11

ShearStrength of Soil

The shear strengthof a soil massis the internal resistanceper unit area that the soil
masscan otTerto resistfailure and sliding along any plane inside it. One must under-
stand the nature of shearingresistancein order to analyzesoil stability problemssuch
as bearing capacity,slope stability,and lateral pressureon earthretainingstructures.

11.1 Mohr -Coulomb Failure Criterion

Mohr ( 1900)presenteda theory for rupture in materials that contended that a ma-
terial fails becauseof a critical combination of normal stressand shcaringstress,and
not from either maximum normal or shear stressalone. Thus. the functional rela-
tionship between normal stressand shear stresson a failure plane can be expressed
in the followins form:

r1: f@) ( 11 .1 )
T h c f a i l u r e e n v e l o p ed e f i n e db y E q . ( 1 1 . 1 ) i s a c u r v e d l i n e . F o r m o s t s o i l m e -
chanicsproblems, it is sufficientto approximate the shearstresson the failure plane
as a linear function of the normal stress(Coulomb. 1776).This linear function can
be written as

rf=c*crtan$ (11.2)

where c : cohesion
d : angle of internal friction
o : normal stresson the failure plane
r/ : shear strength
The preceding equation is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
In saturated soil, the total normal stress at a point is the sum of the effective
stress(n') and pore water pressure(tt), or

o : o ' l t t

311
312 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Table 11. ? Typical Values of Drained Angle

of Friction for Sands and Silts

Soil type d'(des1

Sand: Rr,tundedgrains
Loose 27-30
Medium 30-35
Dense 35-38
Sand: Angulur grains
Loose 30-35
Medium 3.5- 4t)
Dense 40-45
Gravel with some sand 34,48
Sl/ts 26-35

The effectivestressa' is carried by the soil solids.The Mohr-Coulomb failure cri-

terion, expressedin terms of efTectivestress,will bc clf the form
T | - ,'' * tr' tan <[' (11.3)
where c' : cohesionand @' : friction angle,basedon effeotivestrcss.
T h u s , E , q s .( 1 1 . 2 )a n d ( 1 1 . 3 )a r e e x p r e s s i o n o
s f s h e a rs t r e n g t hb a s e do n t o t a l
stressand effectivestress.The value of c' for sand and inorganic silt is 0. For nor-
mally consolidatedclays,c' can be approximated at 0. Overconsolidatedclays have
valuesof c' that are greater than 0. The angle ol friction, ry'',is sometimesrcfcrred to
as the drained angLeo.f.frictbn. Typical values of <f' for some granular soils arc given
i n T a b l e 11 . 1 .
The signilicanccof Eq. ( I 1.3)can be explained by referring to Fig. I L l, which
showsan clemental soil mass.Let the effectivenormal stressand the shear stresson

(a)

Figure 11.I Mohr-Coulomb failurecriterion

 11'2 rncrination of the prane of Fairurecaused by shear 313

the plane ab be o' and r, respectively.Figure 11.1bshowsthe plot of the failure en-
velope defined by Eq. (11.3).If the magnitudesof o' and r on planeab are such that
they plot as point,4 in Figure 11.1b,shear failure will not occur along the plane. If
the effective normal stress and the shear stress on plane ab plot as point B (which
falls on the failure envelope), shear failure will occur along that plane. A state of
stresson a plane representedby point C cannot exist,becauseit plots above the fail-
ure envelope,and shear failure in a soil would have occurrcd alreadv.

11.2 lnclination of the Plane of Failure caused by shear

As statedby the Mohr-Coulomb failure crittlrion, failure from shearwill occur when
the shear stresson a plane reachesa value given by Eq. (1 1.3).To determine the in-
clination of the failure plane with the major principal plane, refer to Figure 11.2,
where c\ and oi are, respectively,the major and minor effectiveprincipal stresses.
The failure plane EFmakes an angle d with the major principal plane.To determine
the angle 0 and the relationshipbetweenrrj and ai, refer to Figure 11.3,which is a plot
of the Mohr'.scircle for the state of stressshown in Figure I 1.2 (see chapter 9j. In
Figure 11.3,fghis thc failure envelopedefined by the relationshipr[: c, * o, tan .
$,
T h e r a d i a l l i n e a b d e f i n e st h e m a j o r p r i n c i p a lp l a n e ( C D i n F i g u r e ' 1 1 . 2 )a, n d t h e r a -
d i a l l i n e a d d e f i n e st h e f a i l u r ep l a n e( E - F i nF i g u r e 1 l . z ) . l t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t L b a d :
2e:90*d'.or

0:45+9 ( r1 . 4 )
2
A g a i n . f r o m F i g u r e1 1 . 3 .

ad
(r1.-s)
fa:stna

T u - . f O + O u : c ' c t > r g -' o j t ' i (11.6a)

2

U 01, a O'I
Ef1'ectivenormal stress
Figure | 1.2 Inclination of failure plane
in soil with major principal plane Figure 71.3 Mohr'scircleand failure envelope
314 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Also,

r o t - o l
aa: ( l 1.6b)
2
Eqs.(11.6a)and(11.6b)into Eq. (11.5),we obtain
Substituting
o\-ot
2
sin@' :
o,, _f o,.
c ' c o t $ '+
t-

/l+sind'\ / cos6'\
'i -.'1[r ( 11.7)
sind/*"\r ,ino,/
However,
I + sin@' ^/ d'\
:tan'145*
1 - sin q5' Z)
and
cos d' / (b' \
I " t * , t - t a n \ 4 5 + 2)

Thus,

o\: o\,un'(+s . +)
. +) * ,r',^n(ot (11.8)

An expressionsimilar to Eq. (11.tt)could also be derived using Eq. (11.2)(thal

is, total stressparametersc and @),or

rr)
u t - . t t u n ' ( + . s , r r , , " " ( 0 , - -f ) ( l l.e)

1t.3 Laboratory Test for Determination

of Shear Strength Parameters
There are several laboratory methods now available to determine the shear strength
parameters (i.e., q 6, c' , 6') of various soil specimensin the laboratory. They are as
follows:

a. Direct shear test

b. Triaxial test
c. Direct simple shear test
d. Plane strain triaxial test
e. Torsional rins shear test
 11.4 DirectShear Test 315

The direct shear test and the triaxial test are the two commonly used techniques for
determining the shear strength parameters. These two tests will be described in de-
tail in the sections that follow.

11.4 Direct Shear Test

The direct shear test is the oldest and simplestform of shear test arrangement.A di-
agram of the direct shear test apparatusis shown in Figure 11.4.The teit equipment
consistsof a metal shearbox in which the soil specimenis placed.The soil rp..i."n,
may be square or circular in plan. The size of the specimensgenerally ur",l is about
5 1 m m x 5 L m m o r 1 0 2 m m x 1 0 2 m m ( 2 i n . x 2 i n . o r 4 i n . x 4 i n . ) a c r o s sa n d a b o u t
2-5mm (1 in.) high. The box is split horizontally into halves.Normal force on the
specimen is applied from the top of the shear box. The normal stresson the speci-
mens can be as great as 10-50kN/m2 (150 lb/in.r). Shear force is applied by moving
one-half of the box relative to the other to causefailure in the soil specimen.
Depending on the equipment, the shear test can be either stresscontrolled or
strain controlled. In stress-controlledtests,the shear force is applied in equal incre-
ments until the specimenfails.The failure occursalong the plane of split of the shear
box. After the application of each incremental load, the shear displacementof the
top half of the box is measuredby a horizontal dial gauge.Thc changein the height
of the specimen(and thus the volume changeof the specimen)during the test .un b"
obtained from the readingsof a dial gauge that measuresthe vertical movement of
the upper loading plate.
In strain-controlled tests,a constant rate of shear displacementis applied to
one-half of the box by a motor that acts through gears.The constant rate of shear
displacementis measuredby a horizontal dial gauge.The resistingshearforce of the
soil correspondingto any shear displacementcan be measureclby a horizontal prov-
ing ring or load cell. The volume changeof the specimenduring the test is obtained

Normal force

Porousstone

€ Shear
force

Porousstone

Figure 11.4 Diagram of direct shear test arrangement

316 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

directsheartestequipmcnt(courtesyof Soiltest,Inc.,Lake
Figure 1?.5 Strain-controllcd
Bluff, Illinois)

in a manner similar to that in the stress-controlledtests.Figure 11.5showsa photo-

graph of strain-controlleddirect shear test equipment.
The advantageof the strain-controlledtests is that in the caseof dense sand,
peak shear resistance(that is, at failurc) as well as lessershear resistance(that is, at
a point after failure called ultimate streng,th)can be observed and plotted. In stress-
controlled tests,only the peak shear resistancecan be observed and plotted. Note
that the peak shearresistancein stress-controlledtestscan be only approximatedbe-
causefailure occurs at a stresslevel somewherebetween the prefailure load incre-
ment and the failure load increment.Nevertheless,compared with strain-controlled
tests,stress-controlledtestsprobably model real field situationsbetter.
For a given test, the normal stresscan be calculatedas

Normal force
o : Normal stress: (11.10)
Cross-sectionalarea of the specimen

The resistins shear stressfor anv shear displacementcan be calculatedas

Resistinsshear force
r : Shearstress: (1 1 . 1 1 )
Cross-sectionalarea of the specimen
Figure 11.6 shows a typical plot of shear stressand change in the height of the
specimen against shear displacement for dry loose and dense sands.These observa-
tions were obtained from a strain-controlled test. The following generalizationscan
 11.4 DirectShear Test 317

E
a

Sheardisplacentent

.='c x

u)T F
d F =
r ) o
a
o
U

Figure 11.6 PloIof shearstressanclchangcin heightof specimen

againstsheardisplace-
mentfor looseanddcnsedry sand(dircctshcartest)

be developedfrom Figure I 1.6regarding the variation of resistingshear stresswith

shear displacement:
1. ln loose sand,the resistingshear stressincreaseswith shear displacementuntil
a failure shear stressof 11is reached.After that, the shear resistanceremains
approximately constant for any further increasein the shear displacement.
2. In densesand, the resistingshear stressincreaseswith shear displacementuntil
it reaches a failure stressof rr. This rlis called the peak shear strength. After
failure stressis attained, the resistingshear stressgradually decreasesas shear
displacementincreasesuntil it finalty reachesa constantvalue called the ulti-
mate .shear.strength.
It is important to note that, in dry sand,

o:(r'
and

c ' :0
Direct shear tests are repeated on similar specimensat various normal stresses.
The normal stressesand the corresponding values of r, obtained from a number of
testsare plotted on a graph from which the shear strength parameters are determined.
318 Chapter 17 Shear Strength of Soil

o'(lb/inz)
20 40

^ 150

z 20

/ too

ca <rl

6' = 42"

0 50 100 150 200 2-50 300

o' (kN/rn:,1
norntalstress,
Efl'ective

Figure 11.7 Determination of shear strcngth parameters for a dry sand using the results of
direct shear tests

Figure 1 1.7 shows such a plot for tests on a dry sand. The equation frlr the average
line obtained from experimental results is

T.f : C' tan S' (1 1 . 1 2 )

So, the friction angle can be determined as follows:

/ r'\
d' : tan-'[\ -i
o /
I

It is important to note that in slla cemented sandsmay show a c' intercept.

