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Materials Selection
for
Mechanical Design I
A Brief Overview of a Systematic Methodology

Jeremy Gregory
Research Associate
Laboratory for Energy and Environment
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts Materials Systems Laboratory
©Jeremy Gregory and Randolph Kirchain, 2005 Materials Selection – Slide 1
Relationship To Course
A key concept throughout this course is
how to select among technology choices
Economic Analysis
Cost Modeling
Life Cycle Assessment
Focus has been on economic assessment
of alternatives
How does this fit into larger technology
choice problem?

©Jeremy Gregory and Randolph Kirchain, 2005 Materials Selection I – Slide 2
Approach Changes as Design Evolves
Market need
Selection Methods
Concept
# of Candidates
Design Detail
Method
Needed for
Economic Analysis
Early Stage
Embodiment
Cost Modeling
LCA
Detail
Production etc.

What parameters define material selection?
Example: SUV Liftgate
Image removed for copyright reasons.

Schematic of components in an SUV liftgate (rear door).

Attractive Options
May Be Found Outside of Expertise
$300
$250 Steel
Aluminum
$200 SMC
Unit Cost
$150
$100
$50
$0
0 25 50 75 100 125
Annual Production Volume (1000s)

Need Method for Early Material Selection:
Ashby Methodology*
Four basic steps
1. Translation: express design requirements
as constraints & objectives
2. Screening: eliminate materials that cannot
do the job
3. Ranking: find the materials that do the job
best
4. Supporting information: explore pedigrees
of top-ranked candidates
M.F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 3rd Ed., Elsevier, 2005
First Step: Translation
“Express design requirements as constraints and objectives”
Using design requirements, analyze four items:
Function: What does the component do?
Do not limit options by specifying implementation w/in
function
Objective: What essential conditions must be met?
In what manner should implementation excel?
Constraints: What is to be maximized or minimized?
Differentiate between binding and soft constraints
Free variables: Which design variables are free?
Which can be modified?
Which are desirable?

Identifying Desirable Characteristics
Example: Materials for a Light, Strong Tie
Function:
Support a tension load F F
Objective: Area, A L
Minimize mass
Constraints:
Objective:
Length specified
m = ALρ
Carry load F, w/o failure
Free variables: Constraint:
Cross-section area F / A < σy
Material

Identifying Desirable Characteristics
Example: Materials for a Light, Strong Tie
Objective:
m = ALρ F F
Constraint: Area, A L
F / A < σy
Material Index
Rearrange to eliminate
free variable ⎛σy ⎞
⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
m ≥ ( F )( L ) ⎜
⎜σy ⎟⎟ ⎝ ρ ⎠
⎝ ⎠ i z e
Minimize weight by ⎛ ρ ⎞ axim
minimizing ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or m
⎝σy ⎠
Second Step: Screening
“Eliminate materials that cannot do the job”
Steels
Need effective way of Cast irons
Al-alloys
evaluating large range Metals
of material classes Cu-alloys
Ti-alloys
and properties PE, PP, PC

PS, PET, PVC
Alumina
PA (Nylon)
Si-carbide
Ceramics Composites
Polymers
Sandwiches Polyester
Si-nitride
Epoxy
Ziconia Hybrids
Lattices
Segmented
Soda glass Isoprene

Borosilicate Butyl rubber
Glasses Elastomers
Silica glass Natural rubber
Glass ceramic Silicones
EVA

Comparing Material Properties:
Material Bar Charts
Steel WC
Copper
Young’s modulus (GPa)
CFRP
Alumina
(Log Scale)
Aluminum GFRP
PEEK
Zinc Glass Fiberboard
PP
Lead
PTFE
Metals Polymers Ceramics Hybrids
Good for elementary selection (e.g., find materials with large modulus)
Comparing Material Properties:
Material Property Charts
1000
Ceramics
100
Young’s modulus (GPa)
Composites
10 Woods
Metals
1
Foams Polymers
0.1
Elastomers
0.01
0.1 1 10 100
Density (Mg/m3)

