Important Formulae Sheets Optical Instrumentation MADE EASY INSTRUMENTATION ENGG. | “*******rsossers Basic Optics ‘+ Light or visible ight isthe portion of electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to human eye and is. responsible for the sense of sight. ‘+ Visible light has a wavelength in the range of about 380 or 400 nm to about 760 or 7801nm, with a frequency of 405 THz To 790 THz, ‘Speed of light in vacuum = 3 x 108 m/sec. ‘Speed of fight in vaccum Speed of light in that medium Refractive index of a material Reflection 8 ‘+ Bending of light in the same medium in which itis travelling, when it strikes the surface of some other medium is called as the Reflection of light. AQ= Incident light ray flected lignt ray incident angle A (Ze, = 20, Refraction * Bending of light into the medium to which it strikes is called as the nim Retraction of light AO= incident Ray OB=Refracted Ray ‘= angle of incidence; = angle of Refraction n,=Rl of medium 1; n, =Rl of medium 2 Medium 2 Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at: wuw.madeeasypublicationsore | Aso avaliable at leading e-commerce portals: #3 juan rain Page 1eon) Peet) 2 Important Formulae Sheets + optical Instrumentation | MADE ERSS Snell's Law According to Snel's law [nysina = 1, sinBl Conditions of Refraction {) Rarer to Denser medium 0,56, when a ray of light travels from rarer to a denser medium it aa bbends towards the normal (ii) Denser to Rarer Medium: 0,<0, Denser when a ray of light travels from denser to a rarer medium it bbends away trom the normal Rarer |" Refractive Index of one Medium with Respect to other 2 4th = Bl of 2nd medium with respect to 1st Be Pee Hy = Rlof medium 2nd with respect to air 41, = Rl of medium 1st with respect to air Note: ‘+ Light velocity change from one medium to the other. Velocity of ightin air + Velocity oflightin any medium = ~Ricfmedium(is) 3x10" Mim = 210 w= Hon Brewster's Law + This law states that when lightis incident ala polarizing angle the reflected and refracted ray are a right angle toeacholher y fant Reflection Loss + When light falls on any medium then not all the light is refracted, some part of light is reflected back this is called as the reflection loss. 4 wu) Rotecon oss () eae a We Total % Reflection loss 2 «100% Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at:wuwmadeessypublicationsor | Aso avaliable at leading e-commerce portals: #3 an rain Page 2eon) Important Formulae Sheets * Optical Instrumentation map ERS occur Critical Angle ‘+ The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction became 90" to the normal, AO = Incident Ray OB = Refracted Ray Total Internal Reflection (TIR) where, n> ny ; i>0, ; 0,=critical angle Bending of light in the same medium when it strikes the surface of any other medium at an angle greater then the critical angle is called as the TIR. ‘Compulsory condition for TIR to occur in that light must travel from the denser to the rarer medium, Optical Fiber * Optical fiber is a very thin and flexible medium with a cylindrical shape obo Cladsing Protetve Jacket {Optcal Fiber rossection) It consists of three sections. () Core (i) Cladding (ii) Protective Jacket * Principle of working of optical fiber is total internal reflection of light (TIR). * The refractive index of core is always greater than the refractive indox ofthe cladding, so that TIR ‘can take place. Refractive Index Sequence Boone > Howapoine > Myacker Acceptance Angle ‘© The maximum angle of Incidence to the fiber for which if light is incident, it gets totally internally reflected and hence travels successfully through the fiber is called as the acceptance angle (A.A.). In air In medium of RI (y) Page 3 Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at:wuwmadeessypublicationsor | Aso avaliable at leading e-commerce portals: #3 an raineon) Cae MADE EASY Important Formulae Sheets * Optical Instrumentation ‘Seno ata Wr eb ORE ae Numerical Aperture * Numerical aperture is the light gathering ability of the optical fiber. Mathematically is the sine of the acceptance angle (0) IN.A.