with a specific element is referred to as the crass section. The unit of measurement for cross sections is the barn 0° em), ~ Although there are tiree forms in which ‘ttenuation coefficients ure expressed — atomic attenuation coefficient. mass attenuation coefficient, d finear attenuation coefficient —- only the last is Used extensively in practical shielding calculations. The tinear attenuation coefficient is the probability per unit path length that a photon will be removed from the berm, The finear attenuation coefficient is, usualiy expressed in reciprocal centimeters (cm **} snd in equations represented by the xymbol w (mu). The finear atenuation coefficient can be determined from the mass attenuation coefficient by multiplying by the density of the material. SHIELDING AND FACILITY DESIGN’ Half-Value and Tenth-Value Layers A convenient practical measure of radiation * attenuation ig the half-value layer (HVL). The HVE. of any specific material is that thickness that will reduce the radiation intensity to one-half its initial value. Half-value layer is related to the linear absorption coefficient by = Hy = Wa 2993 Be where p is normally expressed in reciprocal centimeters or inches. Similarly. a tenth-value layer (7VL) is that thickness of material that will reduce the radiation intensity to one-tenth its initial value. HVE and TVL are related as follows: 3.33 HVL = 1 7VL. ‘Theretore if HVL for a particular material was 5 cm (2 in.y'the corresponding TVL would be 16.76 em 16.66 in), Tables of half-vatue and tenth-value layer thicknesses for common materials and radiation sources such as cobalt, iridium, and X-rays of various energies are available in references 1. 2. and 3. Attenuation Equation and the Buildup Factor The attenuation of penetrating photon radiation is exponential. and the intensity J, transmitted through an absorber (shield). can be expressed as where 1, is the initial intensity, is the linear absorption coefficient. and 1 ix the absorber thickness. A useful manipulation of the attenuation eguation, which will allow straightforward caiculation of the absorber thickness, isThis attonution equation is based oa nares eam measurements. which assume that the only zadiation reaching the detector is that which, has séradian, i.e. principally the direct primary radiation. In actual practice, broad-beum conditions uxist and. as a result, much more scatter reaches the detector. Figure 2.1 schematically depicts these conditions To correct the attenuation equation for broad-beam conditions, a simpte muttipticative correction factor is used. This correction is referred to as the buildup factor 18) and the eesulti equittion is expressed as f= Lpe# The buildup faccorts for specific maverials und photon energies may be found in the fixeratare und a be approvimated by Rainn ‘The buildup factor is dependent on the wiomte sumber Z of the absorber wad the energy of the initial photon, Facility Design Considerations The NDT Level fff is often called upon to advise on facility design, arrangement. configuration. and choice of tadiograpay sources as Well as to provide an estimated workload for the facitity. Reference i presents genera! design considerations and guidelines for industrial radiography exposure velis, Reference 2. Section 18, as well ay reference 1, has radiation transmission tables und graphs for various commonly used X-ray energies. radioisotopes. and specific shielding materials such as feud, concrete, and steel. FIGURE 2.1, Direct and scattered radiation yp raeality werkdvad is detined as ty namber of milfamperc-niauies per week for X-ray Gevices and tie: miaber oF curic-minuies per week for radiaisotepe devices. Examples of workloxd ctermination ars as follows. Exainple ae © Estimated 200 exposures por week Gi 300 kVe; © Average Sd mA-mia per exposure, Therefore the projected werkioad is 20.u00 inA-min per week, Example 2 © Extimated 150 expesuzes par week — iridium 192. sin por exposure varkload by 1.008 Chinia re Therefore the prox week, Ovexpancy and imated use und oecupanzy Tactors should he supptied io the fheility designer by the NDT Level HL The use factor is that percentage of the time Hee ihe direct of scutier beam will be Uirected