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Ureteral Calculi Archived PDF
Ureteral Calculi Archived PDF
Members:
Consultants:
Hanan S. Bell, Ph.D.
Patrick M. Florer
MedicalWriting Assistance:
Diann Glickman, PharmD
Chapter 1: The Management of Ureteral Calculi: Diagnosis and
Treatment Recommendations
Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 3
Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 4
Efficacy Outcomes.................................................................................................................... 15
Procedure Counts...................................................................................................................... 22
Complications ........................................................................................................................... 27
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Shock-wave Lithotripsy............................................................................................................ 39
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Ureteroscopy............................................................................................................................. 42
Special Considerations.............................................................................................................. 46
Pregnancy ................................................................................................................. 46
Pediatrics .................................................................................................................. 47
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Introduction
The American Urological Association (AUA) Nephrolithiasis Clinical Guideline
Panel was established in 1991. Since that time, the Panel has developed three guidelines
on the management of nephrolithiasis, the most recent being a 2005 update of the original
Urology (EAU) began their nephrolithiasis guideline project in 2000, yielding the
publication of Guidelines on Urolithiasis, with updates in 2001 and 2006.2 While both
lithotripsy techniques, and laparoscopic expertise have burgeoned over the past five to
ten years.
Under the sage leadership of the late Dr. Joseph W. Segura, the AUA Practice
Guidelines Committee suggested to both the AUA and the EAU that they join efforts in
developing the first set of internationally endorsed guidelines focusing on the changes
introduced in ureteral stone management over the last decade. We therefore dedicate this
report to the memory of Dr. Joseph W. Segura whose vision, integrity, and perseverance
performed a systematic review of the English language literature published since 1997
Based on their findings, the Panel concluded that when removal becomes
necessary, SWL and ureteroscopy (URS) remain the two primary treatment modalities for
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the management of symptomatic ureteral calculi. Other treatments were reviewed,
organizations, open stone surgery is still considered a secondary treatment option. Blind
basketing of ureteral calculi is not recommended. In addition, the Panel was able to
provide some guidance regarding the management of pediatric patients with ureteral
calculi. The Panel recognizes that some of the treatment modalities or procedures
level of training and expertise not available to practitioners in many clinical centers.
Those situations may require physicians and patients to resort to treatment alternatives.
Journal of Urology. The Panel believes that future collaboration between the EAU and
the AUA will serve to establish other internationally approved guidelines, offering
Methodology
The Panel initially discussed the scope of the guideline and the methodology,
which would be similar to that used in developing the previous AUA guideline. All
treatments commonly employed in the United States and/or Europe were included in this
report except for those that were explicitly excluded in the previous guideline or newer
treatments for which insufficient literature existed. In the analysis, patient data were
stratified by age (adult versus child), stone size, stone location, and stone composition.
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Later, however, the data were found to be insufficient to allow analysis by composition.
The outcomes deemed by the Panel to be of particular interest to the patient included the
probability of spontaneous passage, and complications of treatment. The Panel did not
Outcomes were stratified by stone location (proximal, mid, and distal ureter) and
by stone size (dichotomized as ≤10 mm and >10 mm for surgical interventions, and ≤5
mm and >5 mm for medical interventions and observation where possible; exceptions
were made when data were reported, for example as <10 mm and ≥10 mm). The mid
ureter is the part of the ureter that overlies the bony pelvis, i.e., the position of the ureter
that corresponds to the sacroiliac joint; the proximal ureter is above and the distal ureter
ureteroscopy.
The review of the evidence began with a literature search and data extraction.
Articles were selected from a database of papers derived from MEDLINE searches
dealing with all forms of urinary tract stones. This database was maintained by a Panel
chair. The abstract of each paper was independently reviewed by an American and a
European Panel member, and articles were selected for data extraction if any panel
member felt it might have useful data. Additional articles were suggested by Panel
members or found as references in review articles. In total, 348 citations entered the
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extraction process. An American and a European Panel member each independently
extracted data from each article onto a standardized form. The team members reconciled
the extractions, and the data were entered into a Microsoft Access® (Microsoft,
Redmond, WA) database. The Panel scrutinized the entries, reconciled the
inconsistencies in recording, corrected the extraction errors, and excluded some articles
2. The article did not provide usable data on the outcomes of interest.
3. Results for patients with ureteral stones could not be separated from results for
4. The treatments used were not current or were not the focus of the analysis.
A total of 244 of the 348 articles initially selected had extractable data. Articles
excluded from evidence combination remained candidates for discussion in the text of the
guideline.
and/or magnitudes of the outcomes are required for each intervention. Ideally, these are
performed in a variety of ways depending on the nature and quality of the evidence. For
this report, the Panel elected to use the Confidence Profile Method3, which provides
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methods for analyzing data from studies that are not randomized controlled trials (RCTs).
The Fast*Pro computer software4 was used in the analysis. This program provides
posterior distributions from meta-analyses from which the median can be used as a best
estimate, and the central 95% of the distribution serves as a confidence interval (CI).
Statistical significance at the p<0.05 level (two-tailed) was inferred when zero was not
the outcome for each intervention was estimated by combining single arms from various
clinical series. These clinical series frequently had very different outcomes, likely due to
intervention, in the skill of those performing the intervention, and different methods of
Evidence from the studies meeting the inclusion criteria and reporting a given
outcome was combined within each treatment modality. Graphs showing the results for
treatments.
The available data for procedures per patient would not permit a statistical
analysis using these techniques. Unlike the binary outcome of stone-free status (the
patient either is or is not stone free), the number of procedures per patient is a discrete
rate. In some cases discrete rates can be approximated with a continuous rate, but in order
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were rarely reported in the studies reviewed. As a result, numbers of procedures per
patient were evaluated by calculating the average across studies weighted by the number
of patients in each study. Procedures per patient were counted in three totals: primary
all consecutive procedures of the same type aimed at removing the stone. Secondary
procedures were all other procedures used to remove the stone. Adjunctive procedures
were defined as additional procedures that do not involve active stone removal. One
difficulty in estimating the total number of procedures per patient is that secondary and
adjunctive procedures were not reported consistently. Since the Panel had decided to
analyze primary, secondary, and adjunctive procedures separately, only studies that
specifically reported data on a type of procedure were included in estimates for that
procedure type. This approach may have overestimated numbers of secondary and
adjunctive procedures because some articles may not have reported that procedures were
not performed.
It is important to note that, for certain outcomes, more data were reported for one
or another treatment modality. While resulting CIs reflect available data, the probabilities
for certain outcomes can vary widely within one treatment modality. In addition, the fact
that data from only a few RCTs could be evaluated may have somewhat biased results.
For example, differences in patient selection may have had more weight in analyses than
differing treatment effects. Nevertheless, the results obtained reflect the best outcome
Studies that reported numbers of patients who were stone free after primary
procedures were included in the stone-free analysis. Studies that reported only the
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combined number of patients who either were stone free or had “clinically insignificant
fragments” were excluded. Many studies did not indicate how or when stone-free status
was determined. The stone-free rate was considered at three time points: after the first
procedure, after all consecutive procedures using the primary treatment, and after the
total treatments.
Initially, the Panel divided complications into three broad categories: acute, long-
term, and medical; however, after examining the available evidence, the Panel
determined that this breakdown was not useful. Several factors caused inaccuracy in the
inaccuracy. For example, including studies that did not specifically mention that there
also potentially mitigated the overestimate by making it more likely that a complication
in the class was reported. The probability that a patient will have a complication may
Since the grouping of complications varies by study, the result of the meta-analysis is
best interpreted as the mean number of complications that a patient may experience rather
complications is not consistent, the estimated rates given here are probably less accurate
than the CIs would indicate. There were insufficient data to permit meaningful meta-
Data analyses were conducted for two age groups. One analysis included studies
of patients ages 18 or younger (or identified as pediatric patients in the article without
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specifying age ranges). The adult analysis included all other studies even if children were
included.
After the evidence was combined and outcome tables were produced, the Panel
met to review the results and identify anomalies. From the evidence in the outcome tables
In this guideline the standard, recommendations, and options given were rated
according to the levels of evidence published from the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research:5
without randomization
IIb. Evidence obtained from at least one other type of well-designed quasi-
experimental study
As in the previous AUA guideline, the present statements are graded with respect
to the degree of flexibility in application. Although the terminology has changed slightly,
from the original AUA reports, the current three levels are essentially the same. A
"standard" is the most rigid treatment policy. A "recommendation" has significantly less
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rigidity, and an "option" has the largest amount of flexibility. These terms are defined as
follows:
preferred.
3. Option: A guideline statement is an option if: (1) the health outcomes of the
The draft was sent to 81 peer reviewers of whom 26 provided comments; the
Panel revised the document based on the comments received. The guideline was
submitted first for approval to the Practice Guidelines Committee of the AUA and the
Guidelines Office of the EAU and then forwarded to the AUA Board of Directors and the
European Urology.
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Results of the Outcomes Analysis
The results of the analysis described in this chapter provide most of the
evidentiary basis for the guideline statements. Further details and tables corresponding to
the figures in this section are found in Chapter 3 and the Appendixes.
The panel’s attempt to differentiate results for pediatric patients from those for
adults was not completely successful as most studies included both adults and children.
Where possible, the panel performed two analyses, one including all studies regardless of
patient age, and a second including only those studies or groups of patients that were
For stones ≤5 mm, meta-analysis of five patient groups (224 patients) yielded an estimate
that 68% would pass spontaneously (95% CI: 46% to 85%]. For stones >5 mm and ≤10
mm, analysis of three groups (104 patients) yielded an estimate that 47% would pass
spontaneously (95% CI: 36% to 59%). Details of the meta-analysis are presented in
Appendixes 8 and 9.
Two medical therapies had sufficient analyzable data: the calcium channel
done in three ways. The first combined all single arms evaluating the therapies. Using
estimate of a 75% passage rate (95% CI: 63% to 84%). Six studies examined alpha
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blockers (280 patients); the meta-analysis yielded a stone-passage rate of 81% (95% CI:
72% to 88%).
available RCTs that compared either nifedipine or alpha blockers to control therapies.
The results for nifedipine showed an absolute increase of 9% in stone-passage rates (95%
CI: -7% to 25%), which was not statistically significant. Meta-analysis of alpha blockers
versus control showed an absolute increase of 29% in the stone-passage rate (95% CI:
The Panel also attempted to determine whether alpha blockers provide superior
stone passage when compared to nifedipine. Two randomized controlled trials were
tamsulosin provided an absolute increase in stone-passage rate of 14% (95% CI: -4% to
32%) which was not statistically significant. When nonhierarchical methods were used,
the stone-passage improvement increased to 16% (95% CI: 7% to 26%) which was
statistically significant. Finally, the Panel used the results of the meta-analyses versus
controls (second method above) to determine the difference between alpha blockers and
calcium channel blockers. This method allows the use of more data but is risky since it
depends on the control groups having comparable results. The analysis yielded a 20%
improvement in stone-passage rates with alpha blockers, and the 95% CI of 1% to 37%
SWL and URS. The Panel attempted to differentiate between bypass, pushback, and in
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situ SWL as well as differences between lithotripters. Most differences were minimal and
did not reach statistical significance. For that reason, the data presented in this Chapter
compare the meta-analysis of all forms of SWL to the meta-analysis of all forms of URS.
The Panel also attempted to differentiate between flexible and rigid ureteroscopes.
Details of the breakdowns by type of SWL and URS are given in Chapter 3. Data were
analyzed for both efficacy and complications. Two efficacy outcomes were analyzed:
stone-free rate and procedure counts. Complications were grouped into classes. The most
important classes are reported herein. The full complication results are in Appendix 10.
Analyses were performed for the following patient groups where data were
available.
Analyses of pediatric groups were attempted for the same nine groups, although
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Efficacy Outcomes
Stone-free rates
The Panel decided to analyze a single stone-free rate. If the study reported the
stone-free rate after all primary procedures, that number was used. If not and the study
reported the stone-free rate after the first procedure, then that number was used. The
intention of the Panel was to provide an estimate of the number of primary procedures
and the stone-free rate after those procedures. There is a lack of uniformity in the
literature in reporting the time to stone-free status, thereby limiting the ability to
The results of the meta-analysis of stone-free data are presented for the overall
group in Table 1 and Figure 1. The results are presented as medians of the posterior
distribution (best central estimate) with 95% Bayesian CIs (credible intervals [CIs]).