11.5 Drained Direct Shear Test on Saturated Sand and Clay

In the direct shear test arrangement,the shearbox that containsthe soil specimenis
generally kept inside a container that can be filled with water to saturatethe speci-
men. A drained /estis made on a saturated soil specimen by keeping the rate of load-
ing slow enough so that the excesspore water pressure generated in the soil is com-
pletely dissipated by drainage. Pore water from the specimen is drained through two
porous stones.(SeeFigure 11.4.)
Because the hydraulic conductivity of sand is high, the excesspore water pres-
sure generated due to loading (normal and shear) is dissipated quickly. Hence, for
 11.5 Drained Direct Shear Test on Saturated Sand and Ctay 319

80
Peak shear strength

;i 400
E
z

P
6

o
< )oo a

Residualshearstrength 20

o
0 2
Horizonttl
dclirnnation
(t/')

Figure 11.8 Resultsof zrclraincddirectshcartt:ston an ovcrconsolidatedclay.Nore;Resid-

ual shearstrengthin clayis similarto ultinrateshcarstrengthin sand- seeFisure11.6

an ordinary loading rate. esscntiallyfull drainageconditionsexist.The friction angle,

',
f obtaincd from a drained direct shear test of saturatedsand will be the same as
t h a t f o r a s i m i l a rs p c c i m e no f d r y s a n d .
The hydraulic conductivity of clay is very small compared with that of sand.
When a normal load is applicd to a clay soil specimen,a sufficientlength of time must
elapsefor full consolidation- that is, for dissipationof excesspore water pressure.
For this reason,the shearingload must be applied very slowly.The test may last from
two to five days.Figure I I .8 showsthc resultsof a drained dircct sheartest on an over-
consolidatedclay.Figure I 1.9showsthe plot of riagainst o' obtained from a number

'e
d O v e r c o n s o l i d a t ecdl a y

6
c^

-r N o r m a l l yc o n s o l i d a t ecdl a y
T J= o ' t a n Q ' ( r ' ' =0 )
I
t"
j
I
v
Elfective normal stress.o'

Figure 77,9 Failure envelope for clay obtained from drained direct shear tests
 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Figure 11.10 lnterfaceof a loundationmaterialand soil

of drained direct shear testson a normally conscllidatedclay and an overconsolidated

clay.Note that the value of c'' : 0 for a normally consolidatedclay

11.6 General Comments on Direct Shear Test

The direct shear test is simple to perform. but it has some inherent shortcomings.
The reliability of the resultsmay be questionedbccausethe soil is not allowed to fail
along the wcakest planc but is forced to fail along the planc of split of the shearbox.
Also, the shear stressdistribution over the shear surfaceof the specimenis not uni-
form. Despitc theseshortcomings,the direct shear test is the simplestand most eco-
nomical for a dry or saturatedsandy soil.
In many foundation design problems, one must determine the angle of fric-
tion between the soil and the matcrial in which the foundation is constructed(Fig-
ure 11.10).The foundatiitn matcrial may be concrete, steel, or wood. The shear
strength along the surfaceo[ contact of the soil and the foundation can be given as

rr': c ' r+
, ottan6 ( 11 . 1 3 )

where c,i,: adhesion

6 - effective angle of friction between the soil and the foundation material

Note that the preceding equation is similar in form to Eq. (11.3).The shear
strength parametersbetween a soil and a foundation material can be conveniently
determined by a direct shear test. This is a great advantageof the direct shear test,
The foundation material can be placed in the bottom part of the direct sheartest box
and then the soil can be placed above it (that is, in the top part of the box), as shown
in Figure I 1.11,and the test can be conductedin the usual manner.
Figure 11.12shows the results of direct shear tests conducted in this manner
with a quartz sand and concretewood, and steel as foundation materials,with o' =
1 0 0 k N / m 2 ( 1 4 . 5l b / i n . 2 ) .
 11.6 General Comments on Direct Shear Test

Normal forcc

€ Shear
I fbrce

Figure 11.11 Direct shear test to determinc interface friction ansle

R e l a t i v ed e n s i t y ,/ ) , .( 7 o )
75 -s0 25

Nornral stress
o ' - 1 0 0k N / n r 2
( |4.5 lb/in:)

I
I

IIe

Figure 11.12 Yariationof tan @'and tan 6 with 1/e.fNote:e: void ratio, o' : 100kN/m2
(14.5lb/in.'z),quartzsand(after Acar, Durgunoglu,and Tumay,1982)]
322 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

E x a m p l e1 1 . 1

Followingare the resultsof four draineddirect sheartestson an overconsolidated

clay:
Diameter of specimen: 50 mm
Height of specimen: 25 mm

Normal Shear force at Residualshear

Test forca, lV failure, So."p forc6, 5r""16961
no. (Nl {N} (N}'

1 150 157.5 44.2

2 250 199.9 56.6
3s0 257.6 102.9
4 550 363.4 r44.5
'SeeFigure11.t3

Determine the relationshipsfor peak shear strength (r) and residual shear
strength(r ).

Solution / so \2
Area of the specimen(A) : (rrl+)l # : 0.0019634
m2.Now the following
)
tablecanbe prepared:' \ luuu/

Residual

Peak shear tt*:l $residuat

Normal Normal .. = -sr1* , -
Test force, N sttesg, ('' force, Souul
' A Sreriauat 4
no. (Nl (kN/m2) {Nl {kN/m'?l (Nl (kN/m'l

1 150 76.4 r57.5 80.2 44.2 22.5

2 250 127.3 199.9 101.8 56.6 28.8
J 350 178^3 257.6 131.2 102.9 52.4
4 550 280.1 JOJ.4 185.1 1.44.5 73.6

The variationsof rland r, with c' areplotted in Figure 11.13'From the plots,
we find that

Peak strength: rdkN/m2) : 40 + o' tan27

Residual strength: r,(kN/m2) : a' tan14.6

J
(Note: For all overconsolidated clays, the residual shSrstrength can be ex"
pressedas

t' : o' lan 6"

where dl : effectiveresidual friction angle.)

 | 1.7 Triaxial Shear Test (Generat)

250

tr )oo
z

.: 150
T/ VS. O'

!a loo

21' = Q'
r / .v s . o '
= 40 kN/nr:
r = 11.6"
Figure 11.13
50 t(x) I 50 200 2-50 300 350 Variationsof z7
Effbctivc o' (kN/nt:)
norrralstress, andr, with (''

11.7 Triaxial Shear Test (General)

T h e t r i a x i a l s h e a rt e s t i s o n e o f t h c m o s t r e l i a b l em c t h o c l sa v a i l a b l ef ' o rd c t e r n . r i r r i n g
shcar strength parameters.It is widcly uscclfor researchanclconvcntional testing.,{
d i a g r a mo f t h e t r i a x i a l t e s t l a y o u t i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e I I . 1 4 .
I n t h i s t e s t ,a s o i l s p e c i m e na b o u t 3 6 m m ( 1 . 4i n .) i n d i a m e t . ear l c l 7 6 n t m ( 3 i n . )
long is gcnerallyused.The specimenis encasecl by a thin rubber membraneanclplacecl
i n s i d ea p l a s t i cc y l i n d r i c a lc h a m b e rt h a t i s u s u t r l l yf i l l e d w i t h w a t e r o r g l y c c r i n c .T h c
specimenis subjectedto a confiningpressureby compressionof the fluiclin the cham-
ber. (Note: Air is sometimesused as a compressionmecliunt.)To cituscshear failure
in the specimeno , n e m u s t a p p l y a x i a l s t r e s st h r o u g h a v c r t i c a l l o a d i n gr a m ( s o m e -
times called deviatorsrress).This strcsscan be appried in one of two ways:
1. Application of dead weights or hydraulic pressurein equal incrementsuntil
the specimenfails. (Axial deformation of the specimenresulting from the load
applied through the ram is measuredby a dial gauge.)
2. Application of axial deformation at a constantrate by meansof a geared or
hydraulic loading press.This is a strain-controlledtest.
The axial load applied by the loading ram correspondingto a given axial cleforma-
tion is measuredby a proving ring or load cell attachedto the ram.
connections to measure drainage into or out of the specimen,or to mcasure
pressurein the pore water (as per the test conditions), are also providecl.The fol-
lowing three standard types of triaxial testsare generallyconducted:
1. Consolidated-drainedtest or drained test (CD test)
2. Consolidated-undrainedtest (CU test)
3. Unconsolidated-undrainedtest or undrained test (UU test)
324 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Axial load

Air relelse t
I
---,^ Loading ram
valve
:
: ,,.

Top cap

Porousdisc
S p e c i m e ne n c l o s e d
in a rubbcr
mcmbrane

tuhc
Pressuregauge " *--Flexihle
.1lr)..1-..
'. Rubhcr'
-'\
- t
| ilrl
'...1 \ ''

i,-- ...' :' :l:,.:.-',.-.-...,'....

.,":,,.r,..,.i -
l
LTo cell pressurcontrol , tr'-',..r:,*l
.il, ...-..-.....,..-'ri,
I

Connectionstirr drainageor I
porc pressuremeasuremenI

Figure 11.14 Diagram of triaxial test equipment (al'terBishop and Bjerrum, 1960)

The general proceduresand implications for each of the tests in saturatedroils are
describedin thc followins sections.

11.8 Con so Ii dated -Dra i n ed Triaxi aI Test

In the CD test, the saturated specimenis first subjectedto an all around confining
pressure,oj, by compressionof the chamber fluid (Figure 11.15a).As confiningpres-
sure is applied, the pore water pressureof the specimenincreasesby u. (if drainage
is prevented). This increasein the pore water pressurecan be expressedas a non-
dimensional Darameterin the form

u.
B = --:- (1r.14)
C3

whereB : Skempton's pore pressureparameter(Skempton,1954).