toward any particubir wall. ceiling. er floor of the rudiography exposure cell. HE the radiation-produciny equipment is instalted in such a manner that the uireet heam is physically restricted from ispinging on ihe wall, then that walt may be classified as a scanteh wall, which witl greatly reduce the amount of required shielding. AF the exposete ceil Sto he used for panoramic exposures or if complete freedom to direct the beam at aay walt is desired. then all walls should be considered as uirect-beam wails. This choice. although offeriiig the MnmaETITacility versity could easily cattse the shield cost Ho iterease by 40-500 pereent Typical use factors vary from YS to 1. Vepenuing of the intended portion of the workloed to be directed toward st particatar shield. Qccupaney factors are eqdally important because they ent ise te shieid thickness to he greaty increased of reduced. if an area udjacent to the exposure cell i 2 aormal work station, then the occupancy factor would probably be considered so » Whereas an unattended parking lor would be viassed as Id and a sidewalk as Vio Equipment Cot Kaowledge of radiation-prosuciny equipment. including ts Mechanical and electrical eperati:cteristics, is required to select and provide Froper facilities. A knowledge of appropriate e-o-film distances, needs for fixturing of fographic subjects, and determisiations of the ypes of radiographic technigies that"will probably fr used is also needed, In addition. to ensure safety. establish operating instructions, and obtain regulatory approval, provisions must be made for yeam collimation, shutter mechanisms, high-radiation interlocks. and alarm systems, ‘The leakage radiation characteristics of X-ray tube housings and gamma ray exposure devices need tobe known to ensure adequate protection of personnel when the source is shielded. "Leakage, iation’is defined to be all radiation, except the rect, beam, that emanates from the tube ‘Whenever feasible, the direct beam should be colimated to as small an area as possible. Collimation achieves (wo objectives. It reduces the fazard of personnel exposure to radiation and, greatly reduces the amount of scatter, radiation, ieaching the film being exposed. Determination of Shield Thickness E direct caiculations. using the at an equation developed for the transmi reference 1. ility shielding estimates car be performed by uation equation oF nm tables of If gamma ray direct-beam shielding estimates are required, the following equation may be used: _ 1 Pe a Bool Wop: where P_ is the permissible average weekly exposure {in roentgens) for design purposes — normally 0.1 R for controlled areas and 0.01 R for environs or noncontrolled areas, d_ is the distance from the source to the position in question (in feet), T is the occupancy factor. U is the use factor. B_ is the permissible transmission of gamma radiation. and W is the workload (Ci-min per week). ‘Once B is determined, the specific semilog plot of transmission versus specific material shield thickness may be used to determine the required thickness. Similarly, for X-ray shiciding. the following equation may be used: . ea * WoT where & is the permissible transmission of X-radiation. All other factors are the same as in the gamma ray equation.REVIEW QUEST! TONS , Q.2-L The probability for absorption of any particular radiation type and cnergy with # specific element is referred to as the \ A. attenuation B. buildup factor i CC. cross section D. atomic coefficient E. probability index | Q.2.2- Which of the following is not a form for expressing attenuation coefficients? A, Atomic } NB. Rayleigh cc. Linear D. Mass -Q.2-3 Ifa specific material had a linear attenuation cucificicnt af 0.20 en” |, what would the halfvadse hus or be in that material? AL 0.56 : B. 5.35in, Co tating D. RAS i. E. 2.6! + Q.24 A material with a 9.83 in, tenth-value layer hes a half-value layer of .. — AL 0,983 ia, +B. 19Sin, Cc. 4915 in D. Asin. E. 1.60 in, $0.25 If the intensity of a radiation source was initially 100 R/h and it was desired to reduce this intensity 1 10 mR’h, what thickness shield would be required? Assume that thy fineae attenuation cacificient tos the specific energy is 0.90 em A. 9.6em would be the facitity workioad for a busy exposure cell with the following average techniques ‘lt blank trom list below)? 