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Table 1. Stone-Free Rates for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
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Figure 1. Stone-Free Rates for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
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This analysis shows that overall, for stones in the proximal ureter (n=8,670), there
was no difference in stone-free rates between SWL and URS. However, for proximal
ureteral stones <10 mm (n=1,129), SWL had a higher stone-free rate than URS, and for
stones >10 mm (n=523), URS had superior stone-free rates. This difference arises
because the stone-free rate for proximal ureteral stones treated with URS did not vary
significantly with size, whereas the stone-free rate following SWL negatively correlated
with stone size. For all distal stones, URS yields better stone-free rates overall and in
both size categories. For all mid-ureteral stones, URS appears superior, but the small
number of patients may have prevented results from reaching statistical significance.
the meta-analysis can be subtracted, yielding a distribution for the difference between the
treatments. If the CI of this result does not include zero, then the results may be
justifiable but operationally risky: if the patients receiving different treatments are
the Panel performed the comparison and found that URS stone-free rates were
significantly better than SWL rates for distal ureteral stones ≤10 mm and >10 mm and for
proximal ureteral stones >10 mm. The stone-free rate for mid-ureteral stones was not
statistically significantly different between URS and SWL. The results with URS using a
flexible ureteroscope for proximal ureteral stones appear better than those achieved with
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Stone-free results for pediatric patients are shown in Table 2 and Figure 2. The
very small number of patients in most groups, particularly for URS, makes comparisons
among treatments difficult. However, it does appear that SWL may be more effective in
the pediatric subset than in the overall population, particularly in the mid and lower
ureter.
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Table 2. Stone-Free Rates for SWL and URS, Pediatric Population
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Figure 2. Stone-Free Rates for SWL and URS, Pediatric Population
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Procedure Counts
Procedure counts were captured as three types:
performed.
test for statistically significant differences between treatments due to the lack of variance
data, and only weighted averages could be computed. The procedure count results for the
overall population are shown in Table 3 and Figure 3. Figure 3 results are presented as
stacked bars.
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Table 3. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
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Figure 3. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
Procedure count results for pediatric patients are shown in Table 4 and Figure 4.
Again, the numbers of patients with available data were small and did not support
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Table 4. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Pediatric Population, All Locations
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Figure 4. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Pediatric Population, All
Locations
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Complications
The articles were extracted for various complications; however, the Panel believes
1. Sepsis
2. Steinstrasse
3. Stricture
4. Ureteral injury
Serious complications, including death and loss of kidney, were sufficiently rare that data
were not available to estimate their rates of occurrence. Other complications are listed in
Chapter 3.
The complication rates for the overall population by treatment, size, and location
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Table 5. Complications Occurrence Rates with SWL and URS, Overall Population
SWL URS
Groups/Patients Med/95% CI Groups/Patients Med/95% CI
Distal Ureter
Sepsis 6 3% 7 2%
2019 (2 - 5)% 1954 (1 - 4)%
Steinstrasse 1 4%
26 (0 - 17)%
Stricture 2 0% 16 1%
609 (0 - 1)% 1911 (1 - 2)%
Ureteral Injury 1 1% 23 3%
45 (0 - 5)% 4529 (3 - 4)%
UTI 3 4% 3 4%
87 (1 - 12)% 458 (2 - 7)%
Mid Ureter
Sepsis 2 5% 4 4%
398 (0 - 20)% 199 (1 - 11)%
Steinstrasse 1 8%
37 (2 - 20)%
Stricture 1 1% 7 4%
43 (0 - 6)% 326 (2 - 7)%
Ureteral Injury 10 6%
514 (3 - 8)%
UTI 1 6% 1 2%
37 (1 - 16)% 63 (0 - 7)%
Proximal Ureter
Sepsis 5 3% 8 4%
704 (2 - 4)% 360 (2 - 6)%
Steinstrasse 3 5% 1 0%
235 (2 - 10)% 109 (0 - 2)%
Stricture 2 2% 8 2%
124 (0 - 8)% 987 (1 - 5)%
Ureteral Injury 2 2% 10 6%
124 (0 - 8)% 1005 (3 - 9)%
UTI 5 4% 2 4%
360 (2 - 7)% 224 (1 - 8)%
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Table 6 summarizes complications for all pediatric groups. Since there are few
groups and patients, it was not possible to stratify data by stone size or location. The
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Other Surgical Interventions
Small numbers of studies reported on open surgery, laparoscopic stone removal,
and percutaneous antegrade ureteroscopy. Because these procedures are usually reserved
for special cases, the reported data should not be used to compare procedures with each
other or with SWL or URS. As expected, these more invasive procedures yielded high
A single pediatric report provided procedure counts for two patients who had one
open procedure each. Two studies reported stone-free rates for children with open
procedures (n=five patients); the computed stone-free rate was 82% (95% CI: 43% to
99%).
typical individual with a ureteral stone whom a urologist treats. The following definition
was created.
medical condition, body habitus, and anatomy allow any one of the treatment
options to be undertaken.
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Treatment Guidelines for the Index Patient
For All Index Patients
Standard: Patients with bacteriuria should be treated with appropriate
antibiotics.
stones with a basket with or without fluoroscopy was common. This procedure is,
however, associated with an obvious risk of injury to the ureter. It is the expert opinion of
the Panel that blind stone extraction with a basket should not be performed, and that
intraureteral manipulations with a stone basket should always be performed under direct
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option for initial treatment. Such patients may be offered an appropriate
stone passage was assessed. The median probability of stone passage was 68% for stones
≤5 mm (n=224) and 47% for those >5 and ≤10 mm (n=104) in size (details previously
discussed and provided in the appendixes). The Panel recognized that these studies had
and lack of analysis of stone position, stone-passage history, and time to stone passage in
some. A meta-analysis of MET was also performed which demonstrated that alpha
blockers facilitate stone passage and that the positive impact of nifedipine is marginal.
This analysis also indicates that alpha blockers are superior to nifedipine and, hence, may
be the preferred agents for MET (details provided in the Appendixes). A similar benefit
analysis used in this study were somewhat different as the absolute improvement in stone
passage was calculated in our study and the relative improvement in the latter. The vast
majority of the trials analyzed in this and our analysis were limited to patients with distal
ureteral stones. The majority of stones pass spontaneously within four to six weeks. This
was demonstrated by Miller and Kane8, who reported that of stones ≤2 mm, 2 to 4 mm
and 4 to 6 mm in size, 95% of those which passed did so by 31, 40, and 39 days,
respectively. In a choice between active stone removal and conservative treatment with
MET, it is important to take into account all individual circumstances that may affect
treatment decisions. A prerequisite for MET is that the patient is reasonably comfortable
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with that therapeutic approach and that there is no obvious advantage of immediate active
stone removal.
unremitting colic.
MET, in most cases such stones will require surgical treatment. No recommendation can
be made for spontaneous passage (with or without medical therapy) for patients with
large stones.
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For Patients Requiring Stone Removal
Standard: A patient must be informed about the existing active treatment
modalities, including the relative benefits and risks associated with each
modality.
Specifically, both SWL and URS should be discussed as initial treatment options
for the majority of cases. Regardless of the availability of this equipment and physician
experience, this discussion should include stone-free rates, anesthesia requirements, need
for additional procedures, and associated complications. Patients should be informed that
URS is associated with a better chance of becoming stone free with a single procedure,
Recommendation: For patients requiring stone removal, both SWL and URS
The 1997 AUA guideline, Report on the Management of Ureteral Calculi, stated
that “Routine stenting is not recommended as part of SWL.”9 The 1997 guideline Panel
noted that it had become common practice to place a ureteral stent for more efficient
fragmentation of ureteral stones when using SWL. However, the data analyzed showed
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no improved fragmentation with stenting.9 The current analysis demonstrates similar
findings. In addition, studies assessing the efficacy of SWL treatment with or without
internal stent placement have consistently noted frequent symptoms related to stents.10-13
Several randomized prospective studies published since the 1997 AUA guideline
document have demonstrated that routine stenting after uncomplicated URS may not be
bothersome lower urinary tract symptoms and pain that can, albeit temporarily, alter
quality of life.15-17, 20-26 In addition, there are complications associated with ureteral
stenting, including stent migration, urinary tract infection, breakage, encrustation, and
obstruction. Moreover, ureteral stents add some expense to the overall ureteroscopic
procedure and unless a pull string is attached to the distal end of the stent, secondary
There are clear indications for stenting after the completion of URS. These
include ureteral injury, stricture, solitary kidney, renal insufficiency, or a large residual
stone burden.
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• in combination with renal stone removal
rare cases where SWL, URS, and percutaneous URS fail or are unlikely to be
successful.
The 1997 AUA guideline stated that “Open surgery should not be the first-line
treatment.”9 The invasiveness and morbidity of open surgery can be avoided. In very
difficult situations, however, such as with very large, impacted stones and/or multiple
is a less invasive alternative to open surgery in this setting. Comparative series indicate
the Panel’s literature review, the median stone-free rate was 88% for the primary
treatment. It is notable that this success was achieved when virtually all of the procedures
choices should be based on the child’s size and urinary tract anatomy. The
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small size of the pediatric ureter and urethra favors the less invasive
approach of SWL.
sepsis is resolved.
The compromised delivery of antibiotics into the obstructed kidney mandates that
the collecting system be drained to promote resolution of the infection. The choice of
discretion of the urologist, as both have been shown in a randomized trial to be equally
treatment of the stone should be delayed until sepsis has resolved and the infection is
Discussion
There are two significant changes in treatment approach that distinguish the
present document from the guideline published by the AUA in 1997. The most
significant change is the use of retrograde URS as first-line treatment for middle and
upper ureteral stones with a low probability of spontaneous passage. This change reflects
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both the vast technological improvements that have been made during the last decade and
the experience and facility that surgeons now have with the procedure. The other change
advances, the current status of other technologies and procedures, issues related to
nonindex patients, and future directions and research germane to this condition will be
subsequently discussed.
stone passage, can be efficacious. Studies have demonstrated that this approach may
facilitate and accelerate the spontaneous passage of ureteral stones as well as stone
MET. Nine percent (CI: -7% to 25%) more patients receiving nifedipine passed their
stones than did controls in our meta-analysis, a difference that was not statistically
significant. In contrast, a statistically significant 29% (CI: 20% to 37%) more patients
passed their stones with alpha blocker therapy than did control patients. These findings
indicate that alpha blockers facilitate ureteral stone passage while nifedipine may provide
a marginal benefit. Therefore, the Panel feels that alpha blockers are the preferred agents
for MET at this time. Similar findings have been reported by Hollingsworth and
or nifedipine in patients with ureteral stones. The differences in methodology from our
study have been previously mentioned. Patients given either one of these agents had a
greater likelihood of stone passage than those not receiving such therapy. The pooled-risk
ratios and 95% CIs for alpha blockers and calcium channel blockers were 1.54 (1.29 to
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1.85) and 1.90 (1.51 to 2.40).7 The benefit of adding corticosteroids was reported to be
small.7, 37 Tamsulosin has been the most common alpha blocker utilized in these studies.
However, one small study demonstrated tamsulosin, terazosin, and doxazosin as equally
effective in this setting.39 These studies also demonstrated that MET reduces the stone-
passage time and limits pain. The beneficial effects of these drugs are likely attributed to
ureteral smooth muscle relaxation mediated through either inhibition of calcium channel
pumps or alpha-1 receptor blockade. Further prospective and randomized studies are
warranted to determine the patients who best respond to MET. A large, multicenter,
randomized, placebo-controlled study has recently been funded in the United States for
this purpose. Patients with ureteral stones in all segments of the ureter will be randomized
to tamsulosin or placebo.