For saturatedsoft soils,-Bis approximatelyequalto 1; however,for saturated
stiff soils,the magnitudeof B canbe lessthan 1.Black and Lee (1973)gavethe theo-
 11.8 Consolidated-DrainedTriaxial Test 325

lo"'
lo,
I
+ t
l"
i;' ;':
.:
i.":.."": I:.:'r:::l':':
i.'r
',:, ,i

--+,1
oj :.
'.1=-9:rt, J U I
Luo=Q 1-
U]
I 1 , ' ' - - ,
: i

lor
t
I l"' Figure 11.15

1o",, Consolidated-drainedtriaxial test:

(a) specimcnundcr chambcr confining
(a) (b) pressure:(b) deviator strcssapplication

Table 11.2 Theoretical Values of B at Comnlete Saturation

Theoretical
Type of soil value
Normally consolidatedsoft clay 0.9998
Lightly overconsolidatedsoft clays anclsilts 0.998u
Overconsolidatcdstil'l'claysand sands 0.987'7
Very densc sandsand very stiff clays at high
confining prcssures 0.9I30

retical valuesof B for various soils at completc saturation.Thcse valuesare listed in

T a b l e 11 . 2 .
Now, if the connectionto drainageis opened,dissipationof the excesspore wa-
ter pressure,and thus consolidation,will occur. with time, a, will become equal to
0. In saturatedsoil, the changc in the volume of the specimen(A( ) that takes place
during consolidationcan be obtained from the volume of pore water drained (Figure
1 1.16a).Next, the deviator stress,Ao,1,on the specimenis increasedvery slowly (Fig-
ure 11.1-5b). The drainageconnectionis kept open, and the slow rate of deviator stress
application allows complete dissipationol any pore water pressurethat developedas
a result (Au,1: 0).
A typical plot of the variation of deviator stressagainststrain in loose sancland
n o r m a l l y c o n s o l i d a t e dc l a y i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 6 b F
. i g u r e 1 1 . 1 6 cs h o w sa s i m i l a r
plot for dense sand and overconsolidatedclay. The volume change,A2,7,of speci-
mens that occurs becauseof the application of deviator stressin various soilsis also
s h o w n i n F i g u r e s1 1 . 1 6 da n d 1 1 . 1 6 e .
Becausethe pore water pressuredevelopedduring the test is completely dissi-
pated. we have

total and effective confining stress : ot : o\

and

total and effective axial stressat failure : at t (Aor)r : ot : o\

Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

x l
?l
> -
< 5
i.t
9 l

o *
O '

Axial strain Axial strain

o l c l
a l
a l
x l
;'l
f - "::
< 6 Axial strain < 6
frl al
trI
59 6 {
O ' U '
(d) (c)

Figure 11.76'Cbnsolidated-draincd triaxialtest:(a) volumechangeof specimen caused by

chamberconfiningpressure: (b) plot ol deviatorstressagainststrainin the verticaldirection
for looscszrndand normallyconsolidated clay;(c) plot of deviatorstressagainststrainin the
verticaldirectionfor densesandandoverconsolidated clay;(d) volumechangein loosesand
and normallyconsolidated clayduringdeviatorstrcssapplication; (e) volumechangein
densesandandoverconsolidatcd clayduringdeviatorstressapplication

In a triaxial test, oi is the major principal effectivestressat failure and o! is the mi-
nor principal effcctivestressat failure.
Severaltests on similar specimenscan bc conducted by varying the confining
pressure.With the major and minor principal stressesat failure for each test the
Mohr's circlescan be drawn and the failure envelopescan be obtained.Figure 11.17
shows the type of effective stressfailure envelope obtained for tests on sand and nor-
mally consolidated clay. The coordinates of the point of tangency of the failure en-
velope with a Mohrb circle (that is, point A) give the stresses(normal and shear)on
the failure plane of that test specimen.
Overconsolidation results when a clay is initially consolidatedunder an all-
around chamber pressure of o. (: oi.) and is allowed to swell by reducing the cham-
ber pressure to oj (: o1). The failure envelope obtained from drained triaxial tests
of such overconsolidated clay specimens shows two distinct branches (ab and bc in
 11.8 Consolidated-DrainedTriaxiat Test 327

Eflective
stressiai lure
envelope
Tr = o'tan 0'

o:=o: ot = o'l
Normal strcss
l.-(Ao,i)/--'-*l
l.+tlo")'--*]

Figure 11.17 Effcclive stressfailure cnvclope I'rom drained tests

on sand and normally
consolidatedclay

Figure ll.1tt). The portion ab has a flatter slopc with a cohesion

intercept, and the
shear strength equation for this branch can be written as

TI : c' * o' tan <f\ (11.1-5)

The portion bc of the failure envelope representsa normallyconsolidated
stageof
s o i l a n d f o l l o w st h c e q u a t i o n r t : ( r , t a n6 , .
A consolidated-drainedtriaxial test on a clayey soil may take several
days to
complete. This amount of time is required becausedeviator stress
must be applied
very slowly to ensure full drainage from the soil specimen.For this
reason,the cD
type of triaxial test is uncommon.

Normally
Overconsolidated consolidated

ala

Tc'
+
o3=O3 Or=o't O;.
Normal stress

Figure 11'18 Effective stress failure envelope for overconsolidated clav

328 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

o Undisturbedsoil
. '.-.'.
..:
r Remolded soil

t,
" -5 l0 l5 20 30 .10 60 t30 l(x) l-so
P l a s t i c ritnyd c xP. I ( % )

Figure 11.19 Yttrialion ol'silr r,6'with plasticity indcx lor a number of soils (after Kcnney,
rese)

Comments on Drained and Residual Friction Angles of Clay

'fhe
drained angle of friction, d;', gencrallydccreascswith the plasticityindex of soil.
This fact is illustrated in Figure I 1. l9 for a number of clays from data reported by
Kenncy (19-59).Although the data are considerablyscattered,the general pattern
seemsto hold. ln Figure I l.tt, the rcsiclualshear strength of clay soil is defined.Also
in Example I I .1, thc proccdure to calculateresidual friction angle <75i is shown.
Skempton ( 1964)provided the resultsof the vzrriationof the rcsidual angleof
friction, $',, of a number ol'clayey sgils with the clay-sizctraction ('2 pm) present.
The followins tzrbleshowsa summary ol'these rcsults:

Clay-size Residual
fraction frictionangle,
l/.1 d. (deg1

Sclset 17.7 29.8

Wiener Tcgel 22.8 25.1
Jackfield -J).4 19.I
Oxford clay 41.9 16.3
Jari 46.5 Iu.6
London clay 54.9 16.3
Walton'.sWood 67 t -1.L

Weser-Elbe 63.2 9.3

Little Belt 7'7.2 11.2
Biotite 100 7.5

At a very high clay content. @iapproachesthe value of the angle of sliding fric-
tion for sheet minerals.For highly plastic sodium montmorillonites, the magnitude
of dl mav be as low as 3 to 4o.
 11.8 Consolidated-DrainedTriaxial Test 329

Example11.2
For a normallyconsolidatedclay,the resultsof a drainedtriaxial testareasfollows:
Chamberconfiningpressure= 16lb/in.2
Deviator stressat failure : 25lblin.z
a. Find the angleof friction, g'.
b. Determinethe angle0 that the failure planemakeswith the major princi-
pal plane.

E , f l e c t i v sc t r c s s
l u i l u r ee n v o l o p e

o'r= 16lb/inr A
N o r r n a ls t r e s s

Figure 11.20 Mohr'scircleand failure envelopefor a normallyconsolidatedclay

$olution
For a normallyconsolidatedsoil,thefailureenvelope equationis
rf : o' tan+' (sincec' = 0)
For thetriaxialtest,theeffective
majorandminorprincipalstresses
at failureare
(rl = (rt = ui * (Aou)r * L6 + 25 = 41lb/in.2

and

o\ : ct: 1 6l b / i n . 2
a. The Mohr's circle and the failure envelopeare showninfuigure11.20,
from which we can write :

srnp-
AB (ry)
oA=
(*#)
330 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

or
cri - o'^ 47-16 =
sind' : 0.438
01+03 41+16
Q' * 26o

b.9:45 *
o': 4 5 " + 1?6= 5 8 "
a
L z

Refer to Example1L.2.
a. Find the normal stresso.' and the shearstressrlon the failure plane.
b. Determinethe effectivenormal stresson the planeof maximumshear
stress.
Solution
a. From Eqs.(9,8)and (9.9),
o 1 * o ' 3 . o t - c :
a' (on the failure plane) --:-;---i + - '- cos20
"
and
ot - cr5
r, * J
,rsin20
Subsitutingthe valuesof oi = 41 lb/in'z,a\: I6lblin'2, and 0 : 58"into
the precedingequations,we get
4 l + 1 6 4 I - 1 . 6- , - ,
, j;i
o, : * ?cos(2 x 58) = 23.61b/in.2

and
4I_T6
:: sin(2x 58) = 11'2lb/in.z
"t Z:
b. From Eq. (9.9),it can be seenthat the maximumshearstresswill occur
on the planewith 0: 45".From Eq' (9.8). l
* o', - o\cos2g ' o ,

- , : o'\
o ) + 'o " ) I
u

.,o ,.
Substituting0 : 45'into the precedingequation gives

o, :4i9 . rycos eo: 28.s

tbtin.z
 71.8 Consolidated-DrainedTriaxial Test 331

E x a m p l e1 1 . 4
The equation of the effective stressfailure envelopefor normally consolidated
clayeysoil is 11: o' tan 25'.A drainedtriaxial test wasconductedwiththe same
soil at a chamberconfiningpressureof 80 kN/m2.Calculatethe deviatorstressat
failure.
Solution
For normally consolidatedclay,c' = 0. Thus,from Eq. (11.8),

at: oitun'(+s
.
+)
6' :25o

oi : 8otun'(+sr : 197 kN/m2

T)

(Loo)r = {r't - o\: 197* 80 : 117kN/m2

E x a m p l e1 1 . 5
The resultsof two drainedtriaxial testson a saturatedclay are asfollows:
SPecimen
I: ot : o\: 70 kN/m2
(Ao,r)r : 130kN/m2
SPecimenII: ct * 6\ = 160kN/m2
(Aoir :223.5kN/m?
Determinethe shearstrengthparametersc' and$' .
Solution
For specimenI, the principalstressesat failure are
c ' t : a z : 7 0k N / m 2
and
o't = or : c3 t (Lrit: 70 + 130= 200kN/d2
at failurefor specimenII are \
Similarly,the principalstresses
n\ = oz: 160kNlm2
and
rr\: ot: {I: * (Aor), : 160+ 223,5:383.5 kN/m2
 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

givenUy& t 11.8)
Usingtherelationship , we get
dr'\ + zc'tan(4t.
o\ * o\tan2( 45 + . l
\ +)
Thus, for specimenI,
/ 6',\
:.orun'(+s
2oo - +) +2c'tan(45*t)

and for specimen II.

