ACI 547R-79

Refractory Concrete: Abstract of State-of-the-Art Report (Revised 1983)

(Reapproved 1997)

Reported by ACI Committee 547

This abstract first appeared in Concrete International: Design & Construc-

tion, V. 1, No. 5, May 1979, pp. 62-77. The full report is available as a
separate publication in 81/4 x 11 in., paper cover format, consisting of 224
pages. Contents listed on this page represent only tbe sections of the report
covered in this abstract.
Refractory concretes are cur-
rently used in a wide variety of
industrial applications where py-
reprocessing and/or thermal con- Chapter 7 -Properties of
tainment is required. The service Contents of summary
normal weight refractory
demands of these applications are Chapter 1 -Introduction, p. concretes, p. 547R-10
becoming increasingly severe and 547R-2 7.1 - Introduction
this, combined with the constant 1.1 - Objective of report 7.2 - Maximum service temperature
demand for refractories with en- 1.2 - Scope of report 7.4 - Shrinkage and expansion
hanced service life and more ef- 1.3 - Nomenclature 7.5 - Strength
ficient means of installation, has 1.6 - Non-hydraulic setting refrac- 7.6 - Thermal conductivity
tories 7.10 - Specific heat
resulted in an ever expanding re-
fractory concrete technology. ACI Chapter 2 -Criteria for re- Chapter 8 -Properties of
Committee 547 has prepared this fractory concrete selection, p. lightweight refractory con-
state-of-the-art report in order to 547R-5 cretes, p. 547R-11
meet the need for a better under- 2.1 - Introduction 8.1 - Introduction
standing of this relatively new 2.2 - Castables and field mixes 8.4 - Shrinkage and expansion
technology. 2.5 - Load bearing considerations 8.5 - Strength
2.7 - Corrosion influences 8.6 - Thermal conductivity
The report presents back- 2.10 - Abrasion and erosion resistance 8.10 - Specific heat
ground information and per-
spective on the history and cur- Chapter 3 -Constituent in- Chapter 9 -Construction de-
rent status of the technology. gredients, p. 547R-6 tails, p. 547R-12
Composition and proportioning 3.2 - Binders 9.1 - Introduction
methods are discussed together 3.3 - Aggregates 9.2 - Support structure
3.4 -Effects of extraneous materials 9.3 - Forms
with a detailed review of the con- 9.4 - Anchors
stituent ingredients. Emphasis is Chapter 4 -Composition and 9.5 - Reinforcement and metal embed-
placed on proper procedures for proportioning, p. 547R-7 ment
9.6 - Joints
the installation, curing, drying, 4.1 - Introduction
and firing. The physical and engi- 4.3 - Field mixes Chapter 10 -Repair, p. 547R-13
neering properties of both normal 4.4 - Water content
10.1 - Introduction
weight and light weight refractory Chapter 5 -Installation, p. 10.2 - Failure mechanisms
concretes are reported, as are 10.3 - Surface preparation
547R-8 10.4 - Anchoring and bonding
state-of-the-art construction de- 5.1 - Introduction 10.5 - Repair materials
tails and repair/maintenance tech- 5.2 - Casting 10.6 - Repair techniques
niques. Also included is an in- 5.3 - Shotcreting
depth review of a wide variety of 5.4 - Pumping and extruding Chapter 11 -Applications, p.
5.5 - Pneumatic gun casting 547R-15
applications together with the 5.8 - Finishing
committee‘s assessment of future 11.1 - Introduction
needs and developments. Chapter 6 -Curing, drying, Chapter 12 - New devel-
firing, p. 547R-9 opments and future use of re-
Keywords: abrasion; accelerating agents; 6.1 - Introduction
admixtures; aggregates; aluminate cement 6.2 - Bond mechanisms fractory concrete, p. 547R-15
and concretes; anchorage (structural); ce- 6.3 - Curing 12.1 - Introduction
ment-aggregate reactions; chemical analy- 6.4 - Drying 12.2 - New developments
sis; construction; corrosion: curing; drying; 6.5 - Firing 12.3 - Research requirements
failure mechanisms; formwork (construc-
tion); hydration; insulating concretes; kilns;
lightweight concreetes; mechanical proper-
ties; mix proportioning; packaged concrete; Copyright 0 1979, American Concrete Institute mission in writing is obtained from the copyright
All rights reserved including rights of reproduc- proprietors.
physical properties; placing; pumped con- tion and use in any form or by any means, in- Discussion of this committee report may be sub-
crete; quality control; refractories; refrac- cluding the making of copies by any photo pro- mitted in accordance with general requirements
tory concretes; reinforcing materials: re- cess, or by any electronic or mechanical device, of the ACI Publication Policy to ACI Headquar-
pairs; research; shotcrete; spalling; printed or written or oral, or recording for sound ters, P.O. Box 19150. Detroit, Michigan 48219.
structural analysis; temperature; thermal or visual reproduction or for use in any knowl- Closing date for submission of discussion is No-
properties; water; welded wire fabric. edge or retrieval system or device, unless per- vember 1, 1979.
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547R-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Chapter 1 -Introduction
1.1 Objective of report
The objective of this report is to provide a source of
information on the many facets of refractory con-
crete technology. The report is intended as a unified
and objective source of information to aid the engi-
neer or consumer in categorizing and evaluating
monolithic refractory concrete technology and the
many materials and processes available today. It is
not intended to be a specification or standard, and
should not be quoted or used for that purpose.
1.2 Scope of report
Refractory concrete is concrete suitable for use at
temperatures up to about 3400 F (1870 C). It consi
of a graded refractory aggregate bound by a suitable
cementing medium. This report is concerned with
refractory concrete in which the binding agent is a
hydraulic cement, and does not consider concretes
which use waterglass (sodium silicate), phosphoric
acid, or phosphates as a principal cementing agent.
It covers all facets of refractory concrete installation
and use, including the properties of individual in-
gredients and concretes, placing techniques, methods
of curing and firing, repair procedures, construction
details, and current and future applications.
1.3 Nomenclature
The following definitions are used in this report:
ACID REFRACTORIES - Refractories containing a
substantial amount of silica that may react chem-
ically with basic refractories, basic slags, or basic
fluxes at high temperatures.
APPARENT POROSITY (ASTM C20) - The rela-
tionship of the volume of the open pores in a refrac-
tory specimen to its exterior volume, expressed as a
percentage.
BASIC REFRACTORIES - Refractories whose ma-
jor constituent is lime, magnesia, or both, and which
may react chemically with acid refractories, acid
slags, or acid fluxes at high temperatures. (Com-
mercial use of this term also includes refractories
made of chrome ore or combinations of chrome ore
and dead burned magnesite).
CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT - The product
obtained by pulverizing clinker which consists of hy-
draulic calcium aluminates formed by fusing or sin-
tering a suitably proportioned mixture of aluminous
and calcareous materials.
CASTABLE REFRACTORY - A proprietary pack-
aged dry mixture of hydraulic cement and specially
selected and proportioned refractory aggregates
which, when mixed with water, will produce refrac-
tory concrete or mortar.
CERAMIC BOND - The high strength bond which
is developed between materials, such as calcium
aluminate cement and refractory aggregates, as a re-
sult of thermochemical reactions which occur when
the materials are subjected to elevated temperature.
EXPLOSIVE SPALLING - A sudden spalling
which occurs as the result of a build-up of steam
pressure caused by too rapid heating on first firing.
GROG - Burned refractory material, usually cal-
cined clay or crushed brick bats.
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HEAT RESISTANT CONCRETE - Any concrete
which will not disintegrate when exposed to con-
stant or cyclical heating at any temperature below
which a ceramic bond is formed.
HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT - See calcium alumi-
nate cement.
NEUTRAL REFRACTORIES - Refractories that
are resistant to chemical attack by both acid and ba-
sic slags, refractories, or fluxes at high temper-
atures.
REFRACTORY AGGREGATE - Materials having
refractory properties which form a refractory body
when bound into a conglomerate mass by a matrix.
REFRACTORY CONCRETE - Concrete which is
suitable for use at high temperatures and contains
hydraulic cement as the binding agent.
SOFTENING TEMPERATURE - The temperature
at which a refractory material begins to undergo
permanent deformation under specified conditions.
This term is more appropriately applied to glasses
than to refractory concretes.
THERMAL SHOCK - The exposure of a material
or body to a rapid change in temperature which may
have a deleterious effect.
1.6 Non-hydraulic setting re
The following discussion, while not pertinent to the
main theme of the report, will be of some interest
and use to the reader.
1.6.1 Refractory brick - High quality brick, known
as firebrick, with unique chemical and physical prop-
erties is obtained by blending different types of clay
and other ingredients and by varying both the
method of processing and the burning temperatures.
In addition to the many varieties of fireclay brick,
high alumina, insulating, silica, fused aggregate, and
basic firebrick have been developed. Refractory
brick remains a major construction material for ap-
plications in which heat containment and control is
necessary and in many instances, is the only satisfac-
tory solution to a specific problem.
Brick has a number of disadvantages when com-
pared to monolithic refractories. These dis-
advantages include multiple joints, complicated an-
choring, higher placement costs, more difficult repair
procedures, the need to maintain expensive invento-
ries of special or scarce items, a certain inflexibility
in structural design, and higher fuel requirements
during manufacture.
1.6.2 Plastics and ramming mixes - Plastic refrac-
tories and ramming mixes are refractories which are
tamped or rammed in place and are used for mon-
olithic construction, for repair purposes, and for
molding special shapes. These materials find exten-
sive use in industry. They usually employ a clay, alu-
mina, magnesite, chrome, silicon carbide, or graphite
base, and are blended with a binder. Heat setting
mixes are likely to contain fireclay or phosphoric
acid as a binder. Air or cold-setting mixes generally
contain fireclay and sodium silicate as the binder.
Compared to ramming mixes, plastic refractories
have higher moisture contents and therefore, higher
plasticity.
TABLE 2.1a - Characteristics of normal weight refractory concretes