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
Shock-wave lithotripsy was introduced to clinical practice as a treatment for
ureteral stones in the early 1980s. Today, even with the refinement of endourologic
methods for stone removal such as URS and PNL, SWL remains the primary treatment
for most uncomplicated upper urinary tract calculi. The meta-analysis published by the
AUA Nephrolithiasis Guideline Panel in 1997 documented that the stone-free rate for
SWL for proximal ureteral stones overall was 83% (78 studies, 17,742 patients). To
achieve this result, 1.40 procedures were necessary per patient. The results were very
similar in the distal ureter, with a stone-free rate of 85% (66 studies, 9,422 patients)
necessitating 1.29 primary and secondary procedures per patient. There was no
significant difference between various SWL techniques (SWL with pushback, SWL with
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stent or catheter bypass, or SWL in situ). Consequently, the Panel suggested that the use
of a ureteral stent to improve stone-free rates was not warranted. This observation is also
confirmed by the present analysis. However, there may be circumstances such as when
the stone is small or of low radiographic density where a stent or ureteral catheter
(sometimes using a contrast agent) may help facilitate localization during SWL. The
The current meta-analysis analyzed SWL stone-free results for three locations in
the ureter (proximal, mid, distal). The SWL stone-free results are 82% in the proximal
ureter (41 studies, 6,428 patients), 73% in the mid ureter (31 studies, 1,607 patients), and
74% in the distal ureter (50 studies, 6,981 patients). The results in the 1997 guideline,
which divided the ureter into proximal and distal only, reported SWL stone-free results of
83% and 85%, respectively. The CIs for the distal ureter do not overlap and indicate a
statistically significant worsening of results in the distal ureter from the earlier results. No
change is shown for the proximal ureter. The cause of this difference is not clear.
Additional procedures also were infrequently necessary (0.62 procedures per patient for
proximal ureteral stones, 0.52 for mid-ureteral stones, and 0.37 for distal ureteral stones).
Serious complications were again infrequent. As expected, stone-free rates were lower
and the number of procedures necessary were higher for ureteral stones >10 mm in
The outcomes for SWL for ureteral calculi in pediatric patients were similar to
those for adults, making this a useful option, particularly in patients where the size of the
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European Association of Urology®
The newer generation lithotriptors with higher peak pressures and smaller focal
zones should, in theory, be ideal for the treatment of stones in the ureter but instead have
not been associated with an improvement in stone-free rates or a reduction in the number
of procedures needed when this treatment approach is chosen. In fact, the SWL stone-free
rates for stones in the distal ureter have declined significantly when compared with the
1997 AUA analysis. The explanation for the lack of improvement in SWL outcomes is
unknown.
clear advantage of SWL over URS is that the procedure is more easily and routinely
for the patient who desires treatment with minimal anesthesia, SWL is an attractive
approach.
ultrasound (US). While some stones in the proximal and distal ureter can be imaged with
US, this imaging modality clearly limits SWL application in the ureter when compared to
Concerns have been raised, too, regarding the use of SWL to treat distal ureteral
unfertilized eggs and/or ovaries may be damaged. To date, no objective evidence has
been discovered to support such concerns, but many centers require that women age 40 or
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European Association of Urology®
younger be fully informed of the possibility and give their consent before treatment with
SWL.40-44
Ureteroscopy
Ureteroscopy has traditionally constituted the favored approach for the surgical
treatment of mid and distal ureteral stones while SWL has been preferred for the less
accessible proximal ureteral stones. With the development of smaller caliber semirigid
the holmium:YAG laser, URS has evolved into a safer and more efficacious modality for
treatment of stones in all locations in the ureter with increasing experience world-
wide.45, 46 Complication rates, most notably ureteral perforation rates, have been reduced
to less than 5%, and long-term complications such as stricture formation occur with an
incidence of 2% or less.47 Overall stone-free rates are remarkably high at 81% to 94%
depending on stone location, with the vast majority of patients rendered stone free in a
for <1 cm stones in the proximal ureter and either SWL or URS for >1 cm proximal
ureteral stones.9 With improved efficacy and reduced morbidity currently associated with
appropriate for stones of any size in the proximal ureter. Indeed, the current analysis
revealed a stone-free rate of 81% for ureteroscopic treatment of proximal ureteral stones,
with surprisingly little difference in stone-free rates according to stone size (93% for
stones <10 mm and 87% for stones >10 mm). The flexible ureteroscope is largely
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European Association of Urology®
responsible for improved access to the proximal ureter; superior stone-free rates are
achieved using flexible URS (87%) compared with rigid or semirigid URS (77%). These
The middle ureter poses challenges for all surgical stone treatments; the location
over the iliac vessels may hinder access with a semirigid ureteroscope, and identification
and targeting of mid-ureteral stones for SWL has proved problematic due to the
successful; a stone-free rate of 86% was demonstrated in the current analysis, although
success rates declined substantially when treating larger stones (>10 mm) compared with
success rates and low complication rates. An overall stone-free rate of 94% was achieved
with either a rigid or semirigid ureteroscope, with little drop off in stone-free rates when
treating larger stones. On the other hand, flexible URS was less successful than rigid or
semirigid URS for distal ureteral stones, particularly those >10 mm, likely due to
difficulty maintaining access within the distal ureter with a flexible ureteroscope.
have been associated with lower success rates than those in the mid and distal ureter, in
part because the proximal ureter is more difficult to access and stone fragments often
become displaced into the kidney where they may be difficult to treat. Improved flexible
ureteroscopes and greater technical skill, along with the introduction of devices to
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European Association of Urology®
prevent stone migration48, 49 have improved the success of treating proximal ureteral
stones.
Although the efficacy of URS for the treatment of ureteral calculi has been amply
shown, the need for a ureteral stent with its attendant morbidity has biased opinion
towards SWL in some cases. Clearly, SWL is associated with fewer postoperative
symptoms and better patient acceptance than URS. However, a number of recent
prospective, randomized trials have shown that for uncomplicated URS, the ureter may
be left unstented without undue risk of obstruction or colic requiring emergent medical
attention.10, 14-19
regardless of patient body habitus. Several studies have shown that morbidly obese
patients can be treated with success rates and complication rates comparable to the
general population.51, 52 Finally, URS can be used to safely simultaneously treat bilateral
cases, for example, for the treatment of very large (>15 mm diameter) impacted stones in
the proximal ureter between the ureteropelvic junction and the lower border of the fourth
lumbar vertebra.30, 56 In these cases with stone-free rates between 85% and 100%, its
and in two prospective studies.28, 30 In a total number of 204 patients, the complication
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European Association of Urology®
rate was low, acceptable, and not specifically different from any other percutaneous
procedure.
not indicated or has failed58 and when the upper urinary tract is not amenable to
retrograde URS; for example, in those with urinary diversion29 or renal transplants.59
success for the vast majority of stone cases. In extreme situations or in cases of
simultaneous open surgery for another purpose, open surgical ureterolithotomy might
rarely be considered.60, 61 For most cases with very large, impacted, and/or multiple
ureteral stones in which SWL and URS have either failed or are unlikely to succeed,
laparoscopic access to all portions of the ureter have been reported. Laparoscopic
ureterolithotomy in the distal ureter is somewhat less successful than in the middle and
proximal ureter, but the size of the stone does not appear to influence outcome.
in most cases because of its invasiveness, attendant longer recovery time, and the greater
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European Association of Urology®
Special Considerations
Pregnancy
Renal colic is the most common nonobstetric cause of abdominal pain in pregnant
having renal colic begins with ultrasonography, as ionizing radiation should be limited in
this setting. If the US examination is unrevealing and the patient remains severely
includes a preliminary plain radiograph (KUB) and two films, 15 minutes and 60 minutes
performed in this setting because of the higher dose of radiation exposure. Magnetic
resonance imaging can define the level of obstruction, and a stone may be seen as a
filling defect. However, these findings are nonspecific. In addition, there is a paucity of
Once the diagnosis has been established, these patients have traditionally been
approach often associated with poor patient tolerance. Further, the temporizing approach
remainder of the patient's pregnancy due to the potential for rapid encrustation of these
devices.
pregnant patients harboring ureteral stones. The first substantial report was by Ulvik,
et al63 who reported on the performance of URS in 24 pregnant women. Most patients had
stones or edema, and there were no adverse sequelae associated with ureteroscopic stone
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European Association of Urology®
removal. Similar results have been reported by Lifshitz and Lingeman64 and Watterson et
al65 who found that the ureteroscopic approach was both diagnostic and therapeutic in
pregnant patients with very low morbidity and the need for only short-term ureteral
ureteroscopic treatment of calculi in pregnant patients, the holmium laser has the
advantage of minimal tissue penetration, thereby theoretically limiting risk of fetal injury.
Pediatrics
Both SWL and URS are effective treatment alternatives for stone removal in
children. Selection of the most appropriate treatment has to be based on the individual
stone problem, the available equipment and the urologist’s expertise in treating children.
Children appear to pass stone fragments after SWL more readily than adults.66-71
after SWL in case of poor stone disintegration. Less efficient SWL disintegration might
be seen in children with stones composed of cystine, brushite and calcium oxalate
One of the main problems with pediatric URS is the size of the ureteroscope
relative to the narrow intramural ureter and the urethral diameter. This problem has lately
been circumvented by the use of smaller ureteroscopes, for example, mini or needle
instruments as well as small flexible semirigid or rigid ureteroscopes and pediatric (6.9
Fr) cystoscopes. With the availability of 4.5 and 6.0 Fr semirigid ureteroscopes, a 5.3 Fr
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European Association of Urology®
remains the most important factor for generating successful outcomes in this population.
indications to those in adults. Such an approach might be considered for stone removal in
Cystine Stones
Individuals with cystinuria are considered nonindex patients by the Panel for a
variety of reasons. There are limited data regarding treatment outcomes in this group.76-83
In vitro studies also show that these stones are commonly resistant to SWL, although the
degree of resistance may be variable.77, 78 The structural characteristics of these stones are
thought to contribute to their decreased SWL fragility. In addition, some of these stones
lithotripsy during URS, including the holmium laser, ultrasonic and pneumatic devices,
Certain imaging characteristics may predict SWL outcomes for this patient group.
Bhatta and colleagues reported that cystine stones having a rough-appearing external
surface on plain film imaging were more apt to be fragmented with shock-wave energy
than those with a smooth contour.82 Kim and associates reported that the computed
tomography attenuation coefficients of the latter were significantly higher than the rough-
type stones.83 Other types of stones with higher attenuation values have also been
Patients with this rare genetic disorder typically have their first stone event early
in life, are prone to recurrent stones, and are consequently subject to repetitive removal
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European Association of Urology®
procedures. In addition, patients with cystinuria are at risk for developing renal
insufficiency over time.85, 86 Prophylactic medical therapy and close follow-up can limit
recurrence.