383.5= .
tootan'z(+s + 2c'tan(4t- y)
+)
Solvingthe two precedingequations,we obtain
6' :20o c' : 20 kN/mz

11.9 Consolidated-UndrainedTriaxial Test

The consolidated-undrainedtest is the most common type of triaxial test. ln this test,
the saturatedsoil specimenis first consolidatedby an all-around chamber fluid pres-
SUre,trj, that results in drainage (Figures 11.21aand 11.21b).After the pore water
pressuregeneratedby the application of confining pressureis dissipated,the devia-
tor stress,Ao,7,on thc specimenis increasedto causcshear failure (Figure fl .2Ic).
During this phaseol the test,the drainageline from thc specimenis kept closed.Be-
causedrainage is not permitted, the pore water pressure,Au,1,will increase.During
the test, simultaneousmeasurementsof Ao,1and Au,yare made. Thc increasein the
pore water pressure,Atr,1,can be expressedin a nondimensionalform as

Au"
-------:-
A: (11.16)
Lo,t

where 7 : Skempton'spore pressureparameter (Skempton, 19-54).

The generalpatterns of variation of Ao,1and Aa,1with axial strain for sandand
clay soils are shown in Figures 1l.2ld through l1.2lg. In loose sand and normally
consolidatedclay, the pore water pressureincreaseswith strain. In dense sand and
overconsolidated clay,the pore water pressure increaseswith strain to a certain limit,
beyond which it decreasesand becomesnegative (with respect to the atmospheric
pressure).This decreaseis becauseof a tendencyof the soil to dilate.
Unlike the consolidated-drained test, the total and effective principal stresses
are not the samein the consolidated-undrainedtest.Becausethe pore water pressure
at failure is measured in this test, the principal stressesmay be analyzed as follows:
 11.9 Consolidated-UndrainedTriaxial Test 333

A x i a ls t r a i n
( c)
4 - ao
'a

(,c
(b)

lno.,
t "
lo.
t
".:,,'.
-+.: <l--
O1

. ,.t,,.
+l o ,
I

lAo,r
I

(c)

Figure 71.21 Consolidatedundrained test: (a) specirnenunder chamber confining pressure:

(b) volume changein specirnencauscdby conlining pressure;(c) cleviatorstress
application;
(d) deviator stressagainstaxial strain fbr krosesand and normally consolidatedclay; (e)
de-
viator stressagainstaxial strain for dense s:ind and overconsolidatedclay; (f) variation
of
pore water pressurewith axial strain 1or loosc sand and normally consolidatedclay; (g)
vari-
ation of pore wiitcr prcssurr:with axial strain lor clensesand ,,nd'ou"ra,rnroliclated
clay

Major principal stressal f a i l u r e ( t o t a l ) : o3 -f (L,o,1)1: o1

Major principal stressat failure (effective): o r - ( L , u a ) 1 : o \

Minor principal stressat failure (total): Aj

Minor principal stressat failure (effective): o 1 - ( L , u ) 1 : o',

Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Total stress
\
irilr.a envelope
Tt- 6 tan q

o3 oj o1 o1

l*l l.-l
(Lutt)| (Lu,ll
Nortnal stress

'l't't|ltl
Figure 11.22 and ef1cctivcstressfailureenvelopcsfor consolidatedundrainedtriaxial
tests.(No1c:'l'hcfigureassumcs that no backpressurcis applied.)

: pore water prcssure at failure. The preceding deriva-

In thcse equations, (Arz,1)1
tionsshow t h a t
art tr; - tr\ - tr'.

Testson scvcralsimilar specimenswith varying conllning prcssuresmay be con-

ducted to determinc the shear strength parameters.Figure I1.22 showsthe total and
cffectivestressMohr'.scirclesat failure obtained from consolidated-undrainedtriax-
ial tcsts in sand and normally consolidtrtcdclay. Note that ,4 and B are two total
stressMohr\ circlesobtaincd from two tests.C and D are the effectivestressMohr's
circlcs correspondingto total stresscirclesA and B, respectively.The diametersof
circlesA and C are the same;similarly,thc diametersof circlesB and D are the same.
In Figure ll.22,the total stressfailure envelopecan be obtained by drawinga
line that touches all the total stressMohr's circles.For sand and normally consoli-
dated clays,this will be approximately a straight line passingthrough the origin and
may be expressedby the equation
ry:otanQ ( 11.17)
where rr : total stress
d : the angle that the total stressfailure envelopemakes with the
normal stressaxis. also known as the consolidated-undrained
angle ttf sht'uring re.sistunce

Equation (11.17)is seldom used for practical considerations.

Again referring to Figure ll.22,we see that the failure envelope that is tangent
to all the effective stress Mohr's circles can be represented by the equation 11 =
o' tan rD',which is the same as that obtained from consolidated-drainedtests (see
F i s u r e1 1 . 1 7 ) .
 11.9 Consolidated-UndrainedTriaxial Test

o 1=c+OtanQl
U)

6j
Nurn'ii,,r"r,

Figure 11.23Totalstressfailureenvelopeobtainedfrom consolidatcd-unclrained

testsin
over-consolidatcd
clay

In overconsolidatedclays,the total stressfailure envelopeobtained from con-

s o l i d a t e d - u n d r a i n ctde s t sw i l l t a k e t h e s h a p cs h o w ni n F i g u r e 11 . 2 3 l.' h e s t r a i g h tl i n e
a ' b ' i s r e p r e s e n t e db y t h e e q u a t i o n
rt:c *otirnd1 (ll.llt)
a n d t h e s t r a i g h tl i n e b ' c ' f o l l o w s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i pg i v e nb y E q . ( 1 1 . 1 7 ) . ' r h ee f T c c t i v e
stressfailure envclope drawn from the cffectivc stressMohr'.scircleswill be similar
t o t h a t s h o w n i n F i g u r e 11 . 2 3 .
Consolidated-drainedtests on clay soils takc considerabletime. For this rca-
son, consolidated-undraincdtestscan be conductcd on such soilswith pore pressure
measurementsto obtain the drained shearstrength parameters.Becauseclrainageis
not allowed in these testsduring the appliczrtionof deviator stress,they can be per-
formed quickly.
S k e m p t o n ' .pso r e w a t c r p r e s s u r ep a r a m e t c rZ w a s d e l l n e c li n E q . ( 1 1 . 1 6 ) .A t
f a i l u r e .t h e p a r a m c t e 7
r c a n h c w r i t t c na s

(Lur),
A: A '' : ---- (11.1e)
( a o , tf)

The gcneral range of 7, valuesin most clay soils is as follows:

. Normally consolidatedclays:0.-5to I
. Overconsolidatedclays: -0.5 to 0

T a b l e l l . 3 g i v e st h e v a l u e so f A , f o r s o m e n o r m a l l yc o n s o l i d a l e cd l a y sa s o b t a i n e d
by the Norwegian GeotechnicalInstitute.
Laboratory triaxial testsof Bjerrum and Simons(1960)on oslo cray,weald clay,
and London clay showed that A, becomes approximately zero at an overconsolida-
tion value of about 3 or 4.
336 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Table 11.3 Triaxial TestResultsfor SomeNormally ConsolidatedClays

Obtainedby the NorwegianGeotechnicalInstitute*

Drained
Liquid Plastic Liquidity friction angle,
limit limit index Sensitivity" @'(degl Al

Seven Sisters,Canada r27 35 0.28 19 0.72

Sarpborg 69 28 0.6ri 5 25.5 1.03
Lilla Edet, Sweden 68 30 t --)z 50 26 1.10
Fredrikstad 59 22 0.58 5 28.5 0.87
Fredrikstad -)/ 22 0.63 6 27 1.00
Lilla Edet, Sweden 63 30 1.58 50 LJ 1.02
Cdta River, Sweden 60 27 1.30 12 28.5 1.05
Gota River, Sweden 60 30 1.50 40 24 1.05
Oslo 48 25 0.87 4 -{1.) 1.00
Trondheim 36 20 0.50 2 34 0.75
Drammen -)-l 1u 1.08 8 28 1.18
*After Bjerrumand Simons(1960)
" SeeSection1I . l 5 for the delinitionof sensitivity

E xa mp l e1 1 .6
test on a normally consolidatedclay yielded the fol-
A consolidated-undrained
lowingresults:
ot : 12lblin.2
Deviatorstress,(Ar)t : 9.1lb/in.2

e. (L,u) 1 = 6.8lb/in.2
Porepressur
friction angleandthe consolidated-drained
Calculatethe consolidated-undrained
frictionangle.
Solution
<Yt: 12lblin'2
or: c3 + (Ao1)1: 72 + 9'l : 2l'1'lblin'2
From Eq. (11.9),for normally consolidatedclaywith c : 0,
./,- d\ ;
o t : u t t a n ' l4 5 + ; l i
\ r/ :
^/ d\
21.1: 12tan'( 45 + a )
\ z /

l- . / 2 t . 1\ o s - . - l
d : 2ltan-r(.;/ 4 s l: 1 6 "
 11.10 Unconsolidated-UndrainedTriaxialTest 337

Again,
n5 : oz * (Lu)r = 12 * 6.8 : 5.2lb/in.2
oi : ct - (&uir : 21.I - 6.8 : 14.3lblin.z
From Eq. (11.8),for normally consolidatedclay with c' : 0,

o\:o\t"n,(+s.t)

74.3:s.ztan'z(+s.+)

d'- zltun-'(#)"- +sf: zz.r'