130 exposureswk @ 10 mA-min (UES id $00 exposuresiwk td 22 mA-min |__22 22 ad 1.180 exposureswk «@ $ mAsmin (__4 2 i A. 34.600 mA-minwk B. 7.850 mA-minnwk i DC. 17850 ma-minnwk i D. gd E. 71400 mA-minsmenth: is2 An occupancy factor commonly used for design purposes of uncontrolled sidewalk areas is, AL Ms BOS Nc. 1N6 Do} . E. 10 Q.28 The permissible weekly exposure factor P used in facility design equations for controlled areas is A. 10mR B. OUR Se. 9.01R D. 2mR° E. 5mR 1BRADIATION SOURCES Electronic Radiation Sources X-Ray Sources (Electron Accelerators) Betatrons (4.1: bar} The betatron (Figure 3.1) fs basically a | combination of an electromagnet and a transformer, designed to guide and accelerate electrons ina circular orbit to very high energies. jatie diagrara of a betarron i 3 EARTH GROUND EQUIIERIUM ORerT EXPANDED ‘oat TARGET STRUCTURE ELECTRONS MOVING TOWARD READER AT THIS FOINT OM the rrancereructive, testing Manabeot, eKona eition. Volume 3. . " Xeray tube commonly used in a betatron is capable 1: ‘The toroidal type of hot-cathode-high-vacuum |:° of injecting and energizing electrons td many millions of volts before striking the target to rods a X-rays. 4 Beiatrons of this type have been constructed iol % generate X-rays at energies ranging from 15 to 100: MeV. The average beam current is on thé ofdei Pott Yr to3 The Foca} spot of the target is usually te’ less: haat Ham (0.04 in. in diameter. ‘Commerciatly available betiirons are capable of radiographing steel (or equivalent) in the range of Sei} crm (2-16 im, Van de Graatf ‘The Van de Graaff X-ray generator is unlike conventional X-ray machines, which obtain Kifovoltages trom a wanstormer. The high-tension nertor ina Van de Grunt system operates om electrostatic principles, The Van de Graaff X-ray system shown in Figure 3.2 consists of two major components — the generator and the acceleration tube. ‘The electrodes in the generator are insulated by” a nonconductive gas and comprise a system of a certain capacitance. The system is charged by a belt of insulating material traveling at high speeds. typically 1.524 m/min (5.000 fimin\. The electrode contacting the bottom of the belt is earth-ground. whereas the high-tension (voltage) electrode is - mounted on a series of insulating plates. The belt is charged negatively at the bottom of the belt. with the negative charge removed through an array of needle points at the top of the beit. accumulating the charge on the high-voltage termifal. The charge Q on the belt is given by the formukt o=cy where, C= capacitance. and Vo = voluge. ‘The charge carried by the beit increases with the value of the capacitance but-the voltage between electrodes on the belt remaias constant, This- negative charge carried by the belt discharges through the comb tneedle points) at the top of the belt, The smaller the capacitance of the system of“Che Vin de Graaff system ix designed to : radiograph up to about X) cm (12 in.) of steel or equivalent az energy lovels up to 3.5 MeV, The } intensity of the clectren beam varies trem a fey microamperes to seversl hundred acroamperes, » [FIGURE 3.2. Schematic diagram of a Van de Graat? syste Linge - The linac (linear acceteraton is aa apparatus for generating energies to 30 MeV. The high-radiation outputs of industrial linues have made i possible to radiograph up to about 66 om (26 in.) of steel. The major components of a linear accelerstor are shown in Figure 3.3 aad are flameni (F), transmission target (7), focus coils FC), pulse modulator (PM). waveguide (VG), sad “Huageetron (MY oF Kiy: ‘The acceleration of the electrons in a Hows occurs ina straight tube called the waveguide. The electrons ure carried along the tube by electromagnetic waves generated by the magnetron or klystron, These high-frequency waves of enerey Sie in the S-band frequency spectrum «about three igahertz for magnetrons! und the L-band tor Rlystrons tabout 13 gigahertz). “The velocity of this hightrequency wave along the waveguide ts controlted by che spacing of the coaxial inses, Pulses of electrons are injected at one end of the waveguide in'correct phase’with the f ezomonous, Electromagnetic wave: at thé other end of the TARGET waveguide the electrons strike 4 target (usually fess than 2 mm’. or 0.003 in.) and generate X-radiation. Typical waveguides are 3 10 5 ft 10.9 to 1.5 mi long in the first section of che guide (the buncher A . sections, the electrons are bunched into pulses and ‘needle points and belt, the greater the voltage the electron velocity increases trom Otc 10 almost c between the high-voltage terminal und the belt, In the velocity-of fight, fact. if Q is constant. the value al'V ill be inversely Further tunsfer of energy to the electron can _proportiona to that of C. SX gceur by rebitivistic inerease in mass along the "The conpuhents that make up the accelerator second section of the waveguide. The groups. or of electrons in inacs produce pulses of From tha Mandeservctive Testing Hanabook, eéand edition, Volume 5. tube are the i 0 x usually at puise frequencies herween 100 and ‘ 1. accelerating tube (vith resistors between 500 pps tpulses per second). with pulse fengths of # : accelerating plates), tous: > Hector wun and cust linaes cover 9 wide range of etecton ctrOn & wo energies from 2 50 30 MeV aad. us they can produce { 3. unticathode tanedes, ur transmission target. ery large beam curfents, very high X-ray outers The accelerator tube comiains a flat. very small are obtained — typically 20 to 100 times the. pulpal 10.075 men? 7 9.0001 in.2 tungsten cathode, which OF # Petatron at the same energy level is connected to the high-teasion electrode. The cathode emits electrons und. in the vacuum of the High-Voltage and Low-Valtage Generators accelerates tube. these electrons are ecelerated to Line voltages ia the 100% 250 V range are wed high speed because of the difference in potential! to produce X-rays trom $ kV 1 220 KV using _ _ betweei the cathode tara high negative potentialy high-leasion rectifying power supplies. / und the anticachode «anode? which is ground, The The vonveational X-ray venerator consists of Sudden deceleration of electrons upon siriking the three major components; the N-ray (ube, the inticathodé produces the X-radation. high-voltage source. and the control unit 18The delicate interior components of the X-ray ube are maintained under a vacuum by a glass. or peial-ceramic enclosure, The vacuum improve: Hiiciency by flowing more electrons to reach the WPeret. The enclosure is then protected from physical hmage by an outer housing, usually of sturdy metal pstruction. The major interior components are the pcusing cup. filament (cathode), target mounting ture. and the (arget (anode). The filament, which is heated by resistance. nvides the electrons to be accelerated: the current the filament circuit is nermally in the range of 1 te A. Filament current should not be confused with be current, which is the ciectron flow between the several hundred microamperes up {0 20 mA tor enventional X-ray_vai ~The focusing cup is a recess in the cathode in h the filament is housed. Its purpose is 10 ound the emerging beat of electrons sith Nive field. which repels the electrons from the Fe? wail and tends to focus them. allowing for better Brtrol of how the electrons will impinge on the The target. of anode. is ustally composed of a how sink in which the target is inumately 'd. The anode is the positively charged Wrode, which attracts the electrons from the during the production of X-rays. The actual target is smail in refation to the overall anode afd is made of tungsten thigh melting point) of other suitable high- aerial The circuit of an X-ray generator can be designed to produce X-rays of varying intensity and energy (quality) Obviously, the higher the outpit energy and intensity, the more costly and vice versa. Most portable units use seif-reciified. half-wave. citquits and are used to produce X-rays in the 50-200 kV peak range. with tube currents from 2 to & mA. These circuits fit into three major categories: cathode-grounded. anode-groundéd. each wit “Gisadvantages. For tube outputs exceeding 200 kV peak and reaching 420 kV peuk or greater, the following three Circuit types. or a variation of them. are used: i. Villard cirouit, Graetz cireuit, and 3. Greinacher circuit. The Villard circuit is an extension of the halfavave system, whereas the Grnetz and Greinacher circuits produce full-wave rectified constant-potential wave forms. Excellent descriptions of the details of these circuits can be found In references 2, Section 2; 4, Chupter 2: and 5. Chapter 3.Charged-Particle Accelerators Charged-particte accelerators ure rarely used for X-ray generation, However. X-rays aré generated When high-speed charged particles such as the nuclei of hydrogen. helium, and other light of gaseous elements impinge upon metal targets. (Note that itis now the nucleus of the atom rather than the electron that is being accelerated) . The same machines’ mentioned in earlier sections are used to obiain the accelerating voltages. For extremely high accelerating voltages, the most popular machines are the cyclotron {see betatron), Van de Graaff generator. and linac. A machine used for charged-particle acceleration not mentioned ia the earlier sections is the Cockeroft-Waiton, elerator. The Cockeroit-Waiton accelerator uses a Voltaye-doubling circuit to obtain the accelerating voltages. A valtage-doubling circuit switches: cupacitors trom being charged in paraltet (all capacitors at the same voltage? to being discharged in series (the voltage on the capacitors is now additive The charged-particie acceterators differ in. that a positive ion (atomic oucleust must be formed and the accelerating voltage is arranged to aecelerate positive tons in place of electronis.(lonization of gaseous und light elements. and conversion of the positive ion's kinetic enerey into X-rays. are not high-efficiency processes. Pheretore. eleciroa Hetelerators rather than positive-ion accelerators are novmafly used for X-ray production ‘Target Moterials and Characteristics Target material in currently available X-ray generating equipment is tungsten, Tungsten exiremely wel) Suited for use us @ targer hecause of its high metting point (3.300 °C or 8,972 °F} und high atomic. or Z. number (79-1758 essential to use a material witha high melting point because of the ‘umount of heat generated when X-rays ave produced. _ Heat generated during the production of X-rays is very high in comparison to the amount of X-rays produced: i.e. 99,9 percent heat, Uf percent X-rays at $0 kV” * 9? percent heat. 3.0) percent X-rays at 300 kV. 60 percent heat, 40.0 percent X-rays at 40 MeV High atomic number is important because the higher the atomic number, the higher the coaversion of the electron’s kinetic energy 10 X-rays! The greater the nuimber of electrons striking the nove. the preuter the number of X-rays generated. 2 The efficiency of the target materia! in the production of X-rays is directly proportional to its atomic number and the accelerating voltage, > Platinum and gold pave been used fur selected Upptications ws target, material. bur siiécial hiit “femoval methods ure required. Copper.-ien: sobait have heen used in some Ghits to fake Advantage of vharacteristic X-rays generated: 73 ee Characteristic X-tay Spectra De Yn any disctssion af the N-ray specicum, i is Necessary to identify both of tie key portions of electromagnetic radiation spectra encountered. i.e. continuous and characteristic X-rays, In addition to ihe Bremsstrahiung, there are intensity peaks Characieristi¢ of the target material. (These peaks. of spikes, are caused by iateruction betiveen the impinging stream of high-speed electrons and the electrons that are bound tightly to the nuclei of the target material.) < A typical X-ray spectrum ilfustrating the contingous rwhiter radiation and the characteristic peaks is shown in Figure 3.4. Radicisetope Sources Methods of Production Natyral Radisactivity 2 Elements with awomie numbets greater than 33 esist only in radigactive form’ One of these” Glemenis, radium. or Ra-2%6, Has ia the distant past heen used for rutiography. The radium is obtained hy refining ores such ay pitchblende t separate it yom wrantum aad iy other decay preducts. Uraniuta’s isotone U-238 decays through five oteps (other radivactive isotopes) into Ran226, The separation of radium from other radioisotopes in the ures involves tedious precipitutions with calcium and hariam ichemically similar