TABULAR A1203
COARSE COARSE
HIGH PURITY BINDER GENERAL HIGH EROSION/ HIGH LOW IRON
HIGH
PRODUCT HIGH PURPOSE STRENGTH ABRASION 2800 F HIGH STR EN G TH STRENGTH HIGH
DESCRIPTION STRENGTH 3000E 2800F 2800 F GUN RESISTANT STEEL MILL STANDARD STRENGTH 2350 F 2600 F STR EN GTH

Recommended Service
Temperature max., Deg. F 3400 3000 2800 2800 2400 2500 2350 2600 2600
G E - - B C B C c
ASTM Class (C-401)
Water Required for Mixinq, 8-11 8-12 10-12 (3 ) 10-12.5 10-13 15-21 14.0-15.5 11-14 3.5-11 14-16
Percent by Weight
Material Required (1) 160-165 140-145 129-133 129-133 125-130 125-131 108-114 120-124 126-130 137-142 118-120
lbs. per cu. ft., lbs. per bag
_
Method of Application (2) C -T-S C _T_S_E C-T S C -T-S C-E C-T-E C-T-S-E C C C-T-S-E
Bulk Density, 220 F 165 178 139 147 131 138 130 136 135 143 134 136 112 121 126 133 131 133 144 146 124 131
Heated toI 1000 F 159 169 138 146 128 134 127 133 129 134 132 144 108 117 120 125 126 129 122 124
temperature of: 1500 F 161 174 138 146 128 132 126 133 129 134 130 133
133 108 114 120 122 124 129 138 140 121 122
then cooled 2000 F 161 174 137 146 130 135 127 133 127 135 130 133 108 115 120 123 124 128 140 141 120 121
pcf 2550 F 165 176 139 150 123 128 127 130 124 132 111 114 133 138 121 123
2732 F 160 169 138 146 123 127 128 135 128 138
3000 F 165 167 136 149
Total Linear Change % Heated 220 F 0.0 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.6 -0.l to -0.4 -0.2 to -0.6 0.2 to -0.7 -0.3 to -0.4 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 0.0 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.4
to temp. of: then cooled 1000 F -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.6 -0.2 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.5 02 to -0.6 -0.3 to -0.4 -0. 1 to -0.6 -0.2 to -0.5 -0.3 to -0.6 - -0.4 to -0.5
(Note: Linear change 1500 F -0.1 to -0.5 -0.2 to -0.6 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 0.2 to -0.6 -0.2 to -0.4 -0.2 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.7 -0.4 to -0.6 0.0 to -0.3 -0.4 to -0.5
figures are "TOTAL" 2000 F -0.1 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.7 -0.3 to -0.7 -0.1 to -0.9 0.1 to -0.6 -0.2 to -0.5 -0.4 to -0.8 -0.1 to -0.9 -0.3 to -0.5 -0.1 to -0.5 -0.5 to -0.7
in all cases and include 2550 F -0.4 to -1.3 -0.5 to -1.1 -0.8 to +1.3 -0.5 to +0.2 +1.7 to +2.2 -1.2 to +0.3 -0.1 to +1.7 -0.1 to +0.5
percent of drying 2732 F -0.7 to -1.4 -0.2 to +0.3 -0.5 to +1.0 -0.8 to +0.8 +1.3 to +2.4
shrinkage occurring 3000 F -0.6 to -1.1 +0.1 to +0.7
in conversion from
wet "as cast"
to "as dried" state)

1600 - 2590 450 - 840 360 - 800 400 - 840 260 - 2000 445 - 745 310 - 520 820 - 1170 975 - 1030 / 810 - 1015 1020 - 1250
1820 - 2320 350 - 570 370 - 650 320 - 680 945 - 1240 175 - 310 200 - 270 300 - 590 535 - 710 - 395 - 440
1450 - 2120 290 - 580 230 - 680 530 - 840 020 - 1865 145 - 295 150 - 200 300 - 560 400 - 560 300 - 415 370 - 570
930 - 1400 340 - 590 390 - 780 500 - 970 - 1385 145 - 270 130 - 240 300 - 460 405 - 465 310 - 395 385 - 605
1280 - 2615 820 - 2050 1000 - 2450 1300 - 3030 1245 - 2605 820 - 1780 ’ 520 - 910 370 - 2390
1290 - 2707 1260 - 2400 1110 - 2260 2290 - 3740 2095 - 2930
i i -
750 - 1280 1685 - 4620
Cold Crushing Strength, 220 F 5180 - 10230 1030 - 2160 1420 - 3780 1190 - 2620 510 - 7910 4280 - 3145 990 - 1570 2410 - 3800 3450 - 3870 2150 -- 3580 3075 - 5470
psi 1000 F 8170 - 9160 1070 - 2250 1490 - 2950 1400 - 3000 810 - 6480 645 - 1400 685 - 1030 470 - 2210 1800 - 229 -- 29955- 3795
Heated to 1500 F 7280 - 9395 950 - 2250 1110 - 2770 1690 - 3340 410 - 7110 540 - 1260 630 - 840 530 - 2090 1775 - 2325 450 -- 1590 2425 - 2845
temperature of: 2000 F 3036 -10000 980 - 2050 1330 - 2920 1160 - 3105 620 - 5375 560 - 915 640 - 850 450 - 2070 1480 - 2225 050 -- 1340 1500 - 2105
then cooled 2550 F 6180 - 11000 3280 - 4640 3200 - 7930 4250 -11390 3021 - 3765 3200 - 5490 470 -- 2280 3735 - 6970
2732 F 4330 - 10115 4280 - 5620 5280 -12100 7140 -13175 -
3000 F 3320 - 5325 5870 -10000
Thermal Conductivity 500 F 9.87 6.47 5.35 4.60 5.24 4.10 4.48 7.25 4.60
Btu/in/hr-sq.ft.-Deq F 1000 F 9.46 6.15 5.35 5.00 5.10 4.48 4.85 7.40 5.00
at Mean 1500 F 9.36 5.80 5.40 5.40 5.10 4.85 5.30 7.65 5.40
Temperature of: 2000 F 9.57 5.72 5.65 5.80 5.18 5.19 5.73 7.85 5.80
Chemical Analysis percent
S102 0.03 29.73 47.58 47.31 32.06 44.35 34.64 4.18 46.08
A1 2 0 3 , T 1 0 2 93.65 65.16 48.31 46.73 59.23 46.70 40.03 38.68
Fe 2 03 , Fe0 0.27 1.15 1.47 1.37 0.91 3.05 4.22 4.78
Ca0, Mg0 5.52 2.48 1.47 3.25 6.89 6.09 9.03 11.31
Alkalies 0.11 0.39 0.82 0.84 0.59 0.69 1.22 0.74
Ignition Loss 0.30 0.66 0.15 0.47 - Trace 1.14 0.11

All measurements except thermal conductivity

taken at room temperature.

SI conversion factors
Deg F = 1.8 C + 32
1 pcf = 16. 02 kg/m3
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 psi = 0.006895 MPa
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1 Btu-in./hr-sq ft - deg F
547R-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

TABLE 2.1b- Characteristics of lightweight insulating refractory concretes

VERMICULITE
COMMERCIAL HIGH LIGHT- LIGHT- BASE VERY
PRODUCT ALUMINA GENERAL WEIGHT WEIGHT LIGHT-
DESCRIPTION LOW IRON PURPOSE 2250 F 1800 F WEIGHT
Recommended Service
Temp. max., Deg. F 3000 2500 2250 **1800 1600
-
ASTM Class (C 401) Q Q P&O N Special
Water Required for Mixing,
Percent by Weight 24-27.5 38-47 40-47 46-55 176
Materials Required,
lbs. per cu. ft. 87-92 80-85 48-50 46-48 24
- -
Method of Application* C-S-E C-T-S-E C-T-S-E C-S-E _ C-T-E
Bulk Density,
lbs. per cu. ft., 220 F 92-96 86-90 51-53 48-54 21-25
Heated to 1500 F 90-91 80-83 47-48 47-54 20-25
Temp. of: 2000 F 89-92 80-84 48-49 46-52
then cooled 2250 F 90-91 80-82 47-49
2550 F 86-92
2910 F 88-93
-
Total Linear Change,
Percent, 220 F -0.2 to -0.3 -0.2 to -0.6 -0.3 to -0.4 -0.1 to -0.4
Heated to 1500 F -0.4 to -0.7 -0.4 to -0.8 -0.3 to -0.9 -1.7 to -2.0
Temp. of: 2000 F -0.6 to -0.8 -0.3 to -0.8 -0.3 to -1.1 -0.8 to -1.3
then cooled 2250 F -0.4 to -0.6 -0.2 to -1.4 -0.4 to -1.4
2550 F -0.6 to +0.8
2910 F -0.2 to +0.2
Modulus of Rupture,
psi 220 F 265-360 190-350 100-150 200-420
Heated to 1500 F 205-225 140-230 70-90 105-140
Temp. of: 2000 F 280-315 120-250 75-115 100-205
then cooled 2250 F 625-640 155-315 160-170
2550 F 950-955
2910 F 1755-1835