11.10 Unconsol idated- Un dra i ned TriaxiaI Test

I n u n c o n s t t l i d a t c d - u n d r a i n et eds t s d
, r a i n e r g le' r o n rt h e s o i l s p e c i n t e ni s n o t p c r m i t t e d
d u r i n g t h c a p p l i c a t i o no [ c h a n . r b epr r c s s u r eo 1 . T h c t e s t s p e c i m c ni s s h e a r c dt o I ' a i l -
ure by thc application of deviator strcss,Ao,1.ancl drainage is prevented. Bccause
drainageis ncltallowed at any stage,the tcst can be performed quickly.Becauseof the
applicationof chermberconfiningpressurcrrj. the pore water pressurcin the soil spcc-
imen will incrcaseby 4,..A further increascin the pore water pressurc(Aa,,)will oc-
c u r b e c a u s co l ' t h e d e v i a t o rs t r e s sa p p l i c a t i o n .H e n c c , t h e t o t a l p o r c w a t e r p r e s s u r e
rr in thc spccimenat any stageol cleviatorstressapplication can bc given as

Lt-rt(* L,u,1 ( 11.20)

F r o m E q s . ( 1 1 . 1 4 )a n d ( l l . 1 6 ) , u , : B o j a n c l A r r , ,: 7 A , r , , , s.''

u : Bo3 + AAo,1: Bot + A@, * cr) (lr.2r)

This test is usually conductedon clay specimensand dependson a very impor-

l.antstrength concept for cohesivesoils if the soil is fully saturated.The added axial
stressat failure (Arlr)r is practically the same regardlessof the chamber confining
pressure.This propcrty is shown in Figure 1l.24.The failure envelope for the total
stressMohr's circlesbecomesa horizontal line and henceis called a rb : 0 condition.
F r o m E q . ( 1 1 . 9 )w i t h O - 0 , w e g e t

r1:c-c,, (1I.22)
where c,, is the undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the Mohr's
circles.Note that the @ : 0 concept is applicableto only saturatedclaysand silts.
The reason for obtaining the same added axial stress(Loitregardless of the
confining pressurecan be explained as follows. If a clay specimen(no. l) is consoli-
338 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Total strcss
M o h r ' sc i r c l e s
a at tailure ---

FailureenvelopeQ=0

o1 63 o1 61
N,,,.,i,lLl"r,

Figure 11.24TotalstrcssMohr'.scirclesandfailurcenvekrpe(.D- 0) obtainedfrom uncon-

soil
lriaxiallcstsot"tI'ullvsaturltcclcohcsivc
solidated-undrained

dated at a chamber pressurerr, and then shearcd to failure without drainage,the

total stressconditions at I'erilurccan bc representedby the Mohr's circle P in Fig-
ure 11.25.The porc pressuredcvclopcd in the specimenat failure is equal to (Arr,1)r.
Thus, the major and minor principal clTcctivestressesat failure are. respectively,
:
o\: ltrl + (Arr,i)1j (Ar,,)r (rt (Ar,,)r

and
0\ - ro1- (Att,1)7

Q is the effective stressMohrh circle drerwnwith the preceding principal stresses.

N o t e t h a t t h e d i a m e t e r so f c i r c l e sP a n d Q a r c t h e s a m e .

Totalstrcss
M o h r ' sc i r c l e
at fai lurc
------------1
a

O'3 O r O: 01 Normal stress

-*-l
(Ao,1)1 --=">l
(Ao,7),
l<- F-
l<__ (Ao/,
l<_(LuDl_,_,_"____+l . ^;, = ^;;, ,l

Figure 11.25 The rl : 0 concept

 11.11 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay 339

Now let us consider another similar clay specimen(no. II) that has been con-
solidated under a chamber pressure o3 with initial pore pressure equal to zero. If the
chamber pressure is increased by Aoj without drainage, the pore water pressure will
increaseby an amount A4,..For saturatedsoilsunder isotropic stresses,the pore wa-
ter pressureincreaseis equal to the total stressincrease,so Aa,. : Acr: (B : 1). At
this time, the effective confining pressure is equal to oj * Ao. - LJr,.: o7 * Ao3 -
Ao-, : o.,. This is the same as the effectiveconfining pressureof specimenno. I be-
fore the application of deviator stress.Hence, if specimenno. II is shearedto failure
by increasingthe axial stress,it should fail at the samc deviator stress(Ao,,)rthat was
obtained for specimenno. I. The total stressMohr's circle at failure will be R (see
Figure 11.25).The added pore pressureincreasecausedby the application of (An,1)1
will be (Lu)r.
At failure, the minor principal effectivestressis

[(oj + Arrj)] [Arr, * (Lu,,)r]: ct ( L u , 1 ) 1: c \

and the major principal effectivestressis
-
l o j * A a . 1+ ( A o , 7 ) 1 ] [ A r l , + ( A a , 7 ) 1 :] l o . * ( A o , 7 ) 1 ] ( L , u , ) 1
: cr ( L u , 1 ) 1- o \
Thus, the effectivestressMohr's circle will still be Q becausestrength is a function
of efTectivestress.Note that the diamcters of circlesP, Q, and R are all the samc.
Any value of Aoj could have been chosen for testing specimen no. II. In any
case,the deviator stress(Ao,1)/to causefailure would have bcen the same as long as
the soil was fully saturatecland fully undrained during both stagesof the test.

I1.11 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay

The unconfined compressiontest is a specialtype of unconsolidated-undrainecl test
that is commonly used for clay spccimens.In this test,the confining pressureoj is 0.
An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimento causefailure. At failure, the total
minor principal stressis zero and the total major principal stressis o, (Figure il.26).

a
_F

I
Total stressMohr's
c i r c l ea t l a i l u r e

o.r=0 6t=4,
Normal stress

Figure 11.26 Unconlinedcompressiontest

 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Table 11.4 General Relationship of Consistency and

Unconfined Compression Strength of Clays

Consistency ton llt2

Very soft 0-25 0-0.25

Soft 25-50 0.25-0.-5
Medium -s0,100 0.5-1
stiff 100-200 1 a

Very stiff 200-400 2-4

Hard >400 >4

Becausethe undrained shear strength is independent of the confining pressureas

long as the soil is fully saturatedand fully undrained.we have

cl 4"
(lt.23)
': T:,,
where q,, is the unconJined compression strength. Table 11.4 givcs the approximate
consistenciesof clayson the basisof their unconfinedcompressionstrength.A pho-
tograph of unconfined compressiontcst equipment is shown in Figure 11.27.
Theoretically, for similar saturated clay specimens.the unconfined compres-
sion testsand the unconsolidated-undrainedtriaxial testsshould yicld the sameval-
ues of ci,.In practice,however,unconfinedcompressiontestson saturatedclaysyield
slightly lower valuesof c,,than those obtained from unconsolidated-undrainedtests.

11.12 Sfress Path

Results of triaxial testscan be representedby diagramscalled stresspaths. A stress
path is a line that connectsa seriesof points, each of which representsa successive
stressstate experiencedby a soil specimenduring the progressof a test. There are
severalways in which a stresspath can be drawn. This section covers one of them.
Lambe (1964) suggesteda type of stress path representation that plots q'
againstp' (wherep' and q' are the coordinatesof the top of the Mohr's circle).Thus,
relationshipsfor p' and q' are as follows:

o\ * o\
tn l : "
2 (rr.24)
oi*o"
.1 *
^f - ___:-*-__r__-:
(i 1.2s)
2

This type of stress path plot can be explained with the aid of Figure 11.28. Let
us consider a normally consolidated clay specimen subjected to an isotropically
 11.12 StressPath 341

Figure 11.27
LJnconfined compression test
equipment (courtesyof Soiltest,
Inc.. Lake Bluff. Illinois)

6:=or

i.+(Ao,1)1-,,-,----------- l

Figure 77.28 Stresspath - plot of q' against p' for a consolidated-drained triaxial test on a
normally consolidatedclay
Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

consolidated-drainedtriaxial test. At the beginning of the application of deviator

, \ : ot: 03,So
s t r e s so

rr'.' -f o'"'
'n ' : 2 U 1 U 1 (rt.26)

and

o\- o\
q - : U (11.27)

For this condition, p' and q' will plot as a point (that is, 1 in Figure 11.28).At some
o t h e r t i m e d u r i n g d e v i a t o r s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n , -o i o t * L , o , -1 c j l L , o , 1 ; o \ : o t .
The Mohr's circle marked A in Figure 11.28correspondsto this state of stresson the
soil specimen.The valuesof p' and q'for this stresscondition are

c', I o', (rri * Aa,) * oi

- t r ' r + Lo , - ( r : + Lo ,
(11.28)
P'-
2 2 2 2"

and

(o1 * L,o,1) - o1 Ltt,t

q (tr.2e)
2

l f t h e s e v a l u e s opf ' a n d q ' w e r e p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e l l . 2 B , t h e y w o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t e d

by point D' at the top of the Mohr'.scircle. So, if the values of p' and q' at various
stagesof the deviator stressapplication are plotted and these points are joined, a
straight line like 1D will result.The straight line 1D is referred to as the stresspathin
a q'-p' plot fbr a consolidated-drainedtriaxial test. Note that the line ID makes an
angle of 45" with the horizontal. Point D representsthe failure condition of the soil
specimen in the test. Also, we can sec that Mohr'.scirclc B representsthe failure
stresscondition.
For normally consolidated clays, the failure envelope can be given by 11 =
c' t an $' . This is thc line OF in Figure 11.28.(Seealso Figure ll .l'7.) A modified fail-
ure envelopecan now be dcfined by line OF'. This modified line is commonly called
the K1 line. The equation of the Kr line can be expressedas

q' - p'tana

where rr : the angle that the modified failure envelope makes with the horizontal.
The relationship between the angles S' and a can be determined by referring
to Figure 17.29,inwhich, for clarity, the Mohr's circle at failure (that is, circle B) and
lines OF and OF' as shown in Figure 11.28have been redrawn. Note that O' is the
center of the Mohr's circle at failure. Now.

DO', :
gO Iana
 1 1 . 1 2 S t r e s sP a t h 343

\
c

or=O't O,o',or/l

l.+(Ao,1),+l

Figure 17.29 Relationshipbetwccn ry''ancla

and thus, wc obtain

ni -qt
, 2 o't*rt5
tana - (11.31)
ct*o't o\+o,
*--;-
/.

Again,

CO'
- stn Q
o(y

0\-:L

sind,:_:__o\-ct (11.32)
o\ * tr'1 tr'1 | tr'1
2
C o m p a r i nE
g q s .( 1 1 . 3 1a) n d( 1 1 . 3 2 w
) , e s e et h a r

sin {' : 14no (11.33)

r ( t a na )
{' - sin (11.34)
Figure 11.30showsa q'-p' plot for a normalry consolidatedclay specimensub-
jected to an isotropicallyconsolidated-undrainedtriaxial test.At the beginningof the
Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Effective stress Total stress

M o h r ' sc i r c l e M o h r ' sc i r c l e
s
6

u a't I o'1 o , o ' , o r/ '

Figure 11.30 Stresspath - plot of q' againstp' for a consolidated-undrainedtriaxial test

on a normally consolidatedclay

a p p l i c a t i o n o f d c v i a t o r s t r e s s , o l - t r \- o j . H e n c e , p ' : o r a n d q ' - 0.Thisrelation-

ship is representedby point 1. At some other stageof the deviator stressapplication,

rr\ - tra * Arr,l Ltr,,

and

o\ :oj- Lu,1

So
oi*o\ Ao.,
p - : c1 * 1,u,, (il.3s)
2 1'-

and
c\ - c3 L.tr,1
,
' t 2 2 ( 11.36)

The precedingvaluesof p' and q' will plot as point U' in Figure 11.30.Pointssuchas
U" representvaluesof p' and q' as the test progresses.At failure of the soil specimen,
(Atr,,),
p' - (r1+ (Arr,1), ( 11.37)
2-

and

, (Lor)r
, l - ( 11.38)
2

T h e v a l u e so f p ' a n d 4 ' g i v e n b y E q s . ( 1 1 . 3 7 )a n d ( 1 1 . 3 8 )w i l l p l o t a s p o i n t U
Hence, the effective stresspath for a consolidated-undrained test can be given by the
curve IU'U. Note that point U will fall on the modified failure envelope, OF' (see
Figure I1.29), which is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. Lambe (1964) pro-
posed a technique to evaluate the elastic and consolidation settlements of founda-
tions on clav soils bv using the stresspaths determined in this manner.
 11.12 StressPath

For a normally consolidatedclay, the failure envelope is given by the equation

Tr ,o' tan $' . The correspondingmodified failure envelope(q,-p, plot) ii given
bI gq' t 11.30)asq' : p' tan a. In a simirarmanner,if the f;iru;e enuetopeiJrl :
c' * s' lan$' , the correspondingmodifiedfailure envelopeis a q'-p'ploi that ian
be expressedosqrl : m * p' tan a. Expressa as a function ofdr, and givem asa
function of c' andg' .

o-r o,
z
oj A
Norntrl stress
*r'' cotQ'-l- o'r I o'r-------..-----*l

Figure | 1.31 Derivationof a asa functionof d' and n asa function of c, and

$olution
FromFigure11.31,

Sln@ E
AB AB (ry)
AC* CO+OA
c ' c o t S '* (*#)
+:z c ,\ c o6s' + z( ' i I o 5/ ) , i4n, (a)

or
Q':m+p'tana (b)
ComparingEqs. (a) and (b), we find that
m = c'cos@'
and
tana: sin4'

a = tan-1(sind')
 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

1t.13 VaneShear Test

Fairly reliable results for the undrained shear strength, c,, (S : 0 concept), of very
soft to medium cohesive soils may be obtained directly from vane shear tests. The
shear vane usually consistsof four thin, equal-sizedsteel plates welded to a steel
torque rod (Figure 11.32).First, the vane is pushed into the soil. Then torque is ap-
plied at the top of the torque rod to rotate the vane at a uniform speed. A cylinder
of soil of height ft and diameter r/ will resist the torque until the soil fails. The
undrained shear strength of the soil can be calculatedas follows.
If I is the maximum torque applied at the head of the torque rod to causefail-
ure, it should be equal to the sum of the resistingmoment of the shear force along
the side surfaceof the soil cylinder (M.) and the resistingmoment of the shearforce
at each end (M,,) (Figure I I .33):
7':M,+M,,+M,,
'l'wo
cnds

The resistingmoment can be given as

M, - (ndh)t',, (d12)
\ _ J \ - _ ' Y J

Surlacc Moment
arca arm

where d : diameter of the shear vanc

/z : height of thc shear vane

For the calculationof M., investigatorshave assumedseveraltypes of distribu-

ticln of shear strength mobilization at thc ends of the soil cylinder:

l. Triangular.Shear strength mobilization is c,,at the periphcry of the soil cylin-

der and decreaseslincarly to zero at thc center.
2, IJni.form.Shear strength mobilization is constant (that is, c,,)from the periph-
ery to the center of thc soil cylinder.
3. Parabolic.Shear strength mobilization is c,,at the periphery of the soil cylinder
and dccreasesparabolicallyto zero at the center.

These variations in shear strength mobilization are shown in Figure 11.33b.In

general,the torque, I at failure can be expressedas

I a2n r/rI
,:rr',,1 +B;l ( 11.41)
" L L a - j

cu: (rr.42)
I a2n+ ^a31
lrl . lsTl
t L a l
 1 1 . 1 3 V a n eS h e a r T e s t

I
h

I
I
k-,1
I
--+l

Figure 11.32
Diagram ol'vane shear
test equlpm(jnt

T r i a n g u l a rn t o b i l i z a t i o n
of shearstrength

I U n i f b r mm o b i l i z a t i o n
0f shearstrergth

I ' , - 4
1 2 'i-t

I Parabolicfbrm of
m o b i l i z a t i o no f
shearstrength

i
I
I
I

--,
l<-f -------------*1---
t

Figure 1 1.33 Derjvation of Eq. (11.42): (a) resisting moment

of shear force; (b) variations
i n s h e a rs t r e n g t hm o b i l i z a t i o n
348 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

where B : \for triangular mobilization of undrained shear strength

B : I for uniform mobilization of undrained shear strength
B : I for parabolic mobilization of undrained shear strength

Note that Eq. (11.42)is usually referred to as Culding'sequtttion.

Vane shear testscan be conductedin the laboratory and in the field during soil
exploration. The laboratory shear vane has dimensionsof about 1-1mm (j in.) in di-
ameter and 25 mm ( I in.) in height. Figurc I 1.34shows a photograph of laboratory
vane shear test equipment. Figurc I 1.35 shows thc field vanes recommended by
ASTM ( 1994).Table I 1.5givesthe ASTM recommendeddimensionsof field vanes.
A c c o r d i n g t o A S T M ( 1 9 9 4 ) .i f h / d : 2 . t h c n

( 11.43)

and

(11.44)

t
(in )

I n t h e f i e l d .w h c r e c o n s i d c r a b l cv a r i a t i o ni n t h c u n d r a i n e ds h e a rs t r e n g t hc a n
be found with depth, vane sheartcstsare extrcmcly useful.In a short period, one can
establisha reasonablcpattern ol'thc changeof c',,with depth. However,if the clayde-
posit at a given site is more or lessunif'orm,a few unconsolidated-undrainedtriaxial

Figure 1 1.34 Laboratory vane shear test devicc (courtesy of Soiltest, Inc., Lake Bluff, Illinois)
 | 1.13 VaneShear Test

1 , ,
t <
| +s)
I
I

I
II
+

:f
.lr" ll
-+;t ri++ +i+*i1.i,..t:i*-

.ii iil
I li
Rectangularvane Taperedvane

Figure 11.35 ceometry of field vanes[source: FromAnnual Book o.fASTM standards,

04'08'p. 346.CopyrightO 1994AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Materials.Reprintedwith
p e r m i s s i ol n

Table 11.5 Recommended

Dimensions
of FieldVanes*,,

Thickness Diameter
Diameter, Height, of blade, of rod
Casingsize mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.l mm (in.)
AX 3 8 . r( r j ) 76.2(3) 1 6 (*r) LL.t \1)

BX -50.8 (2) 101.6(4) 16(+) 1 a ? / l \

t1.t \t)

NX $5 (2)) 127.0(s) 32(i) ( +)

t2.7
1 0 r . 6m m ( 4 i n . ) 1 ' 9 2 . 1( 3 ; ) 1 8 4 . 1( 7 1 ) 3 . 2( * ) 1 a 1 t ! \
LL.t \2)

*After ASTM. 1994

" Selection of vane size is directly related to the consistencyof the soil being tested; that is,
the softer the soil, the larger the vane diameter should be.
blnside
diameter
 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

tests on undisturbed specimenswill allow a reasonable estimation of soil parameters

for design work. Vane shear tests are also limited by the strength of soils in which
they can be used. The undrained shear strength obtained from a vane shear test also
dependson the rate of application of torque Z
Bjerrum (1974) showed that as the plasticity of soils increases,c,,obtained from
vane shear tests may give results that are unsafe for foundation design. For this rea-
son, he suggestedthe correction

ca(dcsign) : iCr(uane shear) (11.4s)

where

i : correction factor : l.l - 0.54 log(P1) (11.46)

P7 : plasticity index

More recently,Morris and Williams (199a)gave the correlations of ,\ as

i : 1 . 1 3 n{ ) { ) n ( +
i ' l )0 ' 5 7 (for P/ > ,5) (11.47)

and

n : 7.01e tttts(r'r')
1 9.57 (for LL > 20) (11.48)

where LL : liquid limit (%).

| 1.14 Other Methods for Determining

Undrained Shear Strength
A modified form of the vane sheartest apparatusis the Torvane(Figure I 1.36),which
is a handheld devicewith a calibratedspring.This instrument can be used for deter-
mining c,,for tube specimenscollectedfrom the lield during soil exploration, and it
can be used in the field. The Torvane is pushedinto the soil and then rotated until the
soil fails. The undrained shear strength can be read at the top of the calibrateddial.
Figure 1 1.37shows a pocket penetrometer,which is pushed directly into the soil.
The unconfined compressionstrength (q,,) is measuredby a calibrated spring.This
device can be used both in the laboratorv and in the field.