elements), making the radium very expensive. Neutron Activation Elements such as cobalt and iridium muy be exposed to neutron bombardment in muclear reactors to provuce useful radioisotopes for radiography. Nuciear reactors {research or isotope production reactors, not those used for electrical power) are sources of the hurge number of neutrons necessary to produce radiographic-quality radioisotopes. Other heuiron sources generally cannot compete for the production of radiographic sources. “Yhe neutron reaction used involves the ubsorpiion of a thermal neutron in the nucleus of the Carget atom with the loss of a gamma photon. The thermal neutron is a eeutron that has been slowed down to a kinetic energy of about 0.026 eV.CAr this low energy. the probability of absorption in Ike itont’s aucieus is high Whis probability is called thos section, The reactions may be represented C059 + a = Coto > y nal In} sam dig? = y The Larget materials, Co-S9 and te 171, exist in nature, Normally. the metitlic forms af theseTABLE 3,1. Characteristics of Four Widely Used Redlographte tsorope Sources element Sharactertste eet Cea term That Kobe ry a7 war We atte S27 yen © 20l yeis TF cays 129 anys ‘Chemical form © cat » To, Densay (ge as 3s 24 + Game tay tee) iaeua7 046 oatasess —oaaeo0se ‘Abundanee of garame tays {gemens rays per atsncegrasony 1040 ost Lanog7ozt 003005 Bees says ev on os 8 to fe per cane pute per gaonceseh 13581) 034109 955-1128) 0030 (0.7 Linear stanierpnon coeticens tent") ‘neezons 30 - 33 Ls Gammas 022 ato EAraney rors LUtmate spent sctvey im Cy (Beat 1200.00 25 925) Noove p7ac0n 6.300 230000) Pracieat specie actry in Cg GBA} soins) 25 125) 380 (13006 1.000 37.000) fraccal cues 168) per cade center 45011700 9013309 CoO oo, oO SO Praca Rien nym pee cue cenmeret 0 6.00) 33 13305 4.900 84.000, 10 (100) For 50% sethaoiorron fewest 20.000 soo.co 3.00 2 For 289% set etiorpton jeutes mat) oon 75.000 160 a Praceal cachogreghie sauces: ‘Cines igganecaucres) 2016 75 12.80 100 13.7004 $01.00 nea ty 2a 30 00) 0 co) au ty Anoeoeace Garett fe (i 310.) topa 204) ) ‘otareum shila tamer fem 2313 200 BE Bia Tancal ueneare std wee eg ft 225 1500) A125, 20135) a [rom the Rencectrutiva Tasting Masaibook, tcee vist, Varo 3, single-cncapsuiate. The outer stainless steel cylinder is atached (before source fabrication} to 2 tlexible cable heving a coupiing on the opposite end. The coupling allows a fone cable to be attached to the source so that it may be manipulated remotely. Exposure Revices Exposure devices permit remote operation of the radioactive source £0 reduce radiation exposure to the radiographer. One type has the source capsule ./ more mass to provide the Same shielding as the installed in the edge of a cylinder of shielding material that rotates inside a larger cylinder of shielding material. Rotation of the small cylinder to expose the source can be done remotely) A second type of exposure device altows tong flexible cables to be attached to the source white it is stored in the center of & shield. When the cable is moved by turaing a crank. the source moves out of the shield through a guide tube to 2 position where the radiographic exposure is made, Collimators may be attached to the end of the guide tube to provide radiation exposure in a timited afea, Collimaturs ire made of either tengsten or depteted urzaium (uranium with most of the U-235 removed). A third type moves the source into the exposed position within the exposure device by means of a'vacuem.” Depleted uratihim is most often used for the shielding of radiographic sources. Lead shielding is still in use bur does not provide the structural durability and fire resistance of uranium and requir lighter aranium-shiclded dévices, Depteted uranium anfp itself radioactive. ‘Therefore. modera exposure devices exdidit very low levels of radiation even when no radiographic source iy present. ‘Tungsten is also used as shielding material for “exposure devices and coffimators! Tungsten can be precisely machined, is very durable, and is nonradioactive. It is a desirable shielding materia! but is very expensive, Excellent treatment of radiation sources can be found in reference 2, Sections 2, 3, and 6, and reference 4.