= yh? — 7} =sine, For al light gathering NA, of the fiber is unity. + Thelarger theNA. the greater the amount of light that a optical fiber can accept, and hence light can be transmitted toa greater distance. ‘+ IftheN.A.isvery large the band width ofthe transmission is decreased. ‘+ NAisalwaysless than unity. Materials used to manufacture optical fibers Core - glass 1. All glass fibers — — ciaating ->giass (Core — plastics 2. All plastic fibers — —cadding > plastics [Core - sicafgass 3. Plastic clad silica (PCS) fibers {cladding > plastics [— Core + plastic 4 — not used ‘—ciadaing — glass + In(1) and (2) combination doping elements are added to change its refractive index. Thus the original material is SiO, we can dope some other materials GeO, or P,O,, To increase (1) R.I. dope with GeO, or P.O, To decrease (1) R.|. dope with B, Oy. Classification of Optical fiber Based on | Based on the retrace index | number of modes Step Grated Single (mono) Mutimode (Stop indax index index mode(stop index only) and graded index both) Based onR.l. 1, Step index In this R.1. changes suddenly like step function between core and cladding Page 4 Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at:wuwmadeessypublicationsor | Aso avaliable at leading e-commerce portals: #3 an raineon) Peet) 2 Important Formulae Sheets + optical Instrumentation | MADE ERSS Core (15) lading (1.3) (Step index ber) Drawback * Pulse distortion ismore, + Losses are more, * Information carrying capacity is less. 2. Graded Index © RL is not uniform within the core. * Atthe axis of core R.I. is maximum. From core to cladding Ri decreases Light propagation through graded index Graded index Incident Rays * Ray of lights offered a parabolic or the sinusoidal path when passed through a graded index fiber. Advantages * Pulsedistortionisreduced Losses are reduced Information carrying capacity is increased Disadvantages * Difficult to manufacture * costly Based on Mode 1. Single or Monomode optical fiber * Narrow cores used (2 um to 10 um). Hoare ~ Hetadsing = Very small. Ithas only one path for transmission i. only a single mode can travel through it Itis always step index as core is narrow which cannot be made graced index. \-number decides how many mode or path willbe there. v oat In? =n < 2.4005 radius ; A=wavelength 1, = Rlof the core Rlof the cladding 2. Multimode optical fiber * Wide core is used (> 50 um) More than one mode can travel through it pM v?(_ for step he | No. modes or pat! ( een ae z 2 . ef graded ) 4 | index fiber Page 5 Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at: wuw.madeeasypublcationsor9 | ‘Also avalable at leading e-commerce portals: jam vereon) Important Formulae Sheets * Optical Instrumentation map ERS occur Optical Fiber Communication System Information! input Tranemision meatus (optical ber) Characteristics of Optical Communications 4. Attenuation loss must be low. 2. Pulse distortion must be low. 3, Bandwidth (information carrying capacity) must be high 1, Attenuation Losses * The output at the output end of the fiber is found reduced in power as compared to the input due to absorption, scattering, reflection ete. Attenuation (dib/km) = Bog Fe Where, P, = output power; L = length of the optical fiber Ideally attenuation losses in the fiber must be 0 dB/km, but itis not practically feasible, Attenuation Losses Occur Due to () Absorption (i) Scatteringlosses (i) Radiation losses 2. Pulse Distortion or Dispersion * The broadening of the light pulses at the output of the optical fiber cable is called as the dispersion, Its unit is (r sec/km). ID or Tsee Broadeted —Ovetapped (iteration esos) ar=T a (For step index) aT= oe A? (For graded index) oy ae where, c= speed of light AT for graded index > AT for step index Page 6 Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at: wuw.madeeasypublcationsor9 | ‘Also avalable at leading e-commerce portals: jam vereon) occur Important Formulae Sheets + Optical instrumentation | Ivete watcha se 3. Bandwidth ‘* Bandwidth of an optical fiber is the maximum number of pulses that can be sent and received without overlapping + The maximum number of pulses are to be limited by the distortion, as we have to keep some time gap between two successive pulses AT which reduces the number of pulses and hence the bandwidth, Preferable Characteristic of Optical Fiber are * High Bandwidth © Low pulse distortion + Lowlosses * Low numerical aperture (Low. NA.) * Lowcore diameter Coupling Losses of the Fiber o> (__0Q0__ = Sending Receving ‘Sending __-Reciving No losses () Losses are there (l) * Losses will occur in case ({I) and no losses will be there in case (I) IA) Loses = 20 log.