11.15 Sensitivity and Thixotropy of CIay

For many naturally deposited clay soils, the unconfined compression strength is
greatly reduced when the soils are tested after remolding without any change in
11.15 Sensitivityand Thixotropyof Clay 351

Figure 11.36
Torvane (courtesy of
Soiltcst,Inc., Lake Bluff,
Illinois)

Figure 11.37
Pocket penetrometer
( c o u r t e s yo f S o i l t e s t l. n c . .
Lake Bluff, Illinois)
 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Mrdiutnquic*
E

l6
"l

..; Slightly quick

;
'5a d

q
Very sensitive

Mediurr sensitive

S l i g h t l ys e n s i t i v e

Axlal straln Inscns

itivc

Figure 11.38 L.lnconfinedcomprcssionstrength Figure ?1.39 Classificationo[ claysbascdon

for undisturbcd and rcmoldcd clay scnsitivity

t h e m o i s t u r ec o n t e n t ,a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e I 1 . 3 UT. h i s p r o p c r t y o f c l a y s o i l si s c a l l e d
sensitivity.The degree of sensitivitymay bc defined as thc ratio of the unconfined
comprcssionstrength in an undisturbedstate to thettin a remolded statc, or

^ 4a(undisturhc,J)
Jr:-._.-- ( I 1.4e)
4rr(remolded)

The sensitivityratio of most claysrangesfrom about 1 to 8; however,highly floc-

culent marine clay depositsmay have sensitivityratios ranging from about 10 to 80.
Some clays turn to viscousfluids upon remolding. These clays are found mostly in
the previously glaciatedareasof North America and Scandinavia.Such claysare re-
ferred to as quick clays.Rosenqvist(1953)classifiedclayson the basisof their sensi-
tivity. This general classificationis shown in Figure 1 1.39.
The loss of strength of clay soilsfrom remolding is causedprimarily by the de-
struction of the clay particle structurethat was developedduring the original process
of sedimentation.
 11.15 Sensitivity and Thixotropy of Clay 353

If, however, after remolding, a soil specimenis kept in an undisturbed state (that
is, without any change in the moisture content), it will continue to gain strength with
time. This phenomenon is referred to as thixotropy. Thixotropy is a time-dependent,
reversible processin which materials under constant composition and volume soften
when remolded. This loss of strength is gradually regainedwith time when the ma-
terials are allowed to rest. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 11.40a.
Most soils,however,are partially thixotropic - that is, part of the strength loss
causedby remolding is never regained with time. The nature of the strength-time
variation for partially thixotropic materials is shown in Figure 11.40b.For soils,the
differencebetween the undisturbedstrength and the strength after thixotropic hard-
ening can be attributed to the destruction of the clay-particlestructure that was de-
veloped during the original processof sedimentaticln.

,\. = 4-a ( u n d i s t u r b e d )
{a(renrolded)

{u( undisturbed) Initial

undi sturbed
clJ
strength
E
€ € €
q
z
E 6"'& E
E
/---"
$t
c
E
d,

./a(re Irolded )

g
a

6* !
c
E
,/***
r,b"
€
+
E

(b)

Figure 11.40 Behavior of (a) thixotropic marerial; (b) partially thixotropic material
354 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Table 11.6 Empirical EquationsRelatcdtt'tc,,ando'6

Reference Relationship Remarks

L rrlVSTl
(1957)
Skempton +CO: 0 . 1 1 + 0 . 0 0 3 7 ( P l ) For normally consolidated
clay
P/ : plasticity index (%)
c,(VSr)- undraincd shear
strength frcnt vane shear tcst

C h a n d l c r( l 9 t t t t ) 1+: ',
o.u + o.oo37(p1) Can be used in overconsoli-
(f
diited soil; accur€rcy+257";
rri : preconsolidationpressurc
not valid for sensitiveand
fissured clays

Jamiolkowski ct al. ( lt)tt5) :1 -0.23+0.04 For lightly overconsolidated

',
(f
clays

Mesri ( 19t39) ;(fo: o.zz

/.,\
\ - /,,",,,,,,,.,,,,,,
,,,, : ( o c R ) ' i E
Ladd ct al. (1977\
/(;,\
\a/,,,,,,,,,",ons.,i(r,,c(r
O C R : o v c r c o n s o l i d a t i o rna t i o

11.16 Empirical Relationships between Undrained Cohesion

(cu)and Effective Overburden Pressure (ob)

Severalempirical relertionshipscan be obscrvcd between c,,and the effcctive over-

burden pressure (o'a1)in the field. Somc of these relationshipsare summarizedin
Table I 1.6.
The overconsolidation r a t i o w a s d c f i n o di n C h a p t e r 1 0 a s

o,,
OCR : ( 11.s0)
tt6

whereoj. : preconsolidation
pressure.

10.8

A soil profile is shownin Figure11.41.The clayis normallyconsolidated. Its liquid

limit is 60 and its plasticlimit is 25.Estimatethe compression
unconfined strength
of the clayat a depthof l0 m measured from the groundsurface.UseSkemptonb
relationship from TableI L6 andEqs.(11.45)and(lL46).
Relationships between Undrained Cohesion (c) and Effective Overburden pressure(crL)

Dry sand
Y = 1 5 . 5k N / m :

Clay
ty - 30Vc
G, = 2.68

Figure 11.41

Solution
For the saturatedclay layer,the void ratio is
e = u)Gs: (2.6BX0.3): 0.8
The effectiveunit weight is
. /c.-l\ (2.68-l)(e.81)
Tiroy:\,*"i,,:__ :9.r6kN/mr

The effectivestressat a depth of 10m from the groundsurfaceis

qb : 37"ond + Tylrov: (3X15.5)+ (7X9.16)
= 1 1 0 . 6k2N / m 2
From Table11.6.
ca(vST)
* 0.11+ 0,0037(P1)
o'p
Ca(VST)
- 25)
0.11+ 0.0037(60
n'Sr=
and
ca(vsr): 26.49 kN/m2
From Eqs. (11.45)and (11.46),we ger
C, : ,\cr,y51,

* lL.7 - 0.54log(Pl)1c,,y5.r1
: 11.7- 0.54lo9(60
* 2s)J26.49
: 22.95kN/mz
Sotheunconnned
"T':';;:',;eT;:,
: 45.e
kN/m2
356 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

11.17 Shear Strength of Unsaturated Cohesive Soils

The equation relating total stress,effectivestress,and pore water pressurefor un-
saturatedsoils,can be expressedas

(r': (, - uul X(uu- uu,) (11.s1)

where o' : effective stress
o : total stress
rt. : pore air pressure
u?i,: pore water pressure

When the expression for o' is substituteclinto the shear strength equation
_
[Eq. ( I 1.3)1,which is bascd on effectivestressparameters,we get
r[ : c' + [rr - u,,* y(u,,- rr,,,)]tan
{' ( r r.s2)
The values of 1 depend primarily on the degree of saturation. with ordinary
triaxial equipment uscd for laboratory testing, it is not possibleto determine accu-
rately the effectivestrcssesin unsaturatedsoil specimens,so the common practice is
to conduct undrained triaxial testson unsaturateclspecimensancl measureonly the
total stress.Figure 11.42showsa total strcssfailure envelopeobtained from a num-
ber of undraincd triaxial tests conducted with a given initial clegreeof saturation.
The failure envelopc is gcnerally curved. Higher conlining pr"riur" causeshigher
compressionof the air in void spaces;thus, the sotubility of void air in void water is
increased.For design purposes,the curveclenvclopc is sometimesapproximateil as
a straight f ine, as shown in Figurc 11.42,wtthan equation as follows;

rt: r'f otanrp (11.53)

(Note that c and rf in the precedingcquation are empirical constants.)

Normal stress(total)

'fotal
Figure 1 1.42 stressfailure envelope for unsaturated cohesivesoils
 11.18 Summary and GeneralComments 357

o (lb/in2)
160 320
160
1000
Inorganicclay (CL)

? 8oo
z Degrceof saturation=
tr 600
Rfl
_ ' !
.<

; .+00 =
,+0
5, 200

0d 500 1000 2(XX)22(X)

o (kN/rnrt
Totalnonlalstrcss.

F i g u r e 1 1 . 4 3Y a r i a t i < r n o
t l f. t c t o t aslt r e s fsa i l u r e e n v e l o p c w i t h c h a n gienoi tfi a d
l egrecol'
s:lturationobtaincdfrttmundrainedtcstsof an inorganicclay(al'te r Casagranclc alcl
Hirschfeld,1960)

F i g u r e 1 1 . 4 3s h o w st h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h c t o t a l s t r e s sc n v e l o p e sw i t h c h a n g eo f
t h e i n i t i a l d e g r e eo f s a t u r a t i o no b t a i n c d f r o m u n d r a i n e dt e s t so n a n i n o r g a n i cc l a y .
Note that for these teststhe specimcnswerc prepared with approximately the same
i n i t i a l d r y u n i t w e i g h to f a b o u t 1 6 . 7k N / m r ( 1 0 6I b i m r ) . F o r a g i v c nt o t a l n o r m a l s t r c s s ,
tl.reshear stress needed to cause failure dccreascsas the dcgrce of saturalion in-
c r e a s e sW . h e n t h c d e g r e co f s a t u r a t i o nr e a c h e s1 0 0 ' 2 ,t.h e t o t a l s t r e s sl ' a i l u r ce n v e -
lope becomesa horizontal line thzrtis the samc as with thc r/ : 0 conccpt.
In practical caseswhere a cohesivcsoil dcposit may bccome saturateclbccause
o f r a i n f a l l o r a r i s e i n t h c g r o u n d w a t c rt a b l c , t h e s t r e n g t ho f p a r t i a l l ys a t u r a t c dc l a y
s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r d e s i g nc o n s i d e r a t i o n sI.n s t e a d ,t h e u n s a t u r a t e ds o i l s p e c i -
mens collectedfrom thc field must bc saturatedin the laboratorv and the undraincd
strength determined.

| 1.18 Summary and General Comments

In this chapter, the shear strengths of grandular and cohesivesoils were exam-
ined. Laboratory procedures for determining the shcar strength paramcters were
described.
In textbooks, determination of the shear strength parametersof cohesivesoils
appears to be fairly simple. However, in practice, the proper choice of these pa-
rametersfor designand stability checksof various earth, earth-retaining,and earth-
supported structures is very difllcult and requires experience and an appropriate
theoretical background in geotechnicalengineering.In this chapter, three types of
strength parameters (consolidated-drained,cctnsolidated-undrainecl,anrJunconsoli-
dated-undrained)were introduced. Their use dependson drainageconditions.
Consolidated-drainedstrength parameterscan be used to determine the long-
term stability of structuressuchas earth embankmentsand cut slopes.Consolidated-
undrained shearstrengthparameterscan be usedto study stability problems relating
to caseswhere the soil initially is fully consolidatedand then there is rapid loadine.
3s8 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

Nonnally consolidated
anisotropicclay

. Saturated
ciay , ,r..,

(a)