Cold Crushing Strength,

psi 220 F 615-685 560-1040 290-450 390-750 30-70
Heated to 1500 F 550-610 830-710 160-290 295-405 20-80
Temp. of: 2000 F 450-545 460-800 130-220 200-285
then cooled 2250 F 800-880 500-810 270-330
2550 F 265-1415
2910 F 3535-4100
- I
Chemical Analysis, percent
Si0 2 36.52 40.08 37.38 43.17
A1 2 0 3 , Ti0 2 54.63 38.13 34.79 17.68
Fe 2 0 3 , Fe0 1.38 5.31 6.63 3.11
CaO, MgO 4.56 13.53 17.68 31.34
Alkalies 1.11 1.66 1.88 2.05
Ignition Loss 1.90 1.20 1.45 2.40
SO3

Thermal Conductivity (k),

Btu/Hr./Sq. Ft./F./In,
At Mean
Temp. of: 500 F 2.88 2.58 1.66 1.40 0.87
1000 F 3.19 2.86 1.98 1.71 1.15
1500 F 3.50 3.14 2.31 2.01 1.43
2000 F 3.82 3.42 2.63
- -
*C-Casting; T-Troweling; S-Shotcretinq; E-Extruding. All measurements except thermal conductivity taken
at room temperature.
**2000 F (For back-up material)

SI conversion factors
DegF = 1.8 C + 32
1 pcf = 16.02 kg/m'
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 psi = 0.006895 MPa
1 Btu-in./hr-sq ft - deg F

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 REFRACTORY CONCRETE
Plastics are generally placed without use of forms.
With the exception of some specialized tabular alu-
mina castables, plastics have a somewhat higher ser-
vice limit than castable refractories. Their main dis-
advantages are greater shrinkage and crack
development. Except for phosphate bonded mate-
rials cured above 600 F (315 C), plastics generally
have lower cold and hot strengths than refractory
concretes. In addition, plastics tend to have a rela-
tively low strength zone on the cool side of the lin-
ing.
Ramming mixes usually have higher density and
less shrinkage than plastic refractories. With their
low water content, they must be forced into place
and require strong well-braced forms. Some of the
dryer medium grind ramming mixes are suitable for
gunning, and are used for patching and maintenance
materials.
1.6.4 Gunning mixes other than refractory con-
cretes12,13 - As used in this section, the term “gun-
ning mixes” does not refer to refractory concrete
and should not be confused with gunned refractory
materials which produce refractory concrete. Gun-
ning mixes are mixtures of non-hydraulic setting in-
gredients which are installed hot or cold, usually by
the shotcrete method.
Gunning mixes generally have low rebound loss,
are predominately used for patching or resurfacing
brick or other refractories, have a strong internal
bond, and exhibit excellent adhesion or bond to the
existing refractory lining. They find extensive use in
basic oxygen, electric arc and open hearth furnaces,
among other applications.
Chapter 2 - Criteria for refractory concrete
selection
2.1 Introduction
Refractory concrete is usually made with high alu-
mina cement. It is not generally used as a structural
material and its primary purpose is as a protective
lining for steel, concrete or brick structures. It is
considered a consumable material requiring replace-
ment after an appropriate service life.
Some of the destructive forces that refractory con-
cretes withstand are abrasion, erosion, physical
abuse, high temperatures, thermal shock, hot and
molten metals, clinker, slag, alkalies, mild acid or
acid fumes, expansion, contraction, carbon monoxide,
and flame impingement.
Refractory concretes are categorized as either nor-
mal weight or lightweight. The former are also re-
ferred to as “heavy refractory concretes” and the
latter are often called “insulating refractory con-
cretes.” Table 2.la shows the characteristics of a
typical range of normal weight refractory concretes;
Table 2.lb shows the characteristics of lightweight
refractory concretes.
2.2 Castables and field mixes
Refractory concretes are usually prepared at the job
site from materials supplied to the user in either of
two ways: (1) prepackaged so-called “refractory cast-
ables;” (2) field mixes.
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547R-5
Refractory castables are plant packaged mixes
composed of ingredients that are weighed, blended
and usually bagged in convenient sizes for shipping
and handling. They require only mixing with water
on the job to produce refractory concrete. Field
mixes are made from material components which are
proportioned and mixed on the site just prior to the
addition of water.
2.5 Load bearing considerations
Most application designs of refractory concrete con-
sider that there is a thermal gradient through the
material with heat conducted from the hot face to
the cold face. A cross section of the refractory will
usually have a layer at the hot face that has a ce-
ramic bond, an intermediate section with a weaker
combination of ceramic and a partial hydraulic bond,
and a cold face section that retains most of its hy-
draulic bond. Refractory concrete linings in this type
of situation are usually well anchored and self-sup-
porting.
Castables containing high proportions of coarse ag-
gregates produce refractory concrete with good load
bearing characteristics. Certain types of refractory
concrete tend to have low strengths in the inter-
mediate temperature zones [1500-2250 F (820-1230 C)]
and should not be subjected to excessive mechanical
abuse or dead load. Generally, lightweight concretes
designed for insulating purposes should not be sub-
jected to impact, heavy loads, abrasion, erosion or
other physical abuse. Normally, both the strength
and the resistance to destructive forces decline as
the bulk density of the refractory concrete de-
creases.
There are a number of special refractory castables
available which have better than average load-bear-
ing capabilities and withstand abrasion or erosion
much better than the standard types.
2.7 Corrosion influences
High temperature in combination with a corrosive
environment can have a serious deleterious effect on
both the concrete and the backup steel structure.
Generally, the higher density, higher purity refrac-
tory concretes have better corrosion resistance than
the lower density, lower purity types.
Alkalies can effect the service life of refractory
concretes. The furnace charge can give off both alka-
lies (K2O) and the fuel sulfur compounds (SO2) as va-
pors. These can penetrate into the pores of the re-
fractory concrete and react; their reaction products
cool, solidify, and expand, sometimes causing the hot
face of the refractory to peel or shear away.
In certain applications, the refractory concrete is
subjected to highly reducing conditions. Low-iron
refractory concretes should be used for this type of
application.
2.10 Abrasion and erosion resistance
Abrasion and erosion begin with the wearing away
of the weakest matrix constituent, binder, leaving
the coarse or hard aggregate to eventually fall away.
A hard aggregate, a high modulus of rupture, and
high compressive strength at the hot face are neces-
sary for good abrasion and erosion resistance in re-
547R-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTIC
IE

Chapter 3 - Constituent ingredients precautions are taken to ensure a sound refractory

3.2 Binders
The binders principally used in refractory concretes
are calcium aluminate cements. However, ASTM-
type portland cements can be used in some refrac-
tory applications up to an approximate maximum of
2000 F (1090 C) with selected aggregates, if special
concrete. Cyclic heating and cooling tends to disrupt
portland cement concretes and adding a fine si-
liceous material to react with the calcium hydroxide,
formed during hydration, is helpful in alleviating the
problem.
Calcium aluminate (high alumina) cements are
commercially available hydraulic binders. They are

TABLE 3.3a- Maximum service temperature of selected aggregates mixed with calcium aluminate cements
under optimum conditions

Maximum
temperature
- Aggregate
- _ Remarks Deg C Deg F
Alumina, tabular Refractory, abrasion 1870 3400
resistant
Dolomitic limestone Abrasion and corrosion 500 930
(gravel) resistant
Fireclay, expanded Insulating, abrasion and 1640
corrosion resistant
Fireclay brick, Abrasion and corrosion 1600
crushed resistant
Flint fireclay, 1650
calcined
Kaolin, calcined Abrasion and corrosion 1650 3000
resistant
Mullite 1650 3000
Perlite Insulating 1340 2450
Sand (Silica content less 300 570
than 90 percent not recommended)
Abrasion and corrosion
resistant
Slag, blast furnace Abrasion resistant 540 1000
(air cooled)
Slag, blast furnace Insulating, abrasion and 1200 2190
(granulated) corrosion resistant
Trap rock, diabase (Basic Igneous Rock- 1000 1830
Minimal Quartz) Abrasion
and corrosion resistant
Vermiculite Insulating 1100 2010

TABLE 3.3b- Aggregate grading

Maximum size aggregate (except for gun placement) 1 l/z in. (3.81 cm)
Maximum size aggregate for normal gun placement I/4 in.* (0.64 cm)
Maximum size insulating crushed firebrick 1 in. (2.54 cm)
Maximum size expanded shales and clays ‘12 in. (1.27 cm)