Uric acid calculi are typically radiolucent, thus limiting the ability to treat such
patients using in situ SWL. However, this approach may be possible with devices that use
US if the stone can indeed be localized. When properly targeted, these stones fragment
readily with SWL. Uric acid stones have lower computed tomography attenuation values,
and can usually can be distinguished from calcium, cystine, and struvite calculi.87 The
urinary pH, should lead the clinician to suspect this diagnosis. Manipulation of the
urinary pH with oral potassium citrate, sodium citrate, or sodium bicarbonate to a level
ranging from 6.0 to 7.0 may obviate the need for surgical intervention. Moreover, this
medical treatment may allow stone dissolution in patients whose symptoms are
controllable, should prevent the development of future uric acid stones, and has also been
shown to enhance stone clearance with SWL.88 Medical expulsive therapy may be
year since the EAU recommendations on ureteral stones. Extensive cooperation between
AUA and EAU Panel members has produced this unique collaborative report. This
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European Association of Urology®
venture should provide the foundation for future collaborative efforts in guideline
development.
management of ureteral stones remains commonly needed, few RCTs were available for
data extraction. The data were inconsistent, starting from the definition of stone sizes and
ending with variable definitions of a stone-free state. These limitations hinder the
To improve the quality of research, the Panel strongly recommends the following:
blinded RCTs
stone size, stone location, stone composition, gender, body mass index, and
treatment modality
nephrostomies
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European Association of Urology®
• providing measures of variability such as standard deviation, standard error,
• determining the safety of each technique with respect to acute and long-term
effects
and in clinical trials to unravel the underlying mechanisms and to optimize the
treatment regimens
• addressing issues such as patient preferences, quality of life, and time until the
effectiveness
Copyright © 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.® and 51
European Association of Urology®
Chapter 2: Methodology
Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 2
Problem Definition.......................................................................................................................... 2
Evidence Combination.................................................................................................................... 4
Stone-free Analysis..................................................................................................................... 7
Complications ............................................................................................................................. 8
Dissemination ............................................................................................................................... 10
for choosing among alternative interventions. These factors include outcomes of the
interventions, patient preferences, and the relative priorities of interventions given limited health
care resources. The guideline Panel used scientific evidence to estimate outcomes of treatment
modalities as accurately as possible. Panel members themselves served as proxies for patients in
The steps taken to develop this guideline are summarized in Chapter 1 and described in
detail in the present Chapter. Steps included problem definition, literature search, data extraction,
Problem Definition
This guideline was the first joint guideline effort of the American Urological Association
(AUA) and the European Association of Urology (EAU). Initial discussions included
methodology and the scope of the guideline. It was decided that the methodology for problem
definition, data collection, and initial analysis would be similar to that used in the previous AUA
guideline. All treatments commonly performed in the United States and/or Europe were
included in this update except for treatments that were explicitly excluded in the previous
guideline or newer treatments for which insufficient literature exists. The Panel initially desired
to stratify patient data by age (adult versus child), stone size, stone location, and stone
composition. Later, however, the data were found to be insufficient to allow analysis by
composition. The outcomes deemed by the Panel to be of particular interest to the patient
Outcomes were stratified by stone location (proximal, mid, and distal ureter) and by stone
size (dichotomized as ≤10 mm and >10 mm for surgical interventions, and ≤5 mm and >5 mm
for medical interventions and observation where possible; exceptions were made when data were
reported, for example as <10 mm and ≥10 mm). The mid ureter is the part of the ureter that
overlies the bony pelvis, i.e., the position of the ureter that corresponds to the sacroiliac joint; the
proximal ureter is above and the distal ureter is below. Treatments were divided into three broad
groups:
were selected from a database of papers derived from MEDLINE searches dealing with all forms
of urinary tract stones. This database was maintained by a Panel chair. The abstract of each paper
was independently reviewed by an American and a European Panel member, and articles were
selected for data extraction if any panel member felt it might have useful data. Additional articles
were suggested by Panel members or found as references in review articles. In total, 348
citations entered the extraction process. An American and a European Panel member each
independently extracted data from each article onto a standardized form (Appendix 5). The team
members reconciled the extractions, and the data were entered into a Microsoft Access®
Copyright © 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.® 3
and European Association of Urology
(Microsoft, Redmond, WA) database. The Panel scrutinized the entries, reconciled the
inconsistencies in recording, corrected the extraction errors, and excluded some articles from
2. The article did not provide usable data on the outcomes of interest.
3. Results for patients with ureteral stones could not be separated from results for those
4. The treatments used were not current or were not the focus of the analysis.
A total of 244 of the articles were initially accepted, although some were later rejected
from inclusion in both the efficacy and complications analyses. For example, some articles were
not included in the efficacy analysis but were included in the safety analysis for certain
complications in which there was clarity as far as reported data. A complete list of these articles
Evidence Combination
The analytic goal was to generate outcome tables comparing estimates of outcomes
across treatment modalities. To generate an outcome table, estimates of the probabilities and/or
magnitudes of the outcomes are required for each intervention. Ideally, these are derived from a
conducted randomized controlled trial, the results of that trial alone may be used in the outcomes
table while findings of other studies of lesser quality are ignored. Alternatively, if there are no
studies of satisfactory quality for certain outcomes tables or if available studies are not
commensurable, expert opinion may be used to complete the table. Finally, if a number of
studies have some degree of relevance to a particular outcome or outcomes, then meta-analytic
method depends on the nature of the evidence. For this 2007 Guideline for the Management of
Ureteral Calculi, the Panel elected to use the Confidence Profile Method, which provides
methods for analyzing data from studies that are not randomized controlled trials. The Fast*Pro
computer software was used in the analysis. This program provides posterior distributions from
meta-analyses from which the median can be used as a best estimate, and the central 95% of the
distribution serves as a confidence interval. Statistical significance at the p<0.05 level (two-
tailed) was inferred when zero was not included in the confidence interval.
Because of the paucity of controlled trials found on literature review, however, the
outcome for each intervention was estimated by combining single arms from various clinical
series. These clinical series frequently had very different outcomes, likely due to a combination
of site-to-site variations in patient populations, in the performance of the intervention, in the skill
of those performing the intervention, and different methods of determining stone-free status.
Given these differences, a random-effects, or hierarchical, model was used to combine the
studies.
being assessed for each site. It further assumes that this underlying rate varies from site to site.
This site-to-site variation in the true rate is assumed to be normally distributed. The method of
The results of the confidence-profile method are probability distributions that are
described using the median of the distribution with a confidence interval. In this case, the 95%
confidence interval indicates that the probability (Bayesian) of the true value being outside the
interval is 5%. These Bayesian confidence intervals are sometimes called credible intervals.
knowledge about the probability of the outcome before the results of any experiments are known.
The prior distributions selected for this analysis are among a class of “noninformative” prior
distributions, which means that they correspond to little or no prior knowledge. The existence of
such a prior distribution can cause small changes in results, particularly for small studies. The
prior distribution for all probability parameters is Jefferey’s prior (beta distribution with both
parameters set to 0.5). The prior for the variance for the underlying normal distribution is gamma
Three of the four outcomes identified as important to patients receiving treatment for
ureteral calculi were analyzed using these methods; insufficient data were available to use these
techniques for the outcome procedures per patient. Evidence from the studies meeting the
inclusion criteria and reporting a given outcome was combined within each treatment modality.
Graphs showing the results for each modality were developed to demonstrate similarities and
another treatment modality. While resulting confidence intervals reflect available data, the
probabilities for certain outcomes can vary widely from study to study within one treatment
modality. In addition, the fact that data from only a few randomized controlled trials could be
evaluated may have somewhat biased results. For example, differences in patient selection may
have had more weight in analyses than differing treatment effects. Nevertheless, the results
Stone-free Analysis
Studies that reported numbers of patients who were stone free after primary procedures
were included in the stone-free analysis. Studies that reported only the combined number of
patients who either were stone free or had “clinically insignificant fragments” were excluded.
Many studies did not indicate how or when stone-free status was determined.
The stone-free rate was considered at three time points: after the first procedure, after all
consecutive procedures using the primary treatment, and after total treatments. After considering
the data and the way they were reported, the Panel ultimately decided to report only a single
number. That number would be based on the stone-free rate after all consecutive primary
treatments if available for a given group of patients within an article. If not, then the number
would be based on the number of patients stone free after the first primary treatment. If only the
total stone-free rate was available, it would not be used. The Panel elected to use this method
since the ultimate total stone-free rate is expected to be nearly always 100 % in subjects with
ureteral stones. The procedure count data could be used to show how many primary procedures,
the number of procedures per patient is a discrete rate. In some cases, discrete rates can be
approximated with a continuous rate, but in order to meta-analyze continuous rates, a measure of
variance (e.g., standard deviation, standard error) is needed in addition to the mean.
Unfortunately, measures of variance were rarely reported in the studies reviewed. As a result,
numbers of procedures per patient were evaluated by calculating the average across studies
Procedures per patient were counted in three totals: primary procedures, secondary
procedures, and adjunctive procedures. Primary procedures were all consecutive procedures of
the same type aimed at removing the stone. Secondary procedures were all other procedures
used to remove the stone. Adjunctive procedures were defined as additional procedures that do
not involve active stone removal. One difficulty in estimating the total number of procedures per
patient is that secondary and adjunctive procedures were not reported consistently. Some studies
reported secondary and adjunctive procedures together as the “extra” procedures performed
beyond the primary procedure. Other studies reported only primary procedures, while others
simply provided an undefined total number of procedures. Since the Panel had decided to
analyze primary, secondary, and adjunctive procedures separately, only studies that specifically
reported data on a type of procedure were included in estimates for that procedure type. This
approach may have overestimated numbers of secondary and adjunctive procedures because
some articles may not have reported that procedures were not performed.
Complications
Initially, the Panel divided complications into three broad categories: acute, long-term,
and medical; however, after examining the available evidence, the Panel determined that this
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and European Association of Urology
breakdown was not useful. Complications were variably reported and only studies that
specifically reported data concerning occurrences of complications were included in the analysis.
Transfusions and a composite category of all other acute complications were meta-analyzed.
Several factors caused inaccuracy in the estimates, but did so in opposite directions, thereby
reducing the magnitude of the inaccuracy. For example, including studies that did not
specifically mention that there were no occurrences of a specific complication may have led to
the Panel also potentially mitigated the overestimate by making it more likely that a complication
in the class was reported. The probability that a patient will have a complication may still be
overstated slightly because some patients experience multiple complications. Since the grouping
of complications varies by study, the result of the meta-analysis is best interpreted as the mean
number of complications that a patient may experience rather than as the probability of having a
complication. Moreover, since reporting of complications is not consistent, the estimated rates
given here are probably less accurate than the confidence intervals would indicate. There were
insufficient data to permit meaningful meta-analyses of patient deaths. The estimates of death
rates provided in the guideline are the Panel's expert opinion based on the limited data available.
patients age 18 or younger (or identified as pediatric patients in the article without specifying age
ranges). A separate adult analysis was rejected since many studies included both adults and
children or weren’t clear about whether children were included. An overall analysis was done
which included all studies including those including children. This overall analysis is primarily
adult patients. The Panel considered the number of children in these cases to be too small to
review the results and identify anomalies. Additional teleconferences were held to review
updates to the outcomes tables based on the problems identified. From the evidence in the
outcome tables and expert opinion, the Panel drafted the treatment guideline. The draft was sent
to 81 peer reviewers of whom 26 provided comments; the Panel revised the document based on
the comments received. The guideline was submitted first for approval to the Practice Guidelines
Committee of the AUA and the Guidelines Office of the EAU and then forwarded to the AUA
Dissemination
The guideline is posted on the American Urological Association website,
Table of Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................................................2
Stone-free rates............................................................................................................ 6
develop estimates of the outcomes of interest to the patient for each of the relevant
treatments. The data were meta-analyzed to yield estimates of these outcomes. Where
possible and relevant, attempts also were made to determine whether differences among
treatments reached statistical significance. The results of the analysis described in this
chapter provide most of the evidentiary basis for the guideline statements in Chapter 1.
Relevant treatments may vary depending on the patient’s general condition and
the size, location, and composition of the stone. The Panel initially intended to produce
stratified data constrained the analysis, and outcomes were stratified only by stone
location (proximal, mid, and distal ureter) and by stone size (dichotomized as ≤10 mm
and >10 mm for surgical interventions and ≤5 mm and >5 mm for medical interventions
and observation where possible; exceptions were made when data were reported, for
example, as <10 mm and ≥10 mm). The mid ureter is the part of the ureter that overlies
the bony pelvis, i.e., the position of the ureter that corresponds to the sacroiliac joint; the
proximal ureter is above and the distal ureter is below. Treatments were divided into
1. Observation and medical therapy – primarily for patients with smaller stones
larger stones
ureteroscopy – for patients who are not candidates for URS or SWL or who
Studies reporting these interventions did not always clearly indicate patient
based on those differences. As a result, the findings presented are not based on cleanly
delineated patient groups. Nevertheless, the results represent the Panel’s best estimates
The Panel’s attempt to segregate results for pediatric patients from those for
adults was not completely successful as most studies included both adults and children.
Where possible, the Panel performed two analyses, one including all studies regardless of
patient age, and a second including only those studies or groups of patients that were
comprised entirely of pediatric patients. The latter analysis was not possible for
attempted to estimate from the literature the probability of spontaneous passage by stone
size, but only limited data were found. For stones ≤5 mm, meta-analysis of five patient
groups (224 patients) yielded an estimate that 68% would pass spontaneously (95%
confidence interval [CI]: 46% to 85%). For stones >5 mm and ≤10 mm, analysis of three
groups (104 patients) yielded an estimate that 47% would pass spontaneously (95% CI:
not standardized and control groups, where present, may or may not have received
steroids or other therapies. Two medical therapies had sufficient analyzable data:
nifedipine and alpha-1 adrenergic blockers. Analysis of stone-passage rates were done in
three ways. The first combined all single arms evaluating the therapies. Using this
a 75% passage rate (95% CI: 63% to 84%). Six studies examined alpha blockers (280
patients); the meta-analysis yielded a stone-passage rate of 81% (95% CI: 72% to 88%).
One study compared three alpha blockers (tamsulosin, terazosin, and doxazosin) and
available randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compared either nifedipine or alpha
blockers to control therapy. The results for nifedipine showed an absolute increase of 8%
in stone-passage rates (95% CI: -7% to 25%) which was not statistically significant.
Meta-analysis of alpha blockers versus control showed an absolute increase of 29% in the
stone-passage rate (95% CI: 20% to 37%) which was statistically significant.
The Panel also attempted to determine whether alpha blockers provide superior
stone passage when compared to nifedipine. Two randomized controlled trials were
tamsulosin provided an absolute increase in stone-passage rate of 14% (95% CI: -4% to
32%) which was not statistically significant. When nonhierarchical methods were used,
the stone-passage improvement increased to 16% (95% CI: 7% to 26%) which was
statistically significant. Finally, the Panel used the results of the meta-analyses versus
calcium channel blockers. This method allows the use of more data but is risky since it
depends on the control groups having comparable results. The analysis yielded a 20%
improvement in stone-passage rates with alpha blockers, and the 95% CI of 1% to 37%
analyses focused on these treatments. Because both SWL and URS are conducted using
various techniques, the Panel categorized the data accordingly. For SWL, the Panel used
the categories SWL in situ, SWL-bypass therapy, SWL-pushback, and SWL-other. For
URS, the Panel initially used the categories URS-rigid, URS-semi-rigid, URS-flexible,
URS-combined (groups where some patients received flexible and some rigid), and URS-
other. As the analysis proceeded, the categories for URS changed. In particular, rigid and
semi-rigid procedures were combined into a single category, labeled URS-rigid, because
the Panel believed these devices were sufficiently similar. Data for those few groups of
patients who all were treated with flexible URS were captured in a category called URS-
flexible. Since many studies reported groups where flexible URS and rigid URS were
both used and since the Panel concluded that rigid URS is often used when flexible URS
is not, the Panel determined that broader analysis for flexible URS was appropriate. A
category called URS-mixed-flexible included all groups that had some patients receiving
flexible URS or unspecified URS. The URS-flexible groups are included in the URS-
Data were analyzed for both efficacy and complications. Two efficacy outcomes
were analyzed: stone-free rate and procedure counts. Complications were grouped into
classes. For the complete groupings and complication results, see Appendix 10.
Analyses were performed for the following patient groups where data were
available.
Analyses of pediatric groups were attempted for the same nine groups, although
Efficacy Outcomes
Stone-free rates
Stone-free rates were determined initially in several ways. The Panel defined
stone free as completely stone free without residual fragments. If the author used the term
“stone free” and did not indicate that it could include residual fragments, the panel
time points:
2. After all primary procedures (procedures of the same type, i.e., either all SWL or
all URS)
The initial analysis was performed separately for each time point. However,
because most studies did not give data for all time points, the panel decided to use one
time point from each study. If the study gave the stone-free rate after all primary
procedures, that number was used. If not, and the study gave the stone-free rate after the
first procedure, then that number was used. The stone-free rate after all procedures was
never used. The intention of the Panel was to provide an estimate of the number of
primary procedures and the stone-free rate after those procedures. Because many studies
only provided stone-free rates after the first procedure, the estimates of stone-free rates
may be a little low. However, since most patients are stone free after the first procedure,
The results of the analysis of stone-free data are presented for the overall group in
Table 1. The Table shows the number of patient groups (G) and total number of patients
(P) that contributed to the analysis. A patient group frequently represents patients from a
single study. However, a study may have contributed multiple groups if the patients were
different in some way and the results were stratified in the article, e.g., if the article
compared two types of rigid scopes, it might provide data for patients treated with each
scope type. This would yield two groups in the group count even though it represented
groups for which mid ureter stone data are available. There are also small numbers of
Note that the results of the analysis of URS-all forms are uniformly better than
those for SWL-all forms when all ureteral locations are combined and segregated by size.
The Panel wondered if it could be shown that these results reached statistical significance
for any of the respective ureteral locations. Unfortunately, RCTs comparing these
the posterior distributions resulting from the meta-analysis can be subtracted, yielding a
posterior for the difference between the treatments. If the CI of this result does not
different treatments are different or if outcome measures are different, results may be
meaningless. Nonetheless, the panel performed the comparison and found that URS
stone-free rates were significantly better than SWL rates for distal ureteral stones ≤10
mm and >10 mm and for proximal ureteral stones >10 mm. The stone-free result of URS
tended to be better than that of SWL for all mid-ureteral stones, but the difference was
not statistically significant (likely related to small sample size). However, this did not
reach statistical significance which may be related to the small number of patients in
these respective groups. The results with URS using a flexible ureteroscope for proximal
ureteral stones appear better than those achieved with a rigid device, but not at a
Stone-free results for pediatric patients are shown in Table 2. The very small
numbers of patients in most groups, particularly for URS, makes comparisons among
pediatric subset than in the overall population, particularly in the mid and distal ureter.
1. Primary procedures – the number of times the first removal procedure was
performed.
While it would have been desirable to calculate a total procedure count, few studies
reported all three types of procedures. Thus, the three types were computed separately.
While adding them together to obtain a total procedure count is possible, the fact that the
data came from different studies reduces the meaning of such a sum. As mentioned in
Chapter 2, it was not possible to perform a meta-analysis due to the lack of variance data,
and only weighted averages could be computed. It was not possible to determine whether
the procedure count results differed by statistically significant amounts due to a lack of
variance data. The procedure count results for the overall population are shown in Tables
3A-D.
Mid Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Shock-wave Lithotripsy Mean Mean Mean
All forms 10/291 1.11 9/316 0.18 4/241 0.23
Bypass 1/14 1.07 1/14 0.14
In situ 1/13 1.20 3/71 0.06 3/38 0.13
Pushback
Other 8/264 1.11 6/245 0.21 3/189 0.26
Distal Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Shock-wave Lithotripsy Mean Mean Mean
All forms 48/7117 1.22 30/5069 0.12 15/3875 0.03
Bypass
In situ 38/5963 1.26 23/4297 0.12 13/3500 0.03
Pushback
Other 10/1154 1.03 7/772 0.13 2/375 0.02
Procedure count results for pediatric patients are shown in Tables 4A-D. Again,
the numbers of patients with available data were small and did not support meaningful
Proximal Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Shock-wave Lithotripsy Mean Mean Mean
All forms 5/83 1.28 3/38 0.05 1/5 0.00
Bypass 3/49 1.39 1/13 0.08
In situ
Pushback
Other 2/34 1.12 2/25 0.04 1/5 0.00
Mid Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Shock-wave Lithotripsy Mean Mean Mean
All forms 4/32 1.44 1/9 0.11
Bypass
In situ 3/29 1.48 1/9 0.11
Pushback
Other 1/3 1.00
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Ureteroscopy Mean Mean Mean
All forms 4/18 1.00 2/12 0.17 2/12 0.75
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid 4/18 1.00 2/12 0.17 2/12 0.75
Distal Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Shock-wave Lithotripsy Mean Mean Mean
All forms 7/212 1.38 4/98 0.08 2/43 0.07
Bypass
In situ 6/188 1.43 4/98 0.08 2/43 0.07
Pushback
Other 1/24 1.00
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Ureteroscopy Mean Mean Mean
All forms 10/185 1.05 7/190 0.09 5/96 0.72
Flexible
Mixed flexible 2/24 1.00 1/17 0.06 1/17 0.12
Rigid 8/161 1.06 6/173 0.09 4/79 0.85
following categories:
1. Cardiovascular
2. Death
3. Sepsis
4. Steinstrasse
5. Stricture
6. Transfusion
8. Ureteral obstruction
The last category included data from articles that did not specify the nature of the
frequently occurred when the study indicated that there were no significant
summed and counted as overall significant complications. Thus, the estimates for this
category are probably substantially underestimated and are included to show that there
article did not mention a complication, even if other complications were listed, no
assumption was made that the complication did not occur. This decision may have
caused the presented data to be overestimated because studies where the complication
occurred and was reported were more likely to be included. However, since many studies
did not report complications or may have omitted complications, the complication rates
inaccuracy counteract each other. For very rare events, such as death, for which the few
recorded instances are probably reported, the estimates given are significant
overestimates.
The complication rate for the overall population by treatment, size, and location
are shown in Table 5. The Panel opted not to compare treatments with regard to
statistically significant differences since articles varied in the complications reported and
Copyright © 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.® 22
and European Association of Urology
computing a statistical measure of difference was likely to be misleading. Estimates for
rare events, such as death, are included to indicate that they can occur, but the estimates
are unrealistically high. This situation is likely also true for other serious but rare
complications.
Overall 1%
Significant Distal Ureter SWL - all types 11 2,027 (0 - 2)%
SWL - in situ 9 1,974 1% (0 - 1)%
SWL - other 2 53 3% (0 - 11)%
URS - all types 18 1,902 7% (5 - 10)%
URS - mixed flexible 3 132 9% (4 - 16)%
URS - rigid 15 1,770 7% (4 - 10)%
Overall
Significant Proximal Ureter SWL - all types 6 622 4% (1 - 12)%
SWL - in situ 3 453 1% (0 - 5)%
SWL - other 3 169 11% (2 - 34)%
URS - all types 13 383 11% (6 - 17)%
URS - flexible 1 8 3% (0 - 26)%
URS - mixed flexible 5 190 12% (4 - 26)%
URS - rigid 8 193 10% (6 - 17)%
Ureteral
Obstruction Distal Ureter SWL - All types 5 330 3% (1 - 6)%
SWL - in situ 4 314 2% (1 - 6)%
SWL - other 1 16 1% (0 - 14)%
URS - all types 2 185 2% (1 - 6)%
URS - rigid 2 185 2% (1 - 6)%
Table 6. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) in the Pediatric Population
ureteroscopy were also considered by the Panel although relatively small numbers of
studies reported on these procedures. Stone-free rate results are shown in Table 7, and
procedure count data are shown in Tables 8A-D. Because these procedures are usually
reserved for special cases, the reported data should not be used to compare procedures
with each other or with SWL or URS. As expected, these more invasive procedures
Proximal Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Other Surgeries Mean Mean Mean
Laparoscopic Stone Removal 5/38 1.00 2/61 0.18 1/2 1.00
PNL 4/176 1.05 3/238 0.04 5/242 0.73
Open Surgery
Table 8B. Procedure Counts for Other Surgical Interventions in the Overall Population, Mid
Ureteral Stones
Mid Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Other Surgeries Mean Mean Mean
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Distal Ureter – All Sizes Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Other Surgeries Mean Mean Mean
Laparoscopic Stone Removal 1/15 1.00 1/15 0.13
PNL
Open Surgery 1/122 1.00
Table 8D. Procedure Counts for Other Surgical Interventions in the Overall Population, Total
Ureteral Stones
Total Ureter ≤10 mm Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted Weighted Weighted
G/P G/P G/P
Other Surgeries Mean Mean Mean
Laparoscopic Stone Removal 2/7 1.00 1/6 0.17 2/7 1.00
PNL
Open Surgery
each. Two studies reported stone-free rates for children with open procedures (N=5 patients); the computed
(hereinafter the Panel). Each association selected a Panel chair who in turn appointed the
support optimal clinical practices in the management of ureteral calculi. This document
was submitted to 81 urologists and other health care professionals for peer review. After
revision of the document based upon the peer review comments, the guideline was
submitted for approval to the Practice Guidelines Committee of the AUA and the
Guidelines Office of the EAU. Then it was forwarded to the AUA Board of Directors and
the EAU Board for final approval. Funding of the Panel and of the PGC was provided by
the AUA and the EAU, although Panel members received no remuneration for their
work. Each member of the PGC and of the Panel furnished a current conflict of interest
understanding of the principles and strategies for the management of ureteral calculi. The
clinical experience and expert opinion. Some of the medical therapies currently employed
in the management of ureteral calculi have not been approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration for this specific indication. Thus, doses and dosing regimens may deviate
Copyright © 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.® and 53
European Association of Urology®
from that employed for the Food and Drug Adminstration-approved indications, and this
This document provides guidance only, and does not establish a fixed set of rules
or define the legal standard of care. As medical knowledge expands and technology
advances, this guideline will change. Today it represents not absolute mandates but
described. For all these reasons, the guideline does not preempt physician judgment in
individual cases. Also, treating physicians must take into account variations in resources,
and in patient tolerances, needs and preferences. Conformance with the guideline
Copyright © 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.® and 54
European Association of Urology®
2007 Guideline for the Management
of Ureteral Calculi
Appendixes
Appendix 1: Ureteral Stones Guideline Update Panel Members and Consultants (1997) .............1
Appendix 2: EAU Working Group on Urolithiasis ........................................................................3
Appendix 3: Ureteral Stones Guideline Update Panel Members and Consultants (2007) ............4
Appendix 4: Article Status Report..................................................................................................6
Appendix 5: Article Extraction Form .............................................................................................8
Appendix 6: Bibliography of Extracted Articles Sorted by Primary Author................................13
Appendix 7: Bibliography of Extracted Articles Sorted by ProCite Number ..............................33
Appendix 8: Stone Free Rates for Observation Therapies by Size...............................................50
Appendix 9: Stone Free Rates for Medical Therapies by Size .....................................................51
Appendix 10: Complications Graphs............................................................................................52
Consultants:
Hanan S. Bell, Ph.D.
(Consultant in Methodology)
Seattle, Washington
Patrick M. Florer
(Database Design and Coordination)
Dallas, Texas
Curtis Colby
(Editor)
Washington, D.C.
Members:
Consultants:
Hanan S. Bell, Ph.D.
Patrick M. Florer
Diann Glickman, PharmD
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8383 Elashry, O.M., Elbahnasy, A.M., Rao, G.S., Nakada, S.Y., Clayman, R.V. Flexible ureteroscopy: Washington
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8454 Beaghler, M., Poon, M., Ruckle, H., Stewart, S., Weil, D. Complications employing the holmium:YAG laser.
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8472 Knispel, H.H., Klan, R., Heicappell, R., Miller, K. Pneumatic lithotripsy applied through deflected working
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8477 Lopez-Alcina, E., Broseta, E., Oliver, F., Boronat, F., Jimenez-Cruz, J.F. Paraureteral extrusion of calculi after
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8479 Park, H., Park, M., Park, T. Two-year experience with ureteral stones: extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy v
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8481 Reiter, W.J., Schon-Pernerstorfer, H., Dorfinger, K., Hofbauer, J., Marberger, M. Frequency of urolithiasis in
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8504 Ferraro, R.F., Abraham, V.E., Cohen, T.D., Preminger, G.M. A new generation of semirigid fiberoptic
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8517 Mahmood, N., Turner, W., Rowgaski, K., Almond, D. The patients perspective of extracorporeal shock wave
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8523 Rhee, B.K., Bretan, P.N., Jr., Stoller, M.L. Urolithiasis in renal and combined pancreas/renal transplant
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8527 Scarpa, R.M., De Lisa, A., Porru, D., Usai, E. Holmium:YAG laser ureterolithotripsy. European Urology. ; 35:
8559 Biri, H., Kupeli, B., Isen, K., Sinik, Z., Karaoglan, U., Bozkirli, I. Treatment of lower ureteral stones:
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8660 Motola, J.A., Smith, A.D. Complications of ureteroscopy: prevention and treatment. AUA Update Series,
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8701 Robert, M., Rakotomalala, E., Delbos, O., Navratil, H. Piezoelectric lithotripsy of ureteral stones: influence of
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8788 Miller, O.F., Kane, C.J. Time to stone passage for observed ureteral calculi: a guide for patient education.
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8800 Fraser, M., Joyce, A.D., Thomas, D.F., Eardley, I., Clark, P.B. Minimally invasive treatment of urinary tract
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8806 Joshi, H.B., Obadeyi, O.O., Rao, P.N. A comparative analysis of nephrostomy, JJ stent and urgent in situ
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8812 Menezes, P., Dickinson, A., Timoney, A.G. Flexible ureterorenoscopy for the treatment of refractory upper
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8818 Richter, S., Shalev, M., Lobik, L., Buchumensky, V., Nissenkorn, I. Early postureteroscopy vesicoureteral
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8840 Karod, J.W., Danella, J., Mowad, J.J. Routine radiologic surveillance for obstruction is not required in
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8841 Maheshwari, P.N., Oswal, A.T., ankar, M., Nanjappa, K.M., Bansal, M. Is antegrade ureteroscopy better than
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8847 Robert, M., Lanfrey, P., Rey, G., Guiter, J., Navratil, H. Analgesia in piezoelectric SWL: comparative study of
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8956 Kourambas, J., Delvecchio, F. C., Preminger, G. M. Low-power holmium laser for the management of urinary
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9001 Reddy, P.P., Barrieras, D.J., Bagli, D.J., McLorie, G.A., Khoury, A.E., Merguerian, P.A. Initial experience with
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9036 Gnanapragasam, V.J., Ramsden, P.D., Murthy, L.S., Thomas, D.J. Primary in situ extracorporeal shock wave
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9043 Keeley, F.X., Gialas, I., Pillai, M., Chrisofos, M., Tolley, D.A. Laparoscopic ureterolithotomy: the Edinburgh
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9051 Nualyong, C., Taweemonkongsap, T. Laparoscopic ureterolithotomy for upper ureteric calculi. Journal of the
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9057 Taari, K., Lehtoranta, K., Rannikko, S. Holmium:YAG laser for urinary stones. Scandinavian Journal of
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9092 Fuselier, H.A., Prats, L., Fontenot, C., Gauthier, A., Jr. Comparison of mobile lithotripters at one institution:
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9123 Strohmaier, W.L., Schubert, G., Rosenkranz, T., Weigl, A. Comparison of extracorporeal shock wave
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9127 Virgili, G., Mearini, E., Micali, S., Miano, R., Vespasiani, G., Porena, M. Extracorporeal piezoelectric
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9256 Gross, A.J., Kugler, A., Seseke, F., Ringert, R.H. Push and smash increases success rates in treatment of
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9275 Nakada, S.Y., Jerde, T.J., Bjorling, D.E., Saban, R. Selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors reduce ureteral
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9312 Irving, S.O., Calleja, R., Lee, F., Bullock, K.N., Wraight, P., Doble, A. Is the conservative management of
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9391 Coz, F., Orvieto, M., Bustos, M., Lyng, R., Stein, C., Hinrichs, A., San Francisco, I. Extracorporeal shockwave
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9393 Delvecchio, F.C., Kuo, R.L., Preminger, G.M. Clinical efficacy of combined lithoclast and lithovac stone
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9422 Yinghao, S., Linhui, W., Songxi, Q., Guoqiang, L., Chuanliang, X., Xu, G., Yongjiang, M. Treatment of
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9464 Nutahara, K., Kato, M., Miyata, A., Murata, A., Okegawa, T., Miura, I., Kojima, M., Higashihara, E.
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9469 Lorberboym, M., Kapustin, Z., Elias, S., Nikolov, G., Katz, R. The role of renal scintigraphy and unenhanced
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9526 Van Savage, J.G., Palanca, L.G., ersen, R.D., Rao, G.S., Slaughenhoupt, B.L. Treatment of distal ureteral
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9540 Mugiya, S., Nagata, M., Un-No, T., Takayama, T., Suzuki, K., Fujita, K. Endoscopic management of
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9598 Ather, M.H., Memon, A. Therapeutic efficacy of Dornier MPL 9000 for prevesical calculi as judged by
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9608 Elsobky, E., Sheir, K.Z., Madbouly, K., Mokhtar, A.A. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in children:
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9650 Goktas, S., Peukirciolu, L., Tahmaz, L., Kibar, Y., Erduran, D., Harmankaya, C. Is there significance of the
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9663 Cooper, J.T., Stack, G.M., Cooper, T.P. Intensive medical management of ureteral calculi. Urology. ; 56:
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9943 Denstedt, J.D., Wollin, T.A., Sofer, M., Nott, L., Weir, M., D'A Honey, R.J. A prospective randomized
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9966 Silver, R.I. A fishnet gantry for pediatric extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy on the Sonolith 3000. Urology. ;
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9994 Buchholz, N.P., van Rossum, M. Shock wave lithotripsy treatment of radiolucent ureteric calculi with the help
of contrast medium. European Urology. ; 39: 200-203
10009 Landau, E.H., Gofrit, O.N., Shapiro, A., Meretyk, S., Katz, G., Shenfeld, O.Z., Golijanin, D., Pode, D.
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10122 Schuster, T.G., Hollenbeck, B.K., Faerber, G.J., Wolf, J.S., Jr. Complications of ureteroscopy: analysis of
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10124 Singh, I., Gupta, N.P., Hemal, A.K., Dogra, P.N., Ansari, M.S., Seth, A., Aron, M. Impact of power index,
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10157 Ather, M.H., Paryani, J., Memon, A., Sulaiman, M.N. A 10-year experience of managing ureteric calculi:
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10182 Hendrikx, A.J., Strijbos, W.E., de Knijff, D.W., Kums, J.J., Doesburg, W.H., Lemmens, W.A. Treatment for
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10271 Cheung, M.C., Lee, F., Yip, S.K., Tam, P.C. Outpatient holmium laser lithotripsy using semirigid
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10284 Kiyota, H., Ikemoto, I., Asano, K., Madarame, J., Miki, K., Yoshino, Y., Hasegawa, T., Ohishi, Y.
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10304 Buchholz, N. P., Van Rossum, M. The radiolucent ureteric calculus at the end of a contrast-medium column:
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10382 Borboroglu, P. G., Amling, C. L., Schenkman, N. S., Monga, M., Ward, J. F., Piper, N. Y., Bishoff, J. T.,
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10396 Gofrit, O. N., Pode, D., Meretyk, S., Katz, G., Shapiro, A., Golijanin, D., Wiener, D. P., Shenfeld, O. Z.,
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10528 Cheung, M. C., Lee, F., Leung, Y. L., Wong, B. B., Chu, S. M., Tam, P. C. Outpatient ureteroscopy:
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10564 Matin, S. F., Yost, A., Streem, S. B. Extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy: a comparative study of
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10632 Hussain, Z., Inman, R. D., Elves, A. W., Shipstone, D. P., Ghiblawi, S., Coppinger, S. W. Use of glyceryl
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10656 Hollenbeck, B. K., Schuster, T. G., Faerber, G. J., Wolf, J. S., Jr. Comparison of outcomes of ureteroscopy for
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10666 Pearle, M. S., Nadler, R., Bercowsky, E., Chen, C., Dunn, M., Figenshau, R. S., Hoenig, D. M., McDougall, E.