Screening Example:
Heat Sink for Power Electronics
Function:
Heat Sink
Constraints:
1. Max service temp > 200 C
2. Electrical insulator Æ
R > 1020 µohm cm
3. Thermal conductor Æ
T-conduct. λ > 100 W/m K
4. Not heavy Æ
Density < 3 Mg/m3
Free Variables:
Materials and Processes
Heat Sink Screening: Bar Chart
WC
Max service temperature (K)
Steel
Copper Alumina
CFRP
PEEK
200 C
PP Glass GFRP
Aluminum
PTFE
Zinc Fiberboard
Lead
Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites

Heat Sink Screening: Property Chart
1000
R > 1020 µΩ cm
Metals Ceramics
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
100
λ > 100 W/m K
10
Polymers &
Composites elastomers
1
0.1
Foams
0.01
1 1010 1020 1030
Electrical resistivity ( µΩ cm)

Example using Granta Software:
Automobile Headlight Lens
Function:
Protect bulb and lens; focus beam
Objective:
Photo of headlight
Minimize cost
removed for copyright
Constraints: reasons.
Transparent w/ optical quality
Easily molded
Good resistance to fresh and salt water
Good resistance to UV light
Good abrasion resistance (high hardness)
Free variables:
Material choice

Selection Criteria – Limit Stage
Chart from the CES EduPack 2005, Granta Design Limited, Cambridge, UK. (c) Granta Design. Courtesy of Granta Design Limited. Used with permission.

Property Chart
Soda-lime glass
1e10
•Cheapest, hardest
1e9 material is soda-
Hardness - Vickers (Pa)
Borosilicate glass lime glass – used

1e8 in car headlights
Concrete
1e7
•For plastics,
Polymethyl methacrylate (Acrylic, PMMA) cheapest is PMMA
1e6
– used in car tail
lights
100000
10000
0.1 1 10 100
Price (USD/kg)

Third Step: Ranking
“Find the materials that do the job best”
What if multiple materials are selected after
screening?
Which one is best?
What if there are multiple material parameters
for evaluation?
Use Material Index

Single Property Ranking Example:
Overhead Transmission Cable
Function:
Transmit electricity
Objective: L
L
Minimize electrical Resistance R = ρe
Constraints: A Electrical
Length L and section A are specified resistivity
Must not fail under wind or ice-load Æ
required tensile strength > 80 MPa
Free variables:
Material choice
Screen on strength, rank on resistivity
Single Property Ranking Example:
Overhead Transmission Cable
1e27 Polystyrene (PS)
Silica glass
Epoxies
•Screening on 1e24 Alumina

PEEK
PETE
Cellulose polymers
strength eliminates 1e21
Polyester
(µ-ohm cm)
Polyurethane (tpPUR)
polymers, some 1e18
Isoprene (IR)
ceramics
Resistivity (µohm.cm)
Wood
1e15
Silicon Carbide
•Ranking on
Resistivity 1e12
Cork
resistivity selects 1e9
Boron Carbide
Al and Cu alloys 1e6
The selection
1000 Titanium alloys
Low alloy steel
1 Magnesium alloys
Aluminium alloys
Copper alloys
1e-3

Advanced Ranking: The Material Index
The method
1. Identify function, constraints, objective and free variables
List simple constraints for screening
2. Write down equation for objective -- the “performance
equation”
If objective involves a free variable (other than the material):
Identify the constraint that limits it
Use this to eliminate the free variable in performance
equation
3. Read off the combination of material properties that
maximizes performance -- the material index
4. Use this for ranking

The Performance Equation, P
⎡⎛ Functional ⎞ ⎛ Geometric ⎞ ⎛ Material ⎞⎤
P = ⎢⎜ ⎟,⎜ ⎟,⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ requirements, F ⎠ ⎝ parameters, G ⎠ ⎝ properties, M ⎠ ⎦
or
P = f ( F , G, M )
Use constraints to eliminate free variable
P from previous example of a light, strong tie:
⎛ ρ ⎞
m ≥ ( F )( L ) ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜σy
⎝ ⎠
The Material Index
Example: Materials for a stiff, light beam
Function: F
Support a bending load L
Objective: Area, A Deflection, δ
Minimize mass
Constraints:
Objective:
Length specified
m = ALρ
Carry load F, without too
much deflection Constraint:
Free variables: F CEI