Maximum size, with the above exceptions, should

not be greater than 20-25 percent of the
concrete minimum dimension.
Aggregate of V2 in. (1.27 cm) or larger size:
Retained on No. 8 Sieve = 50 percent
Passing No. 100 Sieve = 10-15 percent
Aggregate of less than l/2 in. (1.27 cm) maximum size:
Retained on No. 50 Sieve = 75 percent
Passing No. 100 Sieve = 10-15 percent
*In special cases larger sizes have been used successfully.
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specifically designed for use in monolithic refractory
concrete construction. They are generally classified
under three basic categories: Low Purity, Inter-
mediate Purity, and High Purity. This is a relative
classification scheme and is based primarily on the
total iron content of the cement.
Binder selection is primarily based on the service
temperature desired for the refractory concrete.
Maximum service temperatures are extended with
increasing Al2O3 and decreasing iron contents.
Lower iron content binders are also beneficial in re-
ducing carbon monoxide (CO) disintegration of con-
crete (Section 2.7).
3.3 Aggregates
The maximum service temperatures of selected ag
gregates mixed with appropriate calcium aluminate
cements are listed in Table 3.3a. These maximum
temperatures are based on optimum conditions of
binder and aggregate. Thermal properties of aggre-
gates, such as volume change (expansion, shrinkage
or crystalline inversion) and decomposition, can af-
fect these maximum temperatures, along with the
chemical composition of both aggregate and binder
and the reactivity between these mix constituents.
Temperature stability of the aggregate determines
the maximum service conditions below approx-
imately 2400 F (1320 C). Therefore, any type of cal-
cium aluminate cement can be used at these temper-
atures. For conditions above 2400 F (1320 C), binder
purity also becomes a design factor. Generally, the
low purity binder can be used with proper aggre-
gates up to 2700 F (1480 C), intermediate purity to
3000 F (1650 C) and high purity to 3400 F (1870 C).
Aggregate gradation is an important consideration
in designing refractory concrete. Table 3.3b provides
suggested guidelines for nominal maximum size and
grading of refractory aggregates.
For refractory mix designs a 1:3 or 1:4 by bulk
volume dry basis cement: aggregate mix is generally
used to satisfy typical applications. In certain cases
the ratio may change from as low as 1:2 to as high
as 1:6, with the latter being used for lightweight
concretes. Within the range of normal usage, in-
creasing the cement content will provide higher
strength development. However, increased cement
content may also result in increased shrinkage. A
higher aggregate content will increase insulating or
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refractory properties, depending on the type of ag-
gregate selected for the mix. Combinations of vari-
ous aggregates can be made to secure the desirable
properties of each.
3.3.1 Lightweight aggregates - Perlite, expanded
shale, expanded fireclay, and bubble alumina are the
more commonly used lightweight aggregate for com-
mercial insulating concretes.
3.4 Effects of extraneous materials
Extraneous materials commonly associated with
portland cements, either as admixtures or as con-
taminants from equipment or surrounding condi-
tions, may behave differently when used with cal-
cium aluminate cement mixes. Many castables
contain proprietary additions which may be ad-
versely affected by field admixtures.
Chapter 4 - Composition and proportioning
4.1 Introduction
In designing mixes, refractory concretes are not only
defined by density but also by operating temper-
ature. Refractory concretes fall into three subclasses
based on service temperature ranges. The first sub
class is “ceramically-bonded concrete,” defined as
concrete in which the cement binder and the fine ag-
gregate particles react thermochemically to form a
bond. This bond is referred to as the ceramic bond
and may occur at temperatures as low as 1650 F
(900 C). The second subclass is “heat resistant con-
crete,” defined as concrete in which the cement has
dehydrated but has not formed a ceramic bond. The
third category is concrete which still has some hy-
draulic bond when heated but performs satisfactorily
under cyclic conditions.
4.3 Field mixes
4.3.1 Ceramically bonded concrete - The ceramic
bond can be formed at temperatures as low as
1650 F (900 C). To aid formation of the ceramic bond,
concretes operating above this temperature should
have 10-15 percent of the aggregate passing a No.
100 sieve.
Most field insulating concretes are made with pre-
soaked aggregate. Since the specified proportions
are based on dry materials, the actual batch mixes
may require correction.
547R-8
4.3.2 Heat resistant concrete - This concrete is gen-
erally used in the range 930 F (500 C) to 1650 F (900
C). Many coarse aggregates are unsuitable for use as
refractory aggregates because they contain quartz,
which has a large volume change at 1065 F (575 C ) .
4.4 Water content
A majority of the aggregates used in refractory and
heat resistant concretes have high water absorb-
ency. For this reason specific water/cement ratios
are generally not used in developing mix designs. In-
stead, water requirements are arrived at by period-
ically conducting a “ball-in-hand” test (ASTM C860).
This test is illustrated in Fig. 4.4. The correct water
content is that which will provide a placeable, rather
than a pourable, mix. When using well-soaked aggre-
gates, it may be necessary to add little or no water
at the mixer. It is sometimes found that a mixture
which appears fairly stiff when discharged from the
mixer will yield excess water as the concrete is
placed.
Chapter 5 - Installation
5.1 Introduction
Regardless of the quality of the refractory cement,
aggregate, and/or castable, and regardless of the re-
search devoted to the selection of correct materials
for a specific application, maximum service life will
not be obtained unless the refractory concrete is in-
stalled properly.
The most frequently used methods of installing re-
fractory concretes are casting and shotcreting.
5.2 Casting
5.2.1 Mixing - Proper mixing of castables is of pri-
mary importance. Care should be taken to avoid
mixing previously hydrated material into fresh re-
fractory concrete. Mixers, tools and transporting
equipment used previously with portland or other
type cement concretes must be cleaned prior to mix-
0 Cured 24h
0 Drled 230 F - 24h (110 C)
0 Dried, Fast Fired 2012 F (11 00 C) (ASTM 268-70)
0 1 I 1 I I I I
68 104
32
24h CURE Temperature DEG F
>90% R . H .
Fig. 5.2.3 - Flexural strength of tabular alumina,
high purity cement castable (ASTM C268)
MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
ing. Remains of lime, plaster, or portland cement
will induce flash set and will lower refractoriness.
Generally, paddle mixers are used for small to me-
dium size jobs involving calcium aluminate cement
concretes. In a paddle mixer, normal weight refrac-
tory concretes should be mixed for about 2 to 4 min.
Refractory concretes of less than 60 lbs/cu ft (960
kg/m 3) density should be mixed no longer than nec-
essary to insure thorough wetting. This precaution
is necessary because the lightweight aggregate may
break-up during the mixing action and reduce the ef-
fectiveness of the concrete as a heat insulator. Re-
fractory concretes in the 75 to 90 lb/cu ft (1200-1400
kg/m3) range should be mixed for approximately 2
to 5 min. Because working time may be short, all
castables should be cast immediately after mixing.
5.2.3 Mixing and curing temperature - Mixing and
curing temperature can affect the type of hydrates
formed in set concrete. A castable develops its hy-
draulic bond because of chemical reactions between
the calcium aluminate cement and water. To get the
maximum benefits from these chemical reactions, it
is preferable to form the stable C3AH6 during the
initial curing period. The relative amount of C3AH6
formed versus metastable CAH10 and C2AH8 can be
directly related to the temperature at which the
chemical reactions take place.
Recent work illustrates the significant impact of
mixing and curing temperatures on strength proper-
ties. Fig. 5.2.3 34 shows the flexural strength of a
tabular alumina, high purity cement castable plotted
as a function of mixing and curing temperatures. It
can be seen that the strength developed after mix-
ing and curing at 85 F (30 C) and drying at 230 F
(110 C) is nearly twice that of the concrete mixed
and cured at 60 F (15 C) and dried at 230 F.
Explosive spalling of high purity cement concretes
can occur when casting and curing temperatures be-
low 70 F (21 C) are used. Thus, a refractory concrete
containing a high purity cement should be cast or
cured above 70 F (21 C). This spalling phenomenon is
less likely to occur with low or intermediate purity
cement binders.
Deg c
5.2.4 Transporting - Other than shotcreting and
60 80 pumping, the techniques for transporting refractory
concretes are similar to those used for portland ce-
ment concrete. Some calcium aluminate cement bind-
ers have a shorter placing time available.
5.3 Shotcreting
Shotcreting of refractory concrete is particularly ef-
fective where, (1) forms are impractical, (2) access is
difficult, (3) thin layers and/or variable thicknesses
are required, or (4) normal casting techniques cannot
be employed.
5.3.1 Equipment - There are two basic types of
h shotcrete methods: dry-mix and wet-mix. The dry-
mix method conveys the aggregate and binder pneu-
matically to the nozzle in an essentially dry state
I 1 where water is added in a spray. The wet-mix
140 176
Deg F
method conveys the aggregate, binder and a pre-
determined amount of water, either pneumatically or
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is used to increase the velocity of impact. The dry
method, though it produces greater rebound, is the
 REFRACTORY CONCRETE
most suitable and recommended technique for shot-
creting refractory concrete. An exception is the rec-
ommended use of a wet-mix gun for hot patching.
5.3.2 Installation - To ensure a uniform covering
free of laminations and with minimum rebound, the
nozzleman should move the nozzle in a small circular
orbit and where possible, maintain the flow from a 3-
4 ft (0.9-1.2 m) distance at right angles to the receiv-
ing surface.35
5 The shotcrete should be left in its as-
placed state. If for some reason scraping or finishing
is required, the absolute minimum should be done so
as to avoid breaking the bond or creating surface
cracks. Shotcreting of refractory concretes can in-
crease the in-place density and result in other
changes in the physical properties. This effect is
more pronounced in lower density castables, and
must be taken into account when specifying thick-
nesses and material quantities for insulating appli-
cations. The user should be aware that certain as-
pects of portland cement concrete shotcrete practice
do not apply to refractory shotcrete.
5.4 Pumping and extruding
Certain refractory concretes can be installed with
positive displacement pumps in conjunction with
rigid or flexible pipelines. The design of the mix is
critical, and special attention must be given to the
absorptive characteristics and sizing of the aggre-
gate.
Some applicators use the term “extruding” to de-
scribe the conveying and placing of refractory con-
crete at velocities that are very low or close to zero
on exit from the pipeline. When extruding, mixing of
the refractory castable and water can be done inter-
nally or externally depending on type of extruding
device.
5.5 Pneumatic gun casting
Pneumatic gun casting, or gun casting, is a rela-
tively new technique for casting concrete and is find-
ing increased uses for refractory concrete. Con-
ventional dry shotcrete equipment and procedures
are utilized with the exception that an energy reduc-
ing device is attached to the nozzle body in place of
the standard shotcrete nozzle tip.
5.8 Finishing
Surface finishing or rubbing of refractory concretes
should be kept at a minimum. Use of a steel trowel
should be avoided, and the final surface can be
lightly screeded to grade but should not be worked
in any manner.
Chapter 6 - Curing, drying, firing8,16,17,18
6.1 Introduction
Refractory concrete should be properly cured for at
least the first 24 hr. Following this curing it should
be dried at 220 F (105 C), and then heated slowly un-
til the combined water has been removed before
heating at a more rapid rate.
6.2 Bond mechanisms
Calcium aluminate cements have anhydrous mineral
phases which react with water to form alumina gel
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547R-9
CA
+
)
> 95 F (35 C)
I\
a) Reaction Products of CA
CA H 10 + A H 3
CA2
+ H
Reaction Products of CA 2
The cement chemistry abbreviations:
C = CaO
A = Al2O3
H = H2O
Fig. 6.2 - Hydration reaction products of calcium
aluminates 195
and crystalline compounds which function as a
binder for the concrete. 20,21 The hydration of these
cements (Fig. 6.2) is exothermic. The rate of the
chemical reaction is relatively fast.22 For all practical
purposes, calcium aluminate concretes will develop
full strength within 24 hr of mixing.
The total drying shrinkage of calcium aluminate
cement concretes in air, is comparable to that of
portland cement concrete. In order to provide for
complete hydration, and to control drying shrinkage,
special attention must be given to the curing of ref-
ractory concretes.
6.3 Curing
The temperature of hardening calcium cement rises
rapidly. If the exposed surfaces are not kept damp,
the cement on the surface may dry out before it can
be properly hydrated. The application of curing wa-
ter prevents the surface from becoming dry and fur-
nishes water for hydration. In addition, the evapo-
ration has a cooling effect which helps to dissipate
the heat of hydration.
Conversion of the high alumina cement hydrates,
which occurs if the cement is allowed to develop ex-
cessive heat, does not present the same problem in
refractory concretes that it does in high alumina ce-
ment concretes used for structural purposes. It has
been shown that if refractory concrete is fully con-
verted by allowing it to harden in hot water and
then heated to 2500 F (1370 C), the fired strength is
equal to that obtained for well cured concrete. When
possible, however, refractory concrete should be
547R-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
kept cool by appropriate curing under 210 F (99 C)
for two reasons:
l The entire refractory concrete structure does not
usually reach the maximum service temperature,
and the higher cold strengths obtained by good cur-
ing may be useful in the cooler portions of the re-
fractory.
l If the temperature within the concrete reaches a
high level during hardening, the thermal stresses
produced during cooling may be sufficient to cause
cracking.
Curing should start as soon as the surface is firm.
Under normal atmospheric temperatures, this will
occur within 4 to 10 hr after mixing the concrete.
The concrete should be kept moist for 24 hr by cov-
ering with wet burlap, by fine spraying or by using
a curing membrane. Alternate wetting and drying
can be detrimental to the cure of the concrete.
When using a curing membrane, the compound
should contain a resin and not a wax base, and
should be applied to the surface as soon as possible
after placing and screeding. The reason for dis-
couraging the use of wax is that a hot surface will
melt the wax, causing it to be absorbed into the con-
crete, breaking the membrane.
6.4 Drying
The large amount of free water in the refractory
concrete necessitates a drying period before expo-
sure to operating temperatures. Otherwise, the for-
mation of steam may lead to explosive spalling dur-
ing firing.
6.5 Firing
Following drying of the refractory concrete, the first
heat-up should be at a reasonably slow rate. A typi-
cal firing schedule, for a 9 in. (22.9 cm) thick lining,
consists of applying a slow heat by gradually bring-
ing the temperature up to 220 F (105 C), and holding
for at least 6 hr. The temperature is then raised at a
rate of 50-100 F (10-40 C) per hr up to 1000 F
(540 C) and again held for at least 6 hr. The first
hold is to allow remaining free water to evaporate,
and the second hold is to eliminate the combined wa-
ter without danger of spalling.
Beyond 1900 F (540 C), the temperature of the re-
fractory concrete can be raised more rapidly. Calcin-
ing of the green concrete into a refractory structure
will take place between 1600 F (820 C) and 2500 F
(1370 C). Wall thickness and mix variations may re-
quire somewhat different rates of heating, but the
hold temperatures should remain at least 6 hr.
If steam is observed during heat-up, the temper-
ature should be held until steam is no longer visible.
Cbapter 7 - Properties of Normal Weight
Refractory Concretes
7.1 Introduction
There are various physical properties and tests
which are standard in the refractory industry and
these are usually provided in the material specifica-
tions. Table 2.la is an example of typical data for
normal weight refractory concrete.
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7.2 Maximum service temperature
The recommended maximum service temperature
will normally assume that the castable will be used
in a clean, oxidizing atmosphere, such as is present
when firing with natural gas. The maximum service
temperature is usually determined as the point
above which excessive shrinkage will take place. It
is about 150-200 F (70-90 C) below the actual soft-
ening point of the concrete.
If a fuel has solid impurities, such as in coals or
heavy fuel oils, or if the solids or dust in the process
contact the refractory, the maximum permissible
service temperature will usually be considerably re-
duced. Solid impurities can react with the concrete
and produce compounds of lower melting point
which melt and run. This is generally referred to as
slagging. The lower softening point thus represents
a limit for the operating temperature. Slag forming
reactions usually do not occur below about 2500 F
(1320 C) except in the presence of alkalies where re-
actions can occur in the 1900-2000 F (1040-1090 C)
range.
A reducing atmosphere can lower the melting
point and hence the maximum operating temper-
ature by 100-200 F (40-90 C) if sufficient quantities of
iron compounds are present in the refractory.3
7.4 Shrinkage and expansion
In discussing shrinkage and expansion of a refrac-
tory concrete, it is important to define the dis-
tinction between the independent effects of per-
manent shrinkage or expansion and reversible
thermal expansion. Permanent change is determined
by measuring a specimen at room temperature, heat-
ing it to a specified temperature, cooling to room
temperature, and remeasuring it. The difference be-
tween the two measurements is the permanent
change, which occurs during the first heating cycle.
Subsequent heating to the same or lower temper-
ature will have little or no additional effect on the
permanent change. Heating to a higher temperature
may cause some additional permanent change.
Reversible thermal expansion of a specimen which
has been previously stabilized against further per-
manent change, is the dimensional change as a speci-
men is heated. Upon cooling, the specimen contracts
to its original size.
At any given temperature, the net dimensional
change of a refractory concrete is the sum of the re-
versible expansion and the permanent shrinkage cor-
responding to the highest temperature to which the
castable has been heated.
7.4.1 Permanent shrinkage and expansion - The ini-
tial heating of a refractory concrete usually causes
shrinkage. At higher temperatures permanent ex-
pansion can occur. This effect, which varies with the
maximum temperature attained, must be considered
with reversible thermal expansion when calculating
the net expansion (or shrinkage) at service temper-
ature. The ASTM rating of castables is based on no
more than 1.5 percent permanent linear shrinkage
occurring at prescribed temperatures (ASTM C64
and C401). Most normal weight refractory concretes
will have less than 0.5 percent permanent linear
shrinkage after firing at 2000 F (1090 C).
 REFRACTORY CONCRETE 547-11