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10696 Andreoni, C., Afane, J., Olweny, E., Clayman, R. V. Flexible ureteroscopic lithotripsy: first-line therapy for
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10808 Sofer, M., Watterson, J. D., Wollin, T. A., Nott, L., Razvi, H., Denstedt, J. D. Holmium:YAG laser lithotripsy for
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10828 Coll, D. M., Varanelli, M. J., Smith, R. C. Relationship of spontaneous passage of ureteral calculi to stone
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11002 Picus, D., Weyman, P. J., Clayman, R. V., McClennan, B. L. Intercostal-space nephrostomy for percutaneous
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11032 Peh, O. H., Lim, P. H., Ng, F. C., Chin, C. M., Quek, P., Ho, S. H. Holmium laser lithotripsy in the
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11058 Delakas, D., Daskalopoulos, G., Metaxari, M., Triantafyllou, T., Cranidis, A. Management of ureteral stones in
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11066 Eichel, L., Batzold, P., Erturk, E. Operator experience and adequate anesthesia improve treatment outcome
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11130 Yagisawa, T., Kobayashi, C., Ishikawa, N., Kobayashi, H., Toma, H. Benefits of ureteroscopic pneumatic
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11368 Gaur, D. D., Trivedi, S., Prabhudesai, M. R., Madhusudhana, H. R., Gopichand, M. Laparoscopic
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11460 Rodrigues Netto, N., Jr., Longo, J. A., Ikonomidis, J. A., Rodrigues Netto, M. Extracorporeal shock wave
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11472 Chandhoke, P. S., Barqawi, A. Z., Wernecke, C., Chee-Awai, R. A. A randomized outcomes trial of ureteral
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11476 Lam, J. S., Greene, T. D., Gupta, M. Treatment of proximal ureteral calculi: holmium:yag laser
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11630 Lingeman, J.E., Preminger, G.M., Berger, Y., Denstedt, J.D., Goldstone, L., Segura, J.W., Auge, B.K.,
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11672 Skrepetis, K., Doumas, K., Siafakas, I., Lykourinas, M. Laparoscopic versus open ureterolithotomy. A
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11760 Bassiri, A., Ahmadnia, H., Darabi, M. R., Yonessi, M. Transureteral lithotripsy in pediatric practice.. Journal of
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11778 Buchholz, N. P., Rhabar, M. H., Talati, J. Is measurement of stone surface area necessary for SWL treatment
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11960 Weizer, A. Z., Auge, B. K., Silverstein, A. D., Delvecchio, F. C., Brizuela, R. M., Dahm, P., Pietrow, P. K.,
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12030 Paryani, J. P., Ather, M. H. Improvement in serum creatinine following definite treatment of urolithiasis in
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12404 Lifshitz, D. A., Lingeman, J. E. Ureteroscopy as a first-line intervention for ureteral calculi in pregnancy..
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12452 Azm, T. A., Higazy, H. Effect of diuresis on extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy treatment of ureteric calculi..
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12508 Aynehchi, S., Samadi, A. A., Gallo, S. J., Konno, S., Tazaki, H., Eshghi, M. Salvage extracorporeal
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12754 Dash, A., Schuster, T. G., Hollenbeck, B. K., Faerber, G. J., Wolf, J. S., Jr Ureteroscopic treatment of renal
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12756 Shoma, A. M., Eraky, I., El-Kenawy, M. R., El-Kappany, H. A. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy in the supine
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12758 Watterson, J. D., Girvan, A. R., Beiko, D. T., Nott, L., Wollin, T. A., Razvi, H., Denstedt, J. D. Ureteroscopy and
holmium:yag laser lithotripsy: an emerging definitive management strategy for symptomatic ureteral calculi
in pregnancy.. Urology. ; 60: 383-7
12788 Shiroyanagi, Y., Yagisawa, T., Nanri, M., Kobayashi, C., Toma, H. Factors associated with failure of
extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy for ureteral stones using dornier lithotripter u/50.. International Journal
12882 Portis, A. J., Yan, Y., Pattaras, J. G., Andreoni, C., Moore, R., Clayman, R. V. Matched pair analysis of shock
wave lithotripsy effectiveness for comparison of lithotriptors.[Comment].. Journal of Urology. ; 169: 58-62
13040 Loughlin, K. R., Ker, L. A. The current management of urolithiasis during pregnancy.. Urologic Clinics of
North America. ; 29: 701-4
13042 Perisinakis, K., Damilakis, J., Anezinis, P., Tzagaraki, I., Varveris, H., Cranidis, A., Gourtsoyiannis, N.
Assessment of patient effective radiation dose and associated radiogenic risk from extracorporeal shock-wave
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13190 Hochreiter, W. W., Danuser, H., Perrig, M., Studer, U. E. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for distal
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13210 Rizvi, S. A., Naqvi, S. A., Hussain, Z., Hashmi, A., Hussain, M., Zafar, M. N., Sultan, S., Mehdi, H.
Management of pediatric urolithiasis in pakistan: experience with 1,440 children.. Journal of Urology. ; 169:
13218 Hemal, A. K., Goel, A., Goel, R. Minimally invasive retroperitoneoscopic ureterolithotomy.. Journal of
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13256 Lalak, N. J., Moussa, S. A., Smith, G., Tolley, D. A. The Dornier Compact Delta lithotripter: The first 150
ureteral calculi.. Journal of Endourology. ; 16: 645-8
13262 Tan, Y. M., Yip, S. K., Chong, T. W., Wong, M. Y., Cheng, C., Foo, K. T. Clinical experience and results of
ESWL treatment for 3,093 urinary calculi with the Storz Modulith SL20 lithotripter at the Singapore General
Hospital.. Scandinavian Journal of Urology & Nephrology. ; 36: 363-7
13596 Cheung, M. C., Lee, F., Leung, Y. L., Wong, B. B., Tam, P. C. A prospective randomized controlled trial on
ureteral stenting after ureteroscopic holmium laser lithotripsy.. Journal of Urology. ; 169: 1257-60
13620 Lewis, D. F., Robichaux, A. G., 3rd, Jaekle, R. K., Marcum, N. G., Stedman, C. M. Urolithiasis in pregnancy.
Diagnosis, management and pregnancy outcome.. Journal of Reproductive Medicine. ; 48: 28-32
13914 Delvecchio, F. C., Auge, B. K., Brizuela, R. M., Weizer, A. Z., Silverstein, A. D., Lallas, C. D., Pietrow, P. K.,
Albala, D. M., Preminger, G. M. Assessment of stricture formation with the ureteral access sheath.. Urology. ;
14074 Hollenbeck, B. K., Schuster, T. G., Seifman, B. D., Faerber, G. J., Wolf, J. S., Jr. Identifying patients who are
suitable for stentless ureteroscopy following treatment of urolithiasis.[Comment].. Journal of Urology. ; 170:
14212 Pietrow, P. K., Auge, B. K., Delvecchio, F. C., Silverstein, A. D., Weizer, A. Z., Albala, D. M., Preminger, G.
M. Techniques to maximize flexible ureteroscope longevity.. Urology. ; 60: 784-8
14256 Sheir, K. Z., Madbouly, K., Elsobky, E. Prospective randomized comparative study of the effectiveness and
safety of electrohydraulic and electromagnetic extracorporeal shock wave lithotriptors.. Journal of Urology. ;
14286 Delakas, D., Karyotis, I., Daskalopoulos, G., Lianos, E., Mavromanolakis, E. Independent predictors of failure
of shockwave lithotripsy for ureteral stones employing a second-generation lithotripter.. Journal of
14292 Klingler, H. C., Kramer, G., Lodde, M., Dorfinger, K., Hofbauer, J., Marberger, M. Stone treatment and
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14392 Leveillee, R. J., Lobik, L. Intracorporeal lithotripsy: which modality is best?. [Review] [19 refs]. Current
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14424 Zeng, G. Q., Zhong, W. D., Cai, Y. B., Dai, Q. S., Hu, J. B., Wei, H. A. Extracorporeal shock-wave versus
pneumatic ureteroscopic lithotripsy in treatment of lower ureteral calculi.. Asian Journal of Andrology. ; 4:
14430 Arrabal-Martin, M., Pareja-Vilches, M., Gutierrez-Tejero, F., Mijan-Ortiz, J. L., Palao-Yago, F., Zuluaga-
Gomez, A. Therapeutic options in lithiasis of the lumbar ureter.. European Urology. ; 43: 556-63
14432 Tligui, M., El Khadime, M. R., Tchala, K., Haab, F., Traxer, O., Gattegno, B., Thibault, P. Emergency
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14500 Deliveliotis, C., Chrisofos, M., Albanis, S., Serafetinides, E., Varkarakis, J., Protogerou, V. Management and
follow-up of impacted ureteral stones.. Urologia Internationalis. ; 70: 269-72
14548 Cervenakov, I., Fillo, J., Mardiak, J., Kopecny, M., Smirala, J., Lepies, P. Speedy elimination of
ureterolithiasis in lower part of ureters with the alpha 1-blocker--tamsulosin.. International Urology &
14560 Hosking, D. H., Smith, W. E., McColm, S. E. A comparison of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy and
ureteroscopy under intravenous sedation for the management of distal ureteric calculi.. Canadian Journal of
14600 Johnson, D. B., Lowry, P. S., Schluckebier, J. A., Kryger, J. V., Nakada, S. Y. University of Wisconsin
experience using the Doli S lithotriptor.. Urology. ; 62: 410-4; discussion 414-5
14620 Knopf, H. J., Graff, H. J., Schulze, H. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis in ureteroscopic stone removal..
European Urology. ; 44: 115-8
14632 Sharma, D. M., Maharaj, D., Naraynsingh, V. Open mini-access ureterolithotomy: the treatment of choice for
the refractory ureteric stone?.. BJU International. ; 92: 614-6
14766 Nelson, C. P., Wolf, J. S., Jr., Montie, J. E., Faerber, G. J. Retrograde ureteroscopy in patients with orthotopic
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14954 Slavkovic, A., Radovanovic, M., Siric, Z., Vlajkovic, M., Stefanovic, V. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
for cystine urolithiasis in children: outcome and complications.. International Urology & Nephrology. ; 34:
15058 Troy, A., Jones, G., Moussa, S. A., Smith, G., Tolley, D. A. Treatment of lower ureteral stones using the
Dornier Compact Delta lithotripter.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17: 369-71
15096 Mugiya, S., Ito, T., Maruyama, S., Hadano, S., Nagae, H. Endoscopic features of impacted ureteral stones..
Journal of Urology. ; 171: 89-91
15138 Ege, G., Akman, H., Kuzucu, K., Yildiz, S. Acute ureterolithiasis: incidence of secondary signs on
unenhanced helical ct and influence on patient management.. Clinical Radiology. ; 58: 990-4
15146 Muslumanoglu, A. Y., Tefekli, A., Sarilar, O., Binbay, M., Altunrende, F., Ozkuvanci, U. Extracorporeal shock
wave lithotripsy as first line treatment alternative for urinary tract stones in children: A large scale
retrospective analysis.. Journal of Urology. ; 170: 2405-8
15156 Dellabella, M., Milanese, G., Muzzonigro, G. Efficacy of tamsulosin in the medical management of
juxtavesical ureteral stones.. Journal of Urology. ; 170: 2202-5
15198 Johnson, G. B., Grasso, M. Exaggerated primary endoscope deflection: initial clinical experience with
prototype flexible ureteroscopes.. BJU International. ; 93: 109-14
15226 Nabi, G., Baldo, O., Cartledge, J., Cross, W., Joyce, A. D., Lloyd, S. N. The impact of the Dornier Compact
Delta lithotriptor on the management of primary ureteric calculi.. European Urology. ; 44: 482-6
15418 Erbagci, A., Erbagci, A. B., Yilmaz, M., Yagci, F., Tarakcioglu, M., Yurtseven, C., Koyluoglu, O., Sarica, K.
Pediatric urolithiasis--evaluation of risk factors in 95 children.. Scandinavian Journal of Urology &
15490 Gronau, E., Pannek, J., Bohme, M., Senge, T. Results of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy with a new
electrohydraulic shock wave generator.. Urologia Internationalis. ; 71: 355-60
15558 Kose, A. C., Demirbas, M. The 'modified prone position': A new approach for treating pre-vesical stones with
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy.. BJU International. ; 93: 369-73
15572 Abdel-Khalek, M., Sheir, K., Elsobky, E., Showkey, S., Kenawy, M. Prognostic factors for extracorporeal shock-
wave lithotripsy of ureteric stones--A multivariate analysis study.. Scandinavian Journal of Urology &
15606 Aghamir, S. K., Mohseni, M. G., Ardestani, A. Treatment of ureteral calculi with ballistic lithotripsy.. Journal
of Endourology. ; 17: 887-90
15608 Hollenbeck, B. K., Schuster, T. G., Faerber, G. J., Wolf, J. S., Jr. Safety and efficacy of same-session bilateral
ureteroscopy.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17: 881-5
15612 Srivastava, A., Gupta, R., Kumar, A., Kapoor, R., Mandhani, A. Routine stenting after ureteroscopy for distal
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15616 Cimentepe, E., Unsal, A., Saglam, R., Balbay, M. D. Comparison of clinical outcome of extracorporeal
shockwave lithotripsy in patients with radiopaque v radiolucent ureteral calculi.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17:
15624 Katz, D., McGahan, J. P., Gerscovich, E. O., Troxel, S. A., Low, R. K. Correlation of ureteral stone
measurements by CT and plain film radiography: Utility of the KUB.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17: 847-50
15652 Parekattil, S. J., White, M. D., Moran, M. E., Kogan, B. A. A computer model to predict the outcome and
duration of ureteral or renal calculous passage.. Journal of Urology. ; 171: 1436-9
15748 Fong, Y. K., Ho, S. H., Peh, O. H., Ng, F. C., Lim, P. H., Quek, P. L., Ng, K. K. Extracorporeal shockwave
lithotripsy and intracorporeal lithotripsy for proximal ureteric calculi--A comparative assessment of efficacy
and safety.. Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore. ; 33: 80-3
15756 Bultitude, M. F., Tiptaft, R. C., Dasgupta, P., Glass, J. M. Treatment of urolithiasis in the morbidly obese..
Obesity Surgery. ; 14: 300-4
15766 Holman, E., Khan, A. M., Flasko, T., Toth, C., Salah, M. A. Endoscopic management of pediatric urolithiasis
in a developing country.. Urology. ; 63: 159-62
15778 char, E., Achar, R. A., Paiva, T. B., Campos, A. H., Schor, N. Amitriptyline eliminates calculi through urinary
tract smooth muscle relaxation.. Kidney International. ; 64: 1356-64
15788 Tansu, N., Obek, C., Onal, B., Yalcin, V., Oner, A., Solok, V. A simple position to provide better imaging of
upper ureteral stones close to the crista iliaca during extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy using the Siemens
Lithostar.. European Urology. ; 45: 352-5
15796 Jeong, H., Kwak, C., Lee, S. E. Ureteric stenting after ureteroscopy for ureteric stones: a prospective
randomized study assessing symptoms and complications.. BJU International. ; 93: 1032-35
15798 Collins, J. W., Keeley, F. X., Jr, Timoney, A. Cost analysis of flexible ureterorenoscopy.. BJU International. ;
15852 Auge, B. K., Pietrow, P. K., Lallas, C. D., Raj, G. V., Santa-Cruz, R. W., Preminger, G. M. Ureteral access
sheath provides protection against elevated renal pressures during routine flexible ureteroscopic stone
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15872 Ansari, M. S., Gupta, N. P., Seth, A., Hemal, A. K., Dogra, P. N., Singh, T. P. Stone fragility: its therapeutic
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15976 Beiko, D. T., Beasley, K. A., Koka, P. K., Watterson, J. D., Nott, L., Denstedt, J. D., Razvi, H. Upper tract
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15978 McLorie, G. A., Pugach, J., Pode, D., Denstedt, J., Bagli, D., Meretyk, S., D'A Honey, R. J., Merguerian, P. A.,
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16010 Sozen, S., Kupeli, B., Tunc, L., Senocak, C., Alkibay, T., Karaoglan, U., Bozkirli, I. Management of ureteral
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16028 Varkarakis, J., Protogerou, V., Albanis, S., Sofras, F., Deliveliotis, C. Comparison of success rates and
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16046 Al-Busaidy, S. S., Prem, A. R., Medhat, M., Al-Bulushi, Y. H. Ureteric calculi in children: Preliminary
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16098 Gur, U., Lifshitz, D. A., Lask, D., Livne, P. M. Ureteral ultrasonic lithotripsy revisited: a neglected tool?.
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16128 Purohit, R. S., Stoller, M. L. Stone clustering of patients with cystine urinary stone formation.. Urology. ; 63:
16246 Demirbas, M., Kose, A. C., Samli, M., Guler, C., Kara, T., Karalar, M. Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy for
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16272 Satar, N., Zeren, S., Bayazit, Y., Aridogan, I. A., Soyupak, B., Tansug, Z. Rigid ureteroscopy for the treatment
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16284 Gomha, M. A., Sheir, K. Z., Showky, S., Abdel-Khalek, M., Mokhtar, A. A., Madbouly, K. Can we improve the
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16332 Porpiglia, F., Ghignone, G., Fiori, C., Fontana, D., Scarpa, R. M. Nifedipine versus tamsulosin for the
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16366 Dogan, H. S., Tekgul, S., Akdogan, B., Keskin, M. S., Sahin, A. Use of the holmium:yag laser for
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16394 De Sio, M., Autorino, R., Damiano, R., Oliva, A., Pane, U., D'Armiento, M. Expanding applications of the
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16396 De Sio, M., Autorino, R., Damiano, R., Oliva, A., Perdona, S., D'Armiento, M. Comparing two different
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16398 Di Pietro, C., Micali, S., De Stefani, S., Celia, A., De Carne, C., Bianchi, G. Dornier Lithotripter S. The first
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16402 Saita, A., Bonaccorsi, A., Marchese, F., Condorelli, S. V., Motta, M. Our experience with nifedipine and
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16438 Park, H. K., Paick, S. H., Oh, S. J., Kim, H. H. Ureteroscopic lithotripsy under local anesthesia: Analysis of the
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16600 Sinha, M., Kekre, N. S., Chacko, K. N., Devasia, A., Lionel, G., Pandey, A. P., Gopalakrishnan, G. Does
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17108 Ng, C. F., McLornan, L., Thompson, T. J., Tolley, D. A. Comparison of 2 generations of piezoelectric
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17128 Akhtar, M. S., Akhtar, F. K. Utility of the Lithoclast in the treatment of upper, middle and lower ureteric
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17168 Lee, W. C., Hsieh, H. H. Retroperitoneoscopic ureterolithotomy for impacted ureteral stones.. Chang Gung
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17218 Dasgupta, P., Cynk, M. S., Bultitude, M. F., Tiptaft, R. C., Glass, J. M. Flexible ureterorenoscopy: prospective
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17392 Marguet, C. G., Springhart, W. P., Auge, B. K., Preminger, G. M. Advances in the surgical management of
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17432 Wang, L. J., Ng, C. J., Chen, J. C., Chiu, T. F., Wong, Y. C. Diagnosis of acute flank pain caused by ureteral
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17528 Cybulski, P., Honey, R. J., Pace, K. Fluid absorption during ureterorenoscopy.. Journal of Endourology. ; 18:
17558 Maislos, S. D., Volpe, M., Albert, P. S., Raboy, A. Efficacy of the stone cone for treatment of proximal
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17742 Koroglu, M., Wendel, J. D., Ernst, R. D., Oto, A. Alternative diagnoses to stone disease on unenhanced CT to
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17762 Tan, A. H., Al-Omar, M., Watterson, J. D., Nott, L., Denstedt, J. D., Razvi, H. Results of shockwave lithotripsy
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17810 Sheir, K. Z., El-Diasty, T. A., Ismail, A. M. Evaluation of a synchronous twin-pulse technique for shock wave
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17838 Hautmann, S., Friedrich, M. G., Fernandez, S., Steuber, T., Hammerer, P., Braun, P. M., Junemann, K. P.,
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17840 Demirci, D., Gulmez, I., Ekmekcioglu, O., Karacagil, M. Retroperitoneoscopic ureterolithotomy for the
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18052 De Dominicis, M., Matarazzo, E., Capozza, N., Collura, G., Caione, P. Retrograde ureteroscopy for distal
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18054 Hudson, R. G., Conlin, M. J., Bagley, D. H. Ureteric access with flexible ureteroscopes: Effect of the size of
the ureteroscope.. BJU International. ; 95: 1043-4
18116 Raza, A., Smith, G., Moussa, S., Tolley, D. Ureteroscopy in the management of pediatric urinary tract
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18152 Goel, R., Aron, M., Kesarwani, P. K., Dogra, P. N., Hemal, A. K., Gupta, N. P. Percutaneous antegrade
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18174 Kravchick, S., Bunkin, I., Stepnov, E., Peled, R., Agulansky, L., Cytron, S. Emergency extracorporeal
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18376 Unsal, A., Cimentepe, E., Balbay, M. D. Routine ureteral dilatation is not necessary for ureteroscopy..
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18400 Minevich, E., Defoor, W., Reddy, P., Nishinaka, K., Wacksman, J., Sheldon, C., Erhard, M. Ureteroscopy is
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18402 Dellabella, M., Milanese, G., Muzzonigro, G. Randomized trial of the efficacy of tamsulosin, nifedipine and
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18474 Dagnone, A. J., Blew, B. D., Pace, K. T., Honey, R. J. Semirigid ureteroscopy of the proximal ureter can be
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18524 Parker, B. D., Frederick, R. W., Reilly, T. P., Lowry, P. S., Bird, E. T. Efficiency and cost of treating proximal
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18576 Soares, R. S., Romanelli, P., Sandoval, M. A., Salim, M. M., Tavora, J. E., Abelha, D. L., Jr.
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18906 Hsu, J. M., Chen, M., Lin, W. C., Chang, H. K., Yang, S. Ureteroscopic management of sepsis associated with
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18970 Hubert, K. C., Palmer, J. S. Passive dilation by ureteral stenting before ureteroscopy: eliminating the need
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18972 Thomas, J. C., DeMarco, R. T., Donohoe, J. M., Adams, M. C., Brock, J. W., 3rd, Pope, J. C, 4th Pediatric
ureteroscopic stone management.. Journal of Urology. ; 174: 1072-4
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evaluation of emergency extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (eswl) on the short-time outcome of
symptomatic ureteral stones.. European Urology. ; 47: 855-9
19204 Jeon, S. S., Hyun, J. H., Lee, K. S. A comparison of holmium:yag laser with lithoclast lithotripsy in ureteral
calculi fragmentation.. International Journal of Urology. ; 12: 544-7
19764 Resim, S., Ekerbicer, H. C., Ciftci, A. Role of tamsulosin in treatment of patients with steinstrasse developing
after extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy.. Urology. ; 66: 945-8
19818 Resim, S., Ekerbicer, H., Ciftci, A. Effect of tamsulosin on the number and intensity of ureteral colic in
patients with lower ureteral calculus.. International Journal of Urology. ; 12: 615-20
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extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy.. Urology. ; 66: 1165-8
19856 Yilmaz, E., Batislam, E., Basar, M., Tuglu, D., Mert, C., Basar, H. Optimal frequency in extracorporeal shock
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20034 Wu, C. F., Chen, C. S., Lin, W. Y., Shee, J. J., Lin, C. L., Chen, Y., Huang, W. S. Therapeutic options for
proximal ureter stone: extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy versus semirigid ureterorenoscope with
holmium:yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser lithotripsy. Urology. ; 65: 1075-9
A special analysis of observation therapies was requested for stone sizes of <5, 5-10,
and >10 mm stones. Most studies didn’t fit these ranges. Below is the analysis that was
possible.
Observation
5-10mm
8788 8 16 >4 mm
10632 9 15
10828 31 73
Meta-analysis: 47% (36 - 59)%
>10 mm no data
A special analysis of medical therapies was requested for stone sizes of <5, 5-10, and
>10 mm stones. Most studies didn’t fit these ranges. Below is the analysis that was
possible.
Active therapies are listed. Most patients also received steroids, nsaids, and/or
antibiotics.
Medical Therapy
Linked Meta-analysis
18% (-9 - 42)% tamsulosin only vs. nifedipine
20% (-7 - 45)% tamsulosin only excluding 19764 vs. nifedipine
Death
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