S= ≥ 3
Cross-section area δ L
Material

The Material Index
Example: Materials for a stiff, light beam
Objective: F
m = ALρ L
Constraint: Area, A Deflection, δ
S = F ≥ CEI
δ L3 Material Index
Rearrange to eliminate
free variable ⎛ E1/ 2 ⎞
⎛ 4F π ⎞
1/ 2
⎛ L5/ 2
⎞⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ρ ⎠

m=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟
⎝ δ ⎠ ⎝ C ⎠⎝ E ⎠
Minimize weight by ⎛ ρ ⎞ ize

xim
minimizing ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟ ma
⎝ E ⎠ or
Material Index Calculation Process Flow
Function has a
Each combination of Constraint characterizing
FUNCTION
Objective material index
Tie Free variable
CONSTRAINTS
Maximize
Beam this!
Stiffness OBJECTIVE
specified
Minimum cost
Shaft INDEX
Strength
specified Minimum ⎡ E1/ 2 ⎤
Column weight M =⎢ ⎥
Fatigue limit ⎣ ρ ⎦
Maximum energy
Geometry storage
Mechanical, specified
Thermal, Minimum
Electrical... eco- impact
Material Index Examples
An objective defines a performance metric: e.g. mass or resistance
The equation for performance metric contains material properties
Sometimes a single property Either is a
Sometimes a combination Material Index
Material Indices for a Beam
Stiffness Strength
Loading
Objective: Limited Limited
Minimize Mass
Tension E/ρ σf/ρ
Performance Metric: Bending E1/2/ρ σf2/3/ρ
Mass
Torsion G1/2/ρ σf2/3/ρ
Maximize!
Optimized Selection Using
Material Indices & Property Charts: Strength
Example: Ceramics
Tension Load, Composites
strength limited
Metals
Maximize: M = σ/ρ
In log space: Woods

log σ = log ρ + log M Polymers
This is a set of lines Elastomers
with slope=1 Foams
Materials above line

are candidates
Material Indices & Property Charts:
Stiffness
Example: Ceramics
Stiff beam
Metals
Maximize: Μ = Ε1/2/ρ
Composites
In log space:
log E = Woods Polymers
2 (log ρ + log M)
This is a set of lines
with slope=2 Foams
Elastomers
Candidates change
with objective
Material Indices & Property Charts:
Toughness
Load-limited KIC/E
M = KIC KIC
Choose tough Composites
metals, e.g. Ti 2/E Metals
KIC
Energy-limited
Woods Ceramics
M= E KIC2 / Polymers
Composites and
metals compete
Foams
Displacement-limited
M = KIC / E
Polymers, foams
Considering Multiple
Objectives/Constraints
With multiple constraints:
Solve each individually
Select candidates based on each
Evaluate performance of each
Select performance based on most limiting
¾ May be different for each candidate
With multiple objectives:
Requires utility function to map multiple
metrics to common performance measures

Method for Early Technology Screening
Design performance is
determined by the
combination of: Materials
Shape
Materials
Process
Process
Underlying principles of
selection are unchanged Shape
BUT, do not underestimate
impact of shape or the
limitation of process

Ashby Method for Early Material Selection:
Four basic steps
1. Translation: express design requirements
as constraints & objectives
2. Screening: eliminate materials that cannot
do the job
3. Ranking: find the materials that do the job
best
4. Supporting information: explore pedigrees
of top-ranked candidates

Summary
Material affects design based on
Geometric specifics
Loading requirements
Design constraints
Performance objective
Effects can be assessed analytically
Keep candidate set large as long as is feasible
Materials charts give quick overview; software can
be used to more accurately find options
Remember, strategic considerations can alter best
choice

Example Problem: Table Legs
Figure by MIT OCW.
Want to redesign table with thin unbraced cylindrical

legs
Want to minimize cross-section and mass without
buckling
Toughness and cost are factors
Table Legs: Problem Definition
Function:
Support compressive loads Performance Equation
Objective:

Minimize mass
Maximize slenderness
m = π r lρ 2
Constraints:
Length specified π EI
2
π Er 3 4
Must not buckle Pcrit = 2
= 2
Must not fracture
l 4l
Free variables:
Cross-section area
Material
Table Legs: Material Indices
Use constraints to For slenderness,
eliminate free variable, r calculate r at max load
1/ 2 1/ 4 1/ 4
⎛ 4P ⎞ ⎡ ρ ⎤ ⎛ 4P ⎞ ⎡1⎤
(l ) (l )
2 1/ 2
m≥⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎣ E1/ 2 ⎦⎥ r ≥⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎢E⎥
⎝ π ⎠ ⎝π ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
Functional Geometric Material Functional Geometric Material
Requirements Parameters Properties Requirements Parameters Properties
Minimize mass by Maximize slenderness

maximizing M1 by maximizing M2
E1/ 2 M2 = E
M1 =
ρ
Table Legs: Material Selection
Eliminated
Ceramics M1
Metals (too heavy)
Polymers Composites
(not stiff enough) M2
Woods Metals
Possibilities: Ceramics,
wood, composites
Final choice: wood
Ceramics too brittle Polymers
Composites too
Elastomers
expensive Foams
Note: higher constraint
on modulus eliminates
wood

Material Index 1
Silicon Boron carbide
Silicon carbide
CFRP, epoxy m atrix (isotropic)
100
Hardw ood: oak, along grain
Bam boo
Young's Modulus (GPa)
10
Softw ood: pine, along grain
Rigid Polym er Foam (LD)

1
0.1
0.01
1e-3
100 1000 10000

Density (kg/m^3)

Material Index 2
Boron carbide Silicon carbide
CFRP, epoxy m atrix (isotropic)

1e11
Hardw ood: oak, along grain
Bam boo
Softw ood: pine, along grain
1e10
Young's Modulus (Pa)
1e9
1e8
1e7
1e6
100 1000 10000

Density (kg/m^3)

Example: Heat-Storing Wall
Outer surface
heated by day Sun
Air blown over
inner surface to
Air flow to
extract heat at
Heat Storing Wall

extract heat
night from wall
Inner wall must

heat up ~12h after
outer wall W
Fan
Figure by MIT OCW.

Heat-Storing Wall: Problem Definition
Function:
Heat storing medium Heat content: Q = wρ C p ∆T
Objective: Heat diffusion distance:
Maximize thermal energy
stored per unit cost w = 2at
Constraints: C p = Specific Heat
Heat diffusion time ~12h

λ
Wall thickness ≤ 0.5 m a = Thermal Diffusivity =
Working temp Tmax>100 C ρC p
Free variables: λ = Thermal Conductivity
Wall thickness, w
Material

Heat-Storing Wall: Material Indices
Eliminate free variable: Thickness restriction:
Q = 2t ∆Ta1/ 2 ρ C p w2
a≤
Insert λ to obtain 2t
For w ≤ 0.5 m and t = 12 h:
Performance Eqn:
M 2 = a ≤ 3 × 10−6 m2 /s
⎛ λ ⎞
Q = 2t ∆T ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟
⎝a ⎠
λ
Maximize: M 1 =
a1/ 2
Heat-Storing Wall: Material Selection
Eliminated
Foams: Too
porous
Metals: Diffusivity
too high
Possibilities:
Concrete, stone,
brick, glass,
titanium(!)
Final Choices
Concrete is
cheapest
Stone is best
performer at
reasonable price


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Materials Selection

A Brief Overview of a Systematic Methodology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Example: SUV Liftgate

Image removed for copyright reasons.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

and properties PE, PP, PC

Soda glass Isoprene

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Metals Polymers Ceramics Hybrids

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Borosilicate glass lime glass – used

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Use Material Index

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

•Screening on 1e24 Alumina

resistivity selects 1e9

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Minimize weight by ⎛ ρ ⎞ ize

 In log space: Woods

 This is a set of lines Elastomers

with slope=1 Foams

 Materials above line

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Figure by MIT OCW.

 Want to redesign table with thin unbraced cylindrical

Minimize mass by Maximize slenderness

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Rigid Polym er Foam (LD)

100 1000 10000

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

CFRP, epoxy m atrix (isotropic)

100 1000 10000

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Heat Storing Wall

 Inner wall must

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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In log space: Woods

This is a set of lines Elastomers

Materials above line

Want to redesign table with thin unbraced cylindrical

Inner wall must