The permanent change appears as cracks after the _____

Deg C
4;. 260 540 820 1090
first firing. These cracks will generally be about 2-3 | | | |

ft (0.6-0.9 m) on centers, and may vary, depending

on the concrete thickness and the anchor spacing.
Usually, the width of the cracks at room temper-
ature is partly dependent on the permanent shrink-
age. Normally, the cracks will be tightly closed at
INITIAL COOLING AND
operating temperatures. Such cracking, which may SUBSEQUENT CYCLING
start during drying, is to be expected and will not
adversely affect the service performance of the re-
fractory.
7.4.2 Reversible thermal expansion - The reversible
thermal expansion of most refractory concretes is -0.2
approximately 3 x 10-6 in./in./F (5 x 10-6 cm/cm/CL 00 500 1000 1500 2000

However, the expansion coefficient may be as high Temperature Deg F

as 4 x 10-6 in./in./F (7 x 10-6 cm/cm/C) for high alu-
mina concretes and to 5 x 10-6 in./in. /F (9 x 10-6
cm/cm/C) for chrome castables. Fig. 7.4.2 shows
typical length changes due to permanent shrinkage
and reversible expansion.
7.5 Strength
7.5.1 Modulus of rupture - Modulus of rupture is
measured by means of a flexure test and is consid-
ered as a measure of tensile strength (ASTM C268).
The extreme fiber tensile strength calculated from
this test will be 50 to 100 percent higher than the
tensile strength derived from a straight pull test.
Typical modulus of rupture values are 300 to 1500
psi (2.07-10.4 MPa). Shotcreting can increase modu-
lus of rupture values by up to 50 percent.
Fig. 7.5 shows typical trends of modulus of rup-
ture strength versus temperature.
7.5.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) - The
test is ordinarily run on 9 x 41/2 x 21/2 in. (22.9 x 11.4
x 6.4 cm) specimens 9 in. (22.9 cm) straights in brick
terminology with pressure applied to the smallest.
surface (ASTM C133). Failure in this test is gener-
ally due to shear.
Crushing strengths vary from 1000 to 8000 psi (6.9
to 55.2 MPa). Typically, compressive strengths are
three to four times greater than modulus of rupture
values.
7.6 Thermal conductivity
For normal weight refractory concretes, thermal
conductivity tends to vary with density. Typical val-
ues (k factors) range from about 5 Btu-in./sq ft -hr-F
(72 W -cm/m 2-C) for 120 pcf (1920 kg/m 3) material to
about 10 Btu-in./sq ft -hr -F (144 W-cm/m2-C) for
160 pcf (2560 kg/m 3 ) material. There is usually an in-
crease in thermal conductivity with temperature.
7.10 Specific beat
The specific heat of a refractory concrete increases
with temperature from about 0.20 Btu/lb/F (837 J/
kg-C) at 100 F (40 C) to about 0.29 Btu/lb/F (1210 J/
kg-C) at 2500 F (1370 C). This can vary plus or minus
0.025 units, depending on the aggregate.
Fig. 7.4.2 - Net thermal expansion of a typical re-
fractory concrete
100 pcf (320 to 1600 kg/m3) and can be formulated to
have high maximum service temperatures and rela-
tively high strengths. This often allows the use of
these materials as single component, exposed service
linings.
Table 2.lb shows physical property values for typ-
ical lightweight refractory concretes.
8.4 Shrinkage and expansion
The reversible thermal expansion of lightweight con-
cretes will vary from 2.5 x 10-6 to 3.5 x 1O -6 in./in./F
(4.5 x l0 -6cm/cm/C) Because of compensating per-
manent shrinkage, the thermal expansion of light-
weight refractory concrete is normally insignificant
and is usually ignored in the design of lightweight
refractory concrete systems.
8.5 Strength
Strengths of lightweight refractory concrete are
measured by both a modulus of rupture and a crush-
ing test.
8.5.1 Modulus of rupture - Typical values range
from approximately 50 (0.3 MPa) to 400 psi (2.8
MPa).
Deg C
100 260 540 820 1090 1370
-1” ---I----w