(WAsersing (NA) reciever Comparison of Optical Fibers Modewise Comparison Multimode ‘Singlemode * Cae diameter is large so| * Core diameter is less, it easy 10 launch the multiple] carries. only a single modes mode + Light source used LED,| + Only LASER are used as LASER the light source ‘+ They have more NA + NA. is less > Losses are high, since number of modes are more ‘= Bandwidth is low = Bandwiath is high * Losses areless + Cost is low + Costis high Material wise Comparison All glass Plastic silica Al plastic Lossesare less | Medumlosses | High losses Law mechanical | Medum mechanical | High mechanical strength strength strength LowNA\ Medum NA. Low NA, Tong distance appicaion | Medium distance | Short distance (cof low losses) | 8PPlcation application Applications of Optical Fibers 1. Industrial applications 2. Medica 3. Military operations 4. Telecommunication Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at:wuwmadeessypublicationsor | Aso avaliable at leading e-commerce portals: #3 an rain Page 7eon) tomes Important Formulae Sheets * Optical Instrumentation map ERS occur Lasers ‘+ LASER is an acronym of Light Amplification By stimulated Emission of Radiation. ‘+ Alaseris a device that emits light through a process of optical ampification based on the stimulated ‘emission of photons. The light beam obtained by LASER Is highly directional and intense. Principle of Laser * Consider the case when an atom or the molecule in an excited state with eneray E, and makes a transition to lower energy state E,, It emits electromagnetic radiation of frequency n given by w= &-E, & EE ve nw A where f= Plank’s constant E, + The transition of electron in an atom can take place by three process Absorption atom + photon — atom" ; atom = atom in ground state ‘atom’ = atom in the excited state (il) Spontaneous Emission _ (Iii) Stimulated Emission atom*— atom + photon aton"+photon —satom+2 photon Population Inversion 5 % * Lot N, and N, be the number of atoms in the lower and upper —y,} mvp levels respectively * When the photon of energy fv is & Mm incident on it may lead to transition from E, to E, or rom E, to E> mee | ‘+ IFN, < N, = Absorption of light is dominant aaa * If N, > N, = Stimulated emission will dominate. & mi When this happens, the population inversion, takes place. To start population inversion some starting external energy must be supplied to the atoms of the material. Population inversion constitutes the basic principle of the LASER action Characteristics of Laser Beam () Veryhigh directionality (i) high intensity (ii). Monochromatic (iv) Coherent Directionality {a) Angle of divergence or angular spread : =e oO" aperture diameter of light source from where the light is coming, favelength of the light coming from the laser source ‘A0= angular spread of the laser beam (b) Areal Spread ‘Areal spread = (ro) <= (,) r= distance of the surface from the laser source (m) Page 8 Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at: wuw.madeeasypublcationsor9 | ‘Also avalable at leading e-commerce portals: jam vereon) tomes Cae MADE EASY Important Formulae Sheets * Optical Instrumentation ‘Seno ata Wr eb ORE ae Remember: The spread must be low for a better and efficient laser beam. Intensity Fi ‘ower Intensity (1) = yO Area Monochromaticity * Alaser beam is highly monochromatic i.e. ithas only a single wavelength or the single colour. * The degree of non-monochromaticity is defined by (e) av e=5, Vo =9 Central frequency Ay = width of spread in frequency * Consider a case of large number of modes travelling into a laser cavity of length (L). ‘The difference in frequencies between consecutive modes is Av and the length of the cavity is L No, of modes = Sandwiath Av. Coherence * Coherenceis ameasute of the degree of phase correlation that exists in the radiation feldoflight source at different locations & at different times. ‘+ Light from a conventional source is a jumble of tiny separate waves that cancel each other in a random order. The wavefront so produced changes from ane point to other and varies from instant toinstant, Hence there are two separate concepts of coherence (0) Spatialcoherence (ji) Temporal coherence Spatial Coherence x + If two fields at two different points on a wavefront of a electromagnetic, wave has a constant phase difference x, cover any time f, they possess spatial coherence. Source Temporal Coherence (Electromagnetic wave with coherence time) ‘+ Temporal coherence refers to the correlation between the field at a point and the field at the same. point at a later time + The time for which the wