a ———_ 19. Design Considerations for Manufacturing of Castings (A) Sand Casting Process ‘The most general casting process uses sand for the moulding and core making. The casting process is quite complex and consists of following sub-systems. 1. Sand and sand preparation system 2, Mould making and pattern system 3. Core making and core box system 4, Mould and core assembly system 5. Metal preparation and pouring system 6. Solidification, Cooling and Fettling system ‘Now, they are discussed one by one as follows : (J) Sand and Sand Preparation System ‘Natural sand (sitica sand) is made available ftom sand mines. Silica sand particles are upto around | - 1.5 mm in size, very hand, thermally stable and hence reusable. Such sand is used in {ange quantum in tonnes. A single mould may require sand of about 20 to 100 kg in its measure. The sand requirement for the cores is little smaller. Before using, the sand is cleaned, sieved fora proper proportion for its grain size mix. The grain size mix contains sand particles between 0.5 mmto 1.5 mm size at appropriate proportion, Such sand is mixed with some binders and then used for preparing moulds and cores. ‘Moulding sand mixture consists of properly cleaned and sieved silica sand, natural clay, smal} amount of water, saw dust, dextrin, bentonite, graphite powder, coal dust, etc. The combination is thoroughly mixed in huge size sand mixers having capacity in tonnes. The sand. mix appears almost black in colour, carries good strength after compacting and even a good collapsibility. This sand mix can be reused but only after adding up for the binders which are consumed due to the contact of the hot liquid metal. ‘Core Sand mixture is little different one. The cores are required to be stronger and harder than the moulds. Hence, they consist of some oils like linseed oil, core oil, kerosene as binders. ‘The cores are baked in ovens prior to their use. Moulds are not baked. The core sand mix is not re- used, The baking process for the core makes the cotes stronger and harder, This requitement for the cores is due to relative poorer supporting system for the cores when they are at use; as compared to the supporting system for moulds. (2) Mould Making and Pattern System Moulds are cavities formed out of the moulding sand which geometrically correspond to the Outer shape of the component. This mould cavity is obtained using a pattem whose shape ‘corresponds to the outer shape of the component. For the sake of manufacturing convenience, the component shape is generally divided into two parts resulting into requicement of two pattems. These two patterns are called as the “Cope” and “Drag” pattern. With help of their use, two mould cavities produced are called as the cope (upper) mould and the drag (lower) mould. The two moulds when combined generate the total outer shape of the component. ‘The patterns are mounted on flat base plates called as pattem plates. The patter plate typically for the cope pattern carries additional features like (1) sprue pin, (2) runner bars, (3) gates,(4) flow off which serve as the passage for the liquid material to occupy the mould cavity. Iteven carries, (5) core prints to form cavities to accommodate the supports for the core. The drag pattern ‘may have only core print apart from the corresponding component shape. For preparing 2 cope (or drag) mould, the pattern plate is secured to the table of a moulding, machine. A mould box, which is open at its upper or lower zone, is kept on the pattern plate surrounding the pattem. Adequate quantity of the moulding sand mix is dumped in the mould box ‘over the pattern. The sand mix is squeezed from the upper side with help of a squeeze plate at the ‘moulding machine and a compact mould gets created. Subsequently the mould box along with the compact mould is lifted upwards and the mould gets released from the pattern. The squeezing, compacting, releasing operations are performed by the machine using pneumatic/hydraulic arrangements. (3) Core Making and Core Box System Cores are used at the casting process to obtain the desired hollowness at the component, The Cores are made out of core boxes which carry cavities tobe filled in by the core sand mixture, The Cotes taken out of the core box are baked at ovens. Such baked cores are placed in the mould cavities at the core-print locations. The cores are somewhat smaller than the corresponding mould cavity dimensions. The size difference between the core and mould size generates an appropriate _Bap (0 result into the wall thickness of the hollow cast component. (4) Mould and Core Assembly System N N yi SSSi ___—_ ‘The cope and the drag moulds are produced parallely, The drag mould is kept inverted on the floor. The core is placed atthe core prints in the drag mould. The cope box is now carefully closed ‘over the drag box. Alignment pins are used to maintain accuracy while closing. A pouring basin cavity is manually cut at the end of the sprue prior to closing of the core box. Also, prior to closing of the cope moulds, narrow air vents are manually created atthe cope mould using a sharp piercing pin. Now, itcan be seen that the moulds are supported weil but the core remains supported only at its ends and remains unsupported at its major part. Now the need for the core to be stronger than the mould can be understood. To prevent the likely dislocation of the cope mould over the drag ‘mould at subsequent operations, the cope moulds are clamped to the drag moulds at suitable locations. (5) Metal Preparation and Pouring System Raw metal in form of pig iron ingots is melted at the furnace; which can be Cupola furnace / Light Diesel oil furnace / Electrical resistance furnace / Electrical induction furace. Now-a- day, the electrical induction furnace is more in use because of its efficiency, quality output, operational convenience, etc. Though the main input is pig iron; additives like steel, ferrositicon, ferromanganese are also added prior to melting to improve the metallurgical properties of the liquid metal. The liquid metal possesses temperature around 1550° to 1600° C and density around 7.5 gmsiem’, Such metal is transferred by means of refractory lined laddles from the furnace to the closed moulds. After skimming away the floating impurities manually, the liquid metal is slowly poured into the pouring basin at the cope box. The metal rushes through the sprue, runners, gates and lands into the cavity formed by the moulds and core. The moulds and core. ‘get heated and release ‘water vapour, burt gases, smoke immediately. The air earlier available in the cavity and the newly formed vapours, smoke and gases rush out through the flow off and air vents, The level of the liquid metal gets raised due to the continuous pouring and when the cavity gets completely filled, the surplus liquid metal comes out through the flow off, Now, the pouring gets stopped. ‘Evenafier, fumes and gases keep on getting evolved through the moulds and core due to evaporation and combustion of the binders, These fumes and gases keep on passing out through the vents for a prolonged time. (© Solidification, Cooling and Fettling System The moulds still eft in the closed and clamped condition, are not disturbed till the liquid ‘metal gets solidified and cooled. This process takes long duration around 2 to 4 hours. Subsequently, the cope box is removed, the solidified casting is removed along with the lump of the mould sand and passed on to a knock-off operation where the adjoining mould sand is knocked down, The used sand now can be sent for recycling, The solidified casting contains solidified metal at the sprue, runner, gates, flow off etc. This extra material is removed at an operation called as fettling ‘operation. If required, the casting is fed through a shot blasting operation where it gets thoroughly cleaned. Then the casting is passed on for the subsequent machining operations. (B) Common Problems and Defects at the Casting 1. Defects due to Sand : The moulding and cote sand mixture is expected to be strong as ‘well as collapsible at the same time. Hence, it cannot have rock-hardness to withstand the heavy temperature and flow of a metal with density around 7.5. This compromise leads to sand wash, ‘sand fall, breakage of mould/core. The sand detached from the mould or core is expected to pass- Out through the flow off but itis not possible hundred percent. Hence, some sand remainsentrapped in the liquid material and subsequently in the solidified casting,‘The binders in the mould and core sand mix evolve fumes, gases and vapours which also cannot pass out totally, Hence, the casting finally carries gas holes, gas porosity, blow holes. ‘The broken part of the core or mouid even disturbs the geometrical shape and parameters of the casting. 2. Defects due flow of liquid metal : Ifthe propagation of the liquid material in the cavity is slow, it leads to solidification of the leading metal prior to reaching its destination. Such defect is called as the cold shut. 3. Defects due to improper solidification : Certain zones of the component are subjected to too fast or too slow rate of solidification. It leads to problems like cracks or hot tears at the component sections. On the other side some other component zones are subject to localised shrinkage. 4. Some other defects like dirt inclusion, mould swelling, mould mismatches also do exist at the castings. (C) Design Considerations to Overcome the Defects 1, Avoiding vertical surfaces at cope and drag moulds. Introduction of draft : During the ejection and detachment of the mould from the pattetn, the separation of the horizontal surfaces like ‘A’ is very easy and problem free. However, if the pattem (and mould) is required to have a vertical surface like “B’, the separation is difficult. During the separation, the mould surface goes on rubbing against the vertical surface of the pattern and makes the sand at the surface to become loose and weak. Such surface is more prone to get washed away and even to collapse due to flow of liquid mezal. Instead, a surface with a taper of around 2° - 5° converts the vertical surface to a draft surface. It completely avoids the rubbing action during separation and ‘retains the sand strength 2. Converting a draft toa slant : During the squeezing of the mould sand in vertical direction, the horizontal surfaces like ‘A’ get properly compacted and acquire proper strength. However, the surfaces with draft like ‘B’ get poorly compacted and lack at their strength. More and more stant results into better and better compaction and strength. Hence, the vertical surfaces at the component converted to have slants like 15°, 30°, even 45° ate preferred. With such a change, the defects like sand wi 3, Avoid thin wall thickness : If tie component carries thin walls, then the amount of liquid ‘material propagating in the forward di gets slowed down, Such material is subjected toi faster cooling and can get solidified prior to its destination. Hence, depending upon the distance to be further travelled by the liquid metal, the gap between the mould and core (indirectly the wall thickness of the component) is never allowed to be very thin. Accordingly a ‘minimum wall thickness of around 6 to 8 mm is preferred. Ifthe liquid material is not expected to travel by a large distance beyond certain location, the thickness can be allowed upto 4-5 mm but never fess than that. Accordingly, the defects like cold shut, get avoided. 4, Avoid junctions with different wall thicknesses : When two or more wall thicknesses at casting form a junction and if the wall thicknesses are considerably different, then due to different rates of solidification; the thinner walls tend to crack and the thicker walls tend to have local shrinkage. If the junctions have equal wall thicknesses then the defects like cracks or shrinkage get avoided 5, Introducing convexity/concavity at the cope surfaces : When the liquid metal occupies the mould cavity and gets raised at its level, the impurities like sand particles, slag inclusions, gas bubbles keep on floating at the upper surface of the liquid metal. When the pouring comes to an end, majority of these containments ‘escape out through the flow off. However, if the upper surface of the cope mould (and the component) is flat and horizontal, then some of the impurities still have a chance to get ‘trapped at the upper part of the flat surface, a. Cs Instead, ifthe upper side of the component (and the cope mould) is given a convex or concave ‘shape, then due steady inctease of the molten metal level, the impurities have a better chance to escape out. Even after stopping of the pouring operation and during solidification, the shape permits the escape of the impurities such provision reduces. A inclusi blowholes, ere, 6. Avoiding sharp corners : If the cast component is required to have some sharp comers, then they are required to be provided at the moulds or cores. Such comers like A or B at the moulds or cores happen to be too weak to bear the flow of the liquid metal. Such comers break off and get washed away while pouring the liquid metal. But if the comers are made little smoother by providing appropriate comer radius, then they are less damaged by the flowing metal, they are capable of retaining their strength, and reduce the chances of damage at the shape, sand wash, sand inclusion, etc,eB Accordingly, a minimum corner radius of around ‘t to 1.5 is recommended at any corer; where ‘t’ is the wall thickness at that location. 7. Arranging for the surface to be machined at the cape : If a components subsequently requires for any machining to be done on any surface and if such surface is arranged at the cope, then the entrapped impurities have a chance to get eliminated at the machining operation; leaving the component to be a defectfree component after machining. Even at times some machining can be planned, though not called for under normal circumstances, at the upper surfaces. The defects like sand inclusions. gas bubbles, porosity can be climinated with help of such arrangement, It must be understood that the above mentioned corrective actions finally are concemed regarding component shape, geometry. dimensions, features, etc. These are not he only actions to overcome the defects. Some technical controlling action over the process variables like mould hardness, gas venting, permeability of sand mix, metal temperature and fluidity, addition of binders, ete, can make considerable contribution for overcoming the defects. (D) Deciding the Parting Line/Parting Surface ‘The parting line or parting surface is location where the component is imagined in two parts to correspond to cope and drag. The two pattems are produced depending upon this decision regarding parting line. BS i S A typical box shaped component (100 x 200 x 300) can have three fundamental orientations ‘and can have three optional ways to form the parting like. Each option devides the component into two equal parts. Accordingly it may appear that these options do not differ in terms of the advantages or limitations. In fact, itis not so. One out of the available choices shall be the best one to have maximum advantages and least limitations. In fact the selection of the parting line is, as per some guide lines or thumb rules which minimise the limitations and maximise the advantages. (1) _Ifany object is defined by three mutual perpendicular dimensions; say X. Y and; then the least out the these three is laid vertically and divided into the cope and drag part. This guideline minimises the cope and drag heights and minimises the mould/core selease problems, It further maximises the strength of the mould at its vertical surfaces and minimise defects like sand wash, sand inclusion, mould swelling, etc. Accordingly, the 1* option at the previous sketch seems to be the best option for parting line selection. Itshall result into cope/drag height of 50 mm each which is better than 150 mm or 100 mm at the 2% or 3° option respectively.I) The cope and drag heights are preferred to be equal, However, if the component shape along its height is odd, then the parting line is preferred at the broadest zone of the ‘component. tf.) Ee 19__ tt g t 210 150 As per this thumb rule, the parting line ‘2" is preferred than the other option ‘1*. In fact, the selection of parting line 1 will make the cope pattern and mould appear as shown. ‘Such mould is impossible to be released from the pattem at the zone ‘P’. The release shall result into breakage of the mould at zone ‘P'. IMD If the cope height and drag height are appreciably different than each other, then the smaller height is preferred to be the drag height. It results into falling of the liquid metal in the mould cavity through a smaller height and further leads to least. damage at the mould surface, {E) Use of External Cores The cores are well known to be used for generating internal cavities or hollowness at the cast ‘components. However, some typical external features are required to be obtained using extemal ccores rather than mould surfaces. It is because that these mould zones are impossible to be released from pattern without creating any destruction. Tecan be seen at the iflustrative figure that the projections on the vertical wat! are problematic from moulding point of view. But if the problematic zone is substituted by an extemal core, thedifficulty seems to get overcome. For introduction and fitment. Core of the external core the concerned pattern is required to have an additional core print. This core print shall create the required space in the mould for placing the external core. Even with this extra core print, now the moulding is possible. ‘Such arrangement can be at the drag mould or the cope mould depending upon the requirements. ®) Permanent Mould Castings ‘Sand as a principal catalytic system is the most problematic system also. The relatively poor strength than the liquid metal is responsible for making the entire process not so reliable, A mould. and cote, if made of very hard material like some metal, can eliminate all problems like sand wash, sand inclusion, sand fall, gas formation, porosity, etc. ‘The system which uses metallic moulds and cores is called as the die casting process. At this, process, the same mould or core is used again and again without only conventional knockout and destruction, These moulds and cores do not get washed away, do not get broken; do not require any binders; do not release any gases, vapours or fumes; do not release any impurities; do not swell; do not require any sand mixing, baking, moulding, core making operations to be performed repeadely. However two major limitations are involved with this process. The liquid metal, when comes in contact with the metallic mould, is capable of heating and melting the metal mould itself. ‘Secondly, since there is no knock out of core by destruction: the withdrawal of the core from the solidified component becomes impossible. To overcome these limitations, following practices are recommended to be followed : 1, The melting temperature of the mould material is preferred to be substantially higher than the temperature of liquid metal under process. Naturally, the mould material cannot bbe same as the molten metal. If moulds are made of cast stee! or alloy steel, then the component metal is suggested to be aluminium or aluminium alloy. At such combination, the melting temperature is substantially different. 2. No internal cores are preferred for the component. At the most, the component can have cores at the mould surface (self cores or extemal cores). If any internal core is required to be used, it should be a collapsible core which can be easily withdrawn without destruction after solidification of the component. (F) Use of Self Cores Some cast components satisfy the following characteristics: (@ The height is relatively small (©) The parting line is almost atthe lowest zone. (©) The intemal hollowness has tapering dimensions «am in the upper diction. At such case, the required internal hollowness can be achieved with help of an upward protudement/bulge at the drag mould called as the “self core”. The requirement of a separate oil sand baked core, its core prints etc, is completely cutoff. Such arrangement leads to cost feduction due 10 elimination of the conventional core. However, the drag K~‘mould appears like a bulge rather than a cavity. Hence, the drag pattern shall appear like a cavity rather than a bulge. The pattem requires a special mounting on the moulding machine. FRG