Chapter 8 - Properties of lightweight

refractory concretes 212 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

8.1 Introduction Temperature Deg F

Refractory concretes are widely used as insulating Fig. 7.5 - Effect of temperature on modulus of rup-
materials. They have a wide range of densities (20 to ture
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547R-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
TABLE 8.5.1 - Hot and cold modulus of rupture of a 2800F (1538C) lightweight refractory
concrete containing expanded fireclay aggregate
(Hot tested
at temperature)
230F (110C) 350 (2.4)
1 0 0 0 F (538C) 300 (2.1)
1500F (816C) 250 (1.7)
2000F (1093C) 210 (1.4)
2500F (1371C) 240 (1.7)
2700F (1482C) 90 (0.6)
*N.D. = Not Determined
Table 8.5.1 shows the difference between the cold
and hot modulus of rupture for a typical 2800 F
(1540 C) lightweight refractory concrete.
8.6.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) - Cold 9.4 Anchors41,44,45,46
crushing strengths vary from 200-500 psi (1.4-3.5
MPa) for lightweight refractory concretes with den-
sities up to 50 pcf (800 kg/m3). For materials having
densities in the 75-100 pcf (1200-1600 kg/m3) range,
the cold crushing strength varies from 1000-2500 psi
(6.9-17-3 MPa).
8.6 Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is one of the most important
physical properties of a lightweight refractory con-
crete and is controlled primarily by the density of
the concrete. For hydraulically bonded, alumina-si-
lica concretes, a usable correlation exists between
concrete density [after drying at 230 F (110 C)] and
the thermal conductivity (k factor). Typically, the
thermal conductivity for insulating concretes ranges
from 1 to 4 Btu-in./sq ft-hr-F (0.1 to 0.6 W/M2-C).
8.10 Specific Heat
The specific heat of a lightweight refractory con-
crete is approximately the same as that of normal
weight concrete. The range is from 0.2 Btu/lb/F
(837 J/kg-Cl at 100 F (40 C) to approximately 0.3
Btu/lb/F (1255 J/kg-C) at 2500 F (1370 C).
Chapter 9 - Construction details
8.1 Introduction
Construction details are an important ingredient in
the successful application of refractory concrete.
Proper design details and careful implementation are
essential, and parameters such as support structure
integrity, forms, anchors, and construction joints
have a major influence on the overall quality and
performance of refractory concrete installations.
8.2 Support structure
Normally, refractory concrete is permanently sup-
ported by a back-up structure. The support material
is usually bolted or welded steel which, prior to in-
stallation of the refractory concrete, should be
checked to ensure that there is no warpage and that
all joints are structurally sound and tight.
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Modulus of rupture, psi (MPa)
(Cold tested after
-___----- firing and cooling)
350 (2.4)
N.D.*
250 (1.7)
225 (1.6)
470 (3.2)
800 (5.5)
8.3 Forms
Both metal and wood forms are used for refractory
concrete.
An anchor is a device used to hold refractory con-
crete in a stable position while counteracting the ef-
fects of dead loads, thermal stressing and cycling,
and mechanical vibration. Anchors and anchoring
systems are not designed to function as reinforce-
ment.
Anchors are produced as alloy steel rods or cast-
ings, and prefired refractory ceramic shapes. The re-
quirements of a particular installation will determine
the type and positioning of anchors. Typical factors
to be considered are: unit size, wall thickness, num-
ber of refractory concrete components, area of appli-
cation, and service temperature.
9.4.1 Metal anchors - The most frequently used
metal anchors are V-clips, studs, and castings. How-
ever, in special applications, welded wire fabric, hex
steel and chain link fencing are used. Generally,
metal anchors are extended from the cold face for
2/3 to 3/4 of the lining thickness and are staggered
to avoid formation of planes of weakness.
Metal V-clips, stud anchors and castings are avail-
able in carbon steel, Type 304 stainless alloy, Type
310 stainless alloy, and other suitable alloys. The
choice of material depends on the temperature to
which the anchors will be exposed. Carbon steel can
be used for anchor temperatures of up to 1000 F
(540 C). Type 304 stainless is suitable for anchor
temperatures of up to 1800 F (980 C) and Type 310
stainless is adequate up to 2000 F (1095 C). Depend-
ing on the grade of alloy, alloy steel castings can
sustain a maximum temperature of between 1500 F
(815 C) and 2000 F (1095 C).
9.4.2 Pre-fired refractory anchors (ceramic anchors)
- The principal use of ceramic anchors is to anchor
refractory plastic, rather than refractory concrete.
However, ceramic anchors are used in areas where
refractory concrete is subjected to high service tem-
perature. In addition, they are sometimes used as a
substitute for metal anchors where concrete thick-
nesses are 9 in. (230 mm), or greater.
Ceramic anchors usually are composed of refrac-
tory aggregates, clays, and binders. They are me-
 REFRACTORY CONCRETE
chanically pressed into shapes which provide for at-
tachment to either the wall or roof and are ribbed to
aid in securing the refractory concrete. Ceramic an-
chors are pre-fired at elevated temperature to pro-
vide a strong, dense structure. Depending on the
composition, service conditions, and other factors,
ceramic anchors are available with maximum service
temperature ratings of up to 3200 F (1760 C).
Ceramic anchors are attached to structural wall or
roof supports by bolts and/or metal support cast-
ings. In order to minimize the tendency of the re-
fractory concrete to sheet spall, the hot face of the
ceramic anchor should extend to the hot face of the
refractory concrete.
9.4.6.1 Thin single component linings. Plain metal
chain link fencing is often used to anchor single com-
ponent linings, less than 2 in. (50 mm) thick, com-
posed of lightweight or medium weight refractory
concrete and exposed to low to moderate mechanical
stresses and/or service temperatures.
9.4.5.2 Single component linings up to 9 in. (230 mm)
thick. Normally, single component linings 2 in.
(50 mm) to 9 in. (230 mm) thick, composed entirely of
lightweight, medium weight or normal weight re-
fractory concrete, and exposed to moderate stresses
and service temperatures use metal anchors.
9.4.5.3 Single component linings greater than 9 in.
(230 mm) thick. Normal weight refractory concrete
linings, greater than 9 in. (230 mm) thick, utilize ei-
ther ceramic or metal anchors. The type of anchor
chosen will depend on the operating parameters.
9.4.5.4 Roofs. Two types of anchor systems, internal
and external, are used for single component roofs.
The choice depends on roof thickness and on con-
struction and design preferences.
9.4.5.5 Multicomponent linings. Multicomponent lin-
ings of 9 in. (230 mm) or less in thickness which are
subjected to moderate service temperatures and me-
chanical stresses should employ metal anchors.
Multicomponent linings of 9 in. (230 mm) or
greater thickness, composed of a combination of
lightweight or medium weight refractory concrete as
back-up in conjunction with a normal weight refrac-
tory concrete, can use a combination of ceramic and
metal anchors.
With multicomponent shotcrete linings, the back-
up component is applied directly to the shell and
provisions must be made either to protect the an-
chor (metal or ceramic) from rebound build-up, or to
clean the anchor after placing of the back-up layer.
Rebound build-up can destroy the grip between the
heavy weight refractory concrete and the ceramic
anchor.
9.5 Reinforcement and metal embedment
The use of steel as a reinforcement should be
avoided. In general, the metal will cause cracking
due to the differential expansion, caused by temper-
ature or oxidation, between the metal and concrete.
For the same reason heavy metal objects such as
bolts, pipes, etc. should never be embedded in re-
fractory concrete.
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547R-13
8.6 Joints37,48
In cast installations, construction joints occur at the
junction of walls and roofs or where large place-
ments are broken into separate sections. Cold joints
of this type will not bond and should be avoided
where it is necessary to contain liquid or gases.
It is often necessary to include a provision for ex-
pansion. Expansion joints can be formed by inserting
materials such as wood, cardboard, expanded poly-
styrene or ceramic fiber in the appropriate location.
Shotcrete installations require construction joints
at transitions between materials, or when appli-
cation must be curtailed due to shift changes or ma-
terial supply. In these cases, the in situ refractory
concrete should be trimmed back to produce a clean
edge perpendicular to the shell. Expansion com-
pensating materials are not generally inserted into
this type of joint. If a joint edge is allowed to stand
for a prolonged period of time (more than 4 hr), it
should be thoroughly moistened before any new ma-
terial is applied.
Chapter 10 - Repair
10.1 Introduction
Repair of refractory concrete should be considered
only when economics dictate that cost and downtime
do not justify complete replacement. Before under-
taking a repair, an effort should be made to deter-
mine the cause of the previous failure. If possible,
the design and/or construction details should be
modified to reduce the possibility of a recurrence of
failure and to prolong service life between repairs.
Hot repair techniques are valuable for minimizing
downtime and for extending an operating run until a
scheduled shutdown. Hot repairs are especially suit-
able for temporary repairs of localized failures and
hot spots.
10.2 Failure mechanisms
Some of the phenomena that can cause failure are:
(1) Thermal stress and thermal shock; (2) Exposure
to excessive temperatures; (3) Mechanical loading;
(4) Erosion and abrasion: (5) Corrosive environments;
(6) Anchorage failures and (7) Operational problems
or upsets.
10.3 Surface preparation
When the installation to be repaired is made of mor-
tar or concrete, it is important to prepare the sur-
face of the old material so that a mechanical bond
will be formed between it and the new refractory
concrete. No significant chemical bond will be
formed, and adhesion of the repair material must de-
pend primarily on the mechanical bond. Preparation
of the surface requires removal of all deteriorated or
spalled materials and roughening of the exposed
sound surface of the old concrete. In all cases, the
chipping of old material must leave a flat base, and
square shoulders approximately perpendicular to the
hot face, completely around the perimeter of the re-
pair section. If this is done properly, there is no
need to chamfer the edges or provide fillets to walls
and floors. Once initial removal of loose concrete has
547R-14
been completed, the old refractory should be
sounded with bars or hammers to make certain only
sound material remains.
Areas that were not chipped should be thoroughly
sandblasted to remove any traces of soot, grease, oil
or other substances that could interfere with the
bond. Excess sand and loose debris must then be
blown from the surface with compressed air. Par-
ticular care must be taken to remove any debris
from around the anchors.
10.4 Anchoring and bonding
If possible, patches should be anchored with a min-
imum of two anchors which should be solidly at-
tached to the shell. In cases where this is impossible,
anchors should be solidly embedded in the old re-
fractory. Ceramic anchors should extend to the hot
face of the new refractory concrete. Otherwise,
sheet spalling may occur. If metal anchors are used,
they should be brought as close as possible to the
hot face. The distance will depend on the metal-
lurgy of the anchors and the thermal conductivity of
the concrete.
Where anchors are not practical, or repairs are
shallow, mechanical bonding will be aided by cutting
chases or keyways in a waffle pattern across the en-
tire surface of the repair section and by slightly un-
dercutting the existing refractory.
In certain limited applications, where other means
are not available, the bond may be improved by pre-
coating the surface to be repaired with a bonding
agent. When repairing refractory concrete with a
similar cast-in-place material pre-wetting is required,
and use of a neat calcium aluminate cement slurry
may improve bonding.
10.5 Repair materials
A wide range of repair products is available for re-
pairing refractory concrete. However, it is usually
best to use a material similar to that being repaired.
Refractory concrete is frequently used as a repair
material and performs satisfactorily in many situa-
tions. Among the other available repair materials
are the following:
1. Air setting mortars;
2. Phosphate-bonded and clay-based heat-setting
mortars;
3. Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete;
(Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete will gener-
ally exhibit superior resistance to cracking and abra-
sion. However, the fibers will not perform well if the
temperatures to which they are exposed induce oxi-
dation. If the conditions are such that the fiber-rein-
forced system is above the oxidizing, but below the
melting temperature of the particular fibers being
used, it is possible that they may still be utilized, de-
pending on the temperature gradient through the
concrete, the furnace atmosphere, the permeability
of the concrete, the severity and frequency of tem-
perature cycles, the exposure time at maximum tem-
perature, and the mechanical loading.)
4. Plastic refractories and ramming mixes; and
5. Hot repair materials. Some of the repair mate-
rials used for hot patching contain calcium aluminate
cement as the principal binder, however, most do
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not. The latter utilize non-hydraulic and chemical
binders (see Section 1.6.4). Since these materials are
intended for temporary repairs, they may not have
service life or properties equivalent to those in the
original lining.
While field mixes can be used for hot gunning,
most applications use proprietary (prepackaged) ma-
terials which are specially designed for specific con-
ditions of installation. Some manufacturers have de-
signed special spray or gunning equipment and
maintenance programs to install their hot repair ma-
terials on a planned basis.
10.6 Repair techniques
10.6.2 Refractory concrete - When a refractory con-
crete is selected to effect repairs, the type of place-
ment procedure must insure that the full thickness
of the repair section is installed in as short a time as
possible, preferably in a single lift.
When refractory concrete is placed by the shot-
crete method, certain precautions must be fol-
lowed.35 The area being repaired must be delineated
in advance so that the concrete can be shot to the
full section depth or thickness before any layer de-
velops an initial set.
It is important that the refractory concrete be
cured properly during the 24-hr period following
placement (see Section 6.3). After the concrete has
been moist-cured for 24 hr, drying and firing can be
initiated (see Sections 6.4 and 6.5). Speeding up the
moist-curing, drying and firing can result in a
marked reduction in the physical properties and life
of the repair.
10.6.3 Plastic and ramming mixes - A refractory
mortar coating may be used to improve bonding
when repairing refractory concrete with a plastic or
ramming mix. In order to achieve high density and
prevent laminations, it is recommended that plastic
refractories be installed by the pneumatic ramming
method using a steel wedge-type head. The basic
pattern of ramming should be to build up layers of
plastic on top of the backing wall. The plastic is
placed in strips and laid at right angles to the forms.
It is important to angle the pneumatic rammer so
that the strips are driven against the form, and side-
ways against the previously installed material. The
repaired area should be trimmed to a rough surface
for more uniform drying.
Moisture escape holes should be made by inserting
a 1/8 in. (3 mm) diameter pointed rod, approx-
imately two-thirds of the depth of the material, on
approximately 6 in. (150 mm) centers. In order to
prevent formation of an outer skin, which can seal in
moisture, a short period of forced drying of air-set-
ting plastic refractories is desirable. Excessive tem-
perature or direct flame impingement, which will
seal the surface and prevent escape of moisture,
must be avoided.
The following heat-curing procedure has been
found to give good results with plastic and ramming
mixes: Remove all free moisture at a temperature of
not over 250 F (120 C). Following removal of free
and absorbed moisture, raise the temperature at a
rate of 75-100 F (42-56 C) /hr until the desired oper-
ating temperature is reached. If steam is observed
during heat-up, hold the present temperature until it
stops.
Whenever possible, repairs using plastic mixes
should be carried out immediately prior to heat-up.
A properly burned-in plastic will exhibit less crack-
ing than a plastic exposed to lengthy air drying.
10.6.4 Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete
10.6.4.1 Cast-in-place mixes. A problem with steel fi-
bers is their tendency to “ball-up”. Clusters of fibers
can be broken up by hand feeding or shaking of the
sieve before addition to the concrete mix. In some
cases, vibration will tighten up the fiber clusters and
it is not a recommended method of fiber dispersal.
The addition of steel fibers tends to reduce the
workability of the mix. Normally, this can be over-
come by internal or external vibration. Use of addi-
tional water is not recommended since this will de-
grade cured strength and increase the porosity.
10.6.4.2 Shotcrete mixes. Steel fiber reinforced re-
fractory concretes can be shot into place by either
the wet or dry process. Fiber lengths approaching
the internal diameter of the material hose or nozzle
can be shot successfully. Because rebound of the fi-
bers can be dangerous, the nozzleman and support
crew should wear protective clothing when dry
shooting with steel fibers.
10.6.5 Hot repair procedures - Hot repair pro-
cedures are based on standard shotcreting tech-
nology. However, because of the high temperatures,
certain differences are necessary. Compared to nor-
mal shotcreting, the high temperatures require a
specially designed nozzle and an excessive amount of
water in the mix in order to insure proper delivery,
impingement, compaction, and material retention.
Hot shotcreting requires that the nozzleman and a
helper stand outside the furnace and manually or
mechanically manipulate an extended nozzle or
“lance” within the furnace. Special ports or openings
must be provided in the furnace for proper access.
The length, size, and design of the nozzle depends on
the furnace configuration, temperature, and type of
application.
In general, the best bonds are achieved when the
vessel interior is a red or orange color (1500-1700 F
(815-925 C)]. The refractory concrete repair must be
allowed to heat-cure prior to placing the unit back in
service. The length of time to accomplish this, al-
though usually brief, will depend on the temperature
at the time of repair, the type of material used for
the repair, and the thickness of the installed mate-
rial.
Chapter 11- Applications
11.1 Introduction
Refractory concretes are currently used in a wide
variety of industrial applications where pyroprocess-
ing or thermal containment is required. Because
there are literally hundreds of refractory concretes
available, it is impossible to discuss every composi-
tion and its application. Accordingly, only the more
important applications, where refractory concretes
have been used successfully, are reviewed. Included
in the review are the following industries:
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(a) Iron and steel
(b)lNon-ferrous metal
(c)lPetrochemical
(d)lCeramic processing
(e)lGlass
(f) Steam power generation
(g) Aerospace
(h)lNuclear
(i) Gas production
(j) MHD power generation
(k) Lightweight aggregate
(l) Incinerator
(m) Cement and lime
Chapter 12 -New development and future use
of refractory concrete
12.1 Introduction
Traditionally, developments in the refractories in-
dustry have been closely related to the process in-
dustries, the primary customers for the product.
In recent years, there have been marked changes
in the production and use of refractories. A number
of factors have contributed to these changes includ-
ing:
(a) development of new and improved industrial
processes,
(b) demand for higher temperatures and increased
production rates associated with the above devel-
opments,
(c) improvement in the quality of refractory prod-
ucts and increased use of different types of refrac-
tories, especially the monolithic castables and,
(d) increased technical knowledge of the service
behavior of refractory materials.
With these technological advancements, in-
vestigations into the use of refractory concretes for
special applications is increasing. Typical of these
new and proposed applications are incinerators, coal
gasification plants, chemical process plants, steel
plants, and foundries.
12.2 New developments
12.2.1 Steel fibers187,188,189,191 - The following poten-
tial advantages are offered by the use of steel-fiber
reinforcement in monolithic construction:
(a) improved flexural strength at ambient and ele-
vated temperatures,
(b) improved thermal and mechanical stress resis-
tance,
(c) improved thermal shock resistance,
(d) improved spall resistance, and
(e) improved load-carrying ability.
However, degradation of the steel fibers at high
temperature can occur under service conditions and,
therefore, limit the full potential of these materials.
Note: See References 197 through 205.
12.2.2 Shotcrete - The use of shotcrete for new re-
fractory construction and for repairs is a rapidly
growing field and successful results have been
achieved in many applications.
12.2.3 Precast shapes - Increasingly, precast shapes
are being used for special conditions and this trend
will continue.
547R-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
12.3 Research requirements
Unfortunately, selection and use of refractory con-
cretes is still considered an art and, with a few ex-
ceptions, the properties of refractory concretes are
not utilized in rational design schemes. In many in-
stances, the wrong properties are being measured or
the available data are not being used correctly.
Future research efforts should be directed to-
wards obtaining a better understanding of the be-
havior of refractory concretes under service condi-
tions. Increased emphasis will be placed on elevated
temperature properties and how they are influenced
by such factors as proportioning, grading and compo
sition.
Areas of needed research include the following:
(a) Dimensional stability
(b) Chemical attack
(c) Mechanical properties
(d) Property measurements and tests
(e) Process conditions
(f) Rational design procedures
References
1. ACI Committee 116, Cement and Concrete Terminol-
ogy, SP-19, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1967,
146 pp.
2. Van Schoeck, Emily C., Editor, Ceramic Glossary,
American Ceramic Society, Columbus, 1963.
3. Norton, F. H., Refractories, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1968, 782 pp.
5. Robson, T. D., High Alumina Cements and Concretes,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1962, 263 pp.
20. Chatterji, S., and Jeffry, J. W., “Microstructure of
Set High-Alumina Cement Pastes,” Transactions, British
Ceramic Society (London), V. 67, May 1968, pp. 171-183.
21. Midgley, H. G., “The Mineralogy of Set High-Alu-
mina Cement,” Transactions, British Ceramic Society (Lon-
don), 1966, pp. 161-187.
22. Wygant, J. F., “Cementitious Bonding in Ceramic
Fabrication,” Ceramic Fabrication Processes, W. D. King
ery, Editor, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1958, pp.
171-198.
34. Givan, G. V.; Hart, L. D.; Heilich, R. P.; and Mac-
Zura, G., “Curing and Firing High Purity Calcium Alumi-
nate Bonded Tabular Alumina Castables,” American Ce-
ramic Society Bulletin, V. 54, No. 8, 1975, pp. 710-713.
35. Shotcreting, SP-14, American Concrete Institute, De-
troit, 1966, 223 pp.
41. Wygant, J. F., and Crowley, M. S., “Designing Mon-
olithic Refractory Vessel Linings,” American Ceramic So-
ciety Bulletin, V. 3, No. 3, 1964, pp. 173-182.
44. Crowley, M. S., “Failure Mechanism of Two-Com-
ponent Lining for Flue-Gas Dust,” American Ceramic So-
ciety Bulletin, V. 47, No. 5, 1968, pp. 481-483.
45. Crowley, M. S., “Metal Anchors for Refractory Con-
cretes,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V. 45, No. 7,
1966, pp. 650-652.
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46. Vaughn, S. H., Jr., “Guidelines for Selection of Mon-
olithic Refractory Anchoring Systems,” Iron and Steel En-
gineer, May 1972, p. 64.
187. Lankard, D. R., and Sheets, H. D., “Use of Steel
Wire Fibers in Refractory Castables,” American Ceramic
Society Bulletin, V. 50, No. 5, 1971, pp. 497500.
188. Lankard, D. R.; Bundy, G. B.; and Sheets, H. D.,
“Strengthening Refractory Concrete,” Industrial Process
Heating (London), V. 13, No. 3, Mar. 1973. pp. 34-47.
189. Lankard, D. R., “Steel Fiber Reinforced Refractory
Concrete,” Refractory Concrete, SP-57, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 241-263.
191. Fowler, T. J., “Lessons Learned from Refractory
Concrete Failures,” Refractory Concrete, SP-57, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 283-303.
195. Tseung, A. L. L., and Carruthers, T. G., ‘Refrac-
tory Concretes Based on Pure Calcium Aluminate Ce-
ments,” Transactions, British Ceramic Society (London), V.
62, 1963, pp. 305-321.
197. Peterson, J. R., and Vaughan, F. H., “Metal Fiber
Reinforced Refractory for Petroleum Refinery Applica-
tions,” Paper No. 51, Presented at Corrosion/80, National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Pittsburgh, 1980.
198. Crowley, M. S., “Steel Fiber in Refractory Applica-
tions,” Paper No. MC-81-5. National Petroleum Refiners
Association Refinery and Petrochemical Maintenance Con-
ference, Pittsburgh, 1981.
199. Venable, C. R., Jr., “Refractory Requirements for
Ammonia Plants,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V.
48, No. 12, 1969, pp 1114-1117.
200. Farris, R. E., “Refractory Concrete: Installation
Problems and Their Identification,” 18th Annual Sympo-
sium on Refractories-Changes in Refractory Technol-
ogy-In Place Forming, American Ceramic Society, St.
Louis Section, The Engineers Club, Mar. 12, 1982.
201. MacZura, G.; Hart, L. D.; Heilich, R. P.; and Ko-
panda, J. E., “Refractory Cements,” Ceramic Engineers
and Science Proc.-Raw Materials for Refractories Con-
ference, (4) 1-2, 1983, pp. 46-67.
202. “Standard Recommended Practices for Determin-
ing Consistency of Refractory Concretes,” (ASTM C 860-
77), 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
pp. 932-937.
203. “Standard Recommended Practice for Preparing
Refractory Concrete Specimens by Casting, (ASTM C 862-
77), 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
pp. 940-946.
204. “Standard Recommended Practice for Firing Re-
fractory Concrete Specimens,” (ASTM C 865-77) 1982 An-
nual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 949-951.
205. “Standard Practice for Preparing Refractory Con-
crete Specimens by Cold Gunning,” (ASTM C 903-79) 1982
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American So-
ciety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 978-979.
The complete report was submitted to letter ballot of the com-
mittee which consisted of 16 members; 16 members returned af-
firmative ballots.
The preceding report was a summary. The complete report will
be available in May as a separate publication.
 REFRACTORY CONCRETE

ACI Committee 547

Refractory Concrete

I. Leon Glassgold Timothy J. Fowler Joseph Heneghan

Chairman Editor Secretary
Henry E. Anthonis Sidney Diamond William S. Netter
Seymour A. Bortz William A. Drudy Richard C. Olson
William E. Boyd Joseph E. Kopanda William C. Raisbeck
Khushi R. Chugh Svein Kopfelt Richard L. Shultz
David R. Lankard

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