Figure 11.44 Strengthanisotropyin clay

An excellentexample of this is the stability of slopesof carth dams after rapid draw-
down. The unconsolidatcd-undrainedshearstrengthof clayscan be usedto cvaluate
the end-of-constructionstability of saturatedcohesivesoilswith thc assumptionthat
the load causcd by construction has bcen applied rapidly and there has been little
time for drainagcto take place.The bcaring capacityof foundationson soft saturated
claysand the stability of the baseol'cmbankments on soft claysarc cxamplesof this
condition.
The unconsolidated-undrainedshearstrength of some saturatcdclayscan vary
depending on the dircction of load application;this is referred to as anisotrcpywith
respectto strength.Anisotropy is primarily causedby the naturc of the depositionof
the cohesivcsoils,and subsequentconsolidationmakes the clay particlesorient per-
pendicular to the direction of thc major principal stress.Parallel orientation of the
c l a y p a r t i c l e sc a n c a u s et h e s t r c n g t h o f c l a y t o v a r y w i t h d i r e c t i o n . F i g u r e 1 1 . 4 4 a
showsan elcmcnt of saturatedclay in a deposit with the major principal stressmak-
ing an angle a with respectto the horizontal. For anisotropicclays,the magnitudeof
c,,will be a lunction of a. For normally consolidatedclays,c,,1,*-e11,,, ) {:,,1,,:1r"1, for over-
consolidatcd clays,c,,,,,q..)( c,,(,,,,.,.Figure 11.44bshows the directional variation
for c,,1,,;. The anisotropy with rcspcct to strength for clayscan have an important ef-
fect on the load-bearingcapacity of foundations and the stability of earth embank-
ments becausethe direction of thc major principal stressalong the potential failure
surfaceschanges.
The sensitivityof clayswas discusscdin Section 11.15.It is imperativethat sen-
sitive clay depositsare properly identified. For instance,when machine foundations
(which are subjectedto vibratory loading) are constructedover sensitiveclays,the
clay may substantiallylose its load-bearingcapacity.and failure may occur.

Problems
11.1 A direct shear test was conductedon a specimenof dry sand with a normal
s t r e s so f 2 0 0 k N / m 2 . F a i l u r eo c c u r r e cal t a s h e a rs t r e s so f 1 7 5k N / m 2 .T h e s i z e
of the specimentested was 75 mm x 75 mm x 30 mm (height). Determine
the angle of friction, @'.For a normal stressof 1-50kN/m2, what shear force
would be required to cause failure in the specimen?
 Problems 359

ll.2 The size of a sand specimen in a direct shear test was ,50mm x 50 mm x 30 mm
(height). It is known that, for the sand, tan g,= 0.65/e(where e : void ratio)
and the specificgravity of solids,G, : 2.68.During the test a normal stress
of 150 kN/m2 was applied. Failure occurred at a shear stressof 110 kN/m2.
What was the massof the sand soecimen?
11.3 Following are the resultsof four drained direct shear testson a normally
consolidatedclay:
Size of specimen : 60 mm x 60 mm
Height of specimen : 30 mm
Normal Shear
Test force force at
no. {N} failure(N}
I 200 1.5-5
2 300 230
3 400 3l0
/1
500 385

Draw a graph for the shear stressat failure againstthe normal stressand de-
termine the drained angle of friction (r/->') from the graph.
rt.4 Following are the resultsof four drained direct shcar testson a normally
consolidatedclay:
S p e c i m e ns i z e : d i a m e t e ro f s p e c i n t e n: 2 i n .
hcight of spccir.r.ren - I in.
Normal Shear
Test force force at
no. (lb) failure (tbl

I 60 3'7.5
2 90 -5-5
3 ll0 70
A
lll u0
Draw a graph for shear stressat failure againstthe normaI stressand deter-
mine the drained angle of friction ({,) from the graph.
11.5 The equation of the effectivestressfailure envelopefor a loose sandysoil was
obtained from a direct shear test as r 1.: c' tan 30o.A drained triaxial test
was conductedwith the samesoil at a chamber confining pressureof 10 lb/in.2
a. Calculate the deviator stressat failure.
b. Estimate the angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal
plane.
c. Determine the normal stressand shear stress(when the specimenfailed)
on a plane that makes an angle of 30'with the rnajor principal plane. Also.
explain why the specimendid not fail along the plane during the test.
11.6 The relationship between the relative density D, and the angle of friction,
@,,
of a sand can be given as Q'" : 28 + 0.18 D, (D,is in %). A drained triaxial
test on the same sand was conducted with a chamber confining pressure of
120 kN/m2. The relative density of compaction was 65%. Calculatethe maior
principal stress at failure.
360 Chapter | 1 Shear Strength of Soil

l1..7 For a normally consolidated clay, the results of a drained triaxial test are as
follows:
Chamber confining pressure: 15 lb/in.2
Deviator stressat failure : 34 Ibiin.2
Determine the soil friction angle,@'.
11.8 For a normally consolidatedclay,it is given that $' :24".In a drained tri-
axial test, the specimenfailed at a deviator stressof 175 kN/m2. What was
the chamber conlining pressure,ai?
11'9 For a normally consolidatedclay,it is given that $'= 28'' In a drained triaxial
test, the specimenfailed at a deviator stressat 30 lb/in.'What was the cham-
ber confining pressure,oi?
11.10 A consolidated-drainedtriaxial test was conductedon a normally cclnsoli-
dated clay.The resultswere as follows:
( r ' r1 2 5 0 k N i m 2
( A r r , , ) ,: 2 7 5 k N / m r
Determine the following:
a. Angle of friction, r/,'
b. Anglc g that thc failure plane makes with the major principal plane
c. Normal stress,rr', and shear strcss,11,on the failure plane
11.11 The resultsof two drained triaxial tcsts on a saturatedclay are as follows;
S p e c i m e nI : c h a m b e rc o n f i n i n gp r c s s u r c: 7 0 k N / m r
d e v i a t o rs t r c s sa t f a i l u r e - 2 1 5 k N / m 2
S p e c i m e nI I : c h a m b c rc o n f i n i n gp r e s s u r e: 1 2 0k N / m ' )
deviator stressat failurc : 260 kN/m'
Calculatc the shcar strength parametersof the soil.
11.72 lf a spccimenof clay describedin Problem l 1.11 is tested in a triaxial appa-
ratus with a chamber confining prossureof 20()kN/mr, what will be the ma-
jor principal stressat failurc'/ Assume full drained condition during the test.
11.13 A sandy soil has a drained angle of friction of 35'. In a drained triaxial test
o n t h e s a m es o i l . l h ed c v i a t o rs t r c s sa t f a i l u r ei s 2 . 6 9t o n / f t 2 W
. hat isthe
chamber confining pressure'?
11.14 A deposit of sand is shown in Figure 11.45.Find the maximum shear re-
sistancein kN/m2 along a horizontal plane located l0 m below the ground
surface.
11.15 A consolidated-undrainedtest on a normally consolidatedclay yielded the
following results:
(rr: l5lb/'n'2
D e v i a t o r s t r e s s(, L o , ) r : 1 1 l b / i n . 2
Pore pressure,(Aa,)1 -- 1.2lblin,1
Calculate the consolidated-undrainedfriction angle and the drained friction
angle.
11.16 Repeat Problem 11.15,using the following values:
o 3 - 1 4 0k N / m 2
( A o , i ) , : 1 2 5k N / m 2
(Lu,,)i: 75kN/m2
 Problems 361

Ground water table

Sand
Q'= 42"
e =0.6
Gs =2.67

Figure 11.45

11.17 The shear strength of a normally consolidatedclay can be given by the equa-
tion 11- o' tan 31'. A consolidated-undrainedtest was conductedon the
clay.Following are the resultsof the tcst:
C h a m b e rc o n f i n i n gp r e s s u r e: 1 1 2k N / m r
Deviator stressat failure - 100kN/m2
Determine
a. The consolidated-undrainedfriction angle,{
b. The pore water pressuredcveloped in the clay specimenat failure
11.18 For the clay specimendescribedin Problem I L 17,what would have been the
deviator stressat failure if a drained test would have been conductedwith
t h e s a m ec h a m b e rc o n f i n i n gp r e s s u r e( i . e . ,o j : 1 1 2k N / m 2 ) ?
11.19 A silty sand has a consolidated-undrainedfriction angle of 22" and a drained
friction angle of 32" (c' : 0). If a consolidated-undrainedtest on such a soil
is conducted at a chamber confining pressureof 1.2tonlft2, what will be the
major principal stress(total) at failure? Also, calculatethe pore pressure
that will be generatedin the soil specimenat failure.
11.20 Repeat Problem 11.19,using the following values:
4>: t9'
6' - 28'
o.r = f35kN/m2
11.21 The following are the resultsof a consolidated-undrainedtriaxial test in a
clay:
Specimen a3 rr, at failure
no. (kN/mr) (kN/mr)
t92 375
384 636

Draw the total stressMohr's circles and determine the shear strength param-
eters for consolidatedundrained conditions (i.e.,d and c).
362 Chapter 11 Shear Strength of Soil

11.22 The consolidated-undrained test results of a saturated clay specimen are as

follows:
ut: 9J kNim'
ar at failure : 197kN/m2
What will be the axial stressat failure if a similar specimen is subjected to an
unconfined compressiontest?
11.23 The friction angle,@', of a normally consolidatedclay specimencollected
during field exploration was determined from drained triaxial tests to be 25'.
The unconfined compressionstrength,q,,,of a similar specimenwas found to
be 100kN/m2. Determine the pore water pressureat failure for the uncon-
fined compressiontest.
11.24 Repeat Problem I1.23 using the following values:
$' - 23o
q,, - 120 kN/m'
11.25 The resultsol two consolidated-drainedtriaxial tcsts on a clavevsoil are as
follows:
(r'l(failure)

Test no. u\ (lb lin.2l (lb/in.'zl

I z7
2 I L 4n

Use thc failure envelopeequation givcn in Example I 1.7- that is, 11': v11a
p ' L a na . ( D o n o t p l o t t h c g r a p h . )
a. Findrr anda
b. Find c' and 6' .
11.26 A 1,5-m-thicknormally consolidatedclay laycr is shown in Figure 11.46.The
plasticity index of the clay is 18.Estimate the undrained cohesionas would
bc determined from a vane shear test at a depth of 6 m belclwthe ground
surface.Use Skempton'scquation in Table 11.6.

''""1,-
3m

't'
*

l,'].

:"
.'
l
' " ,1l .5nl
Clay
Y , a r= 1 9 . 5k N / m r

Figure 11.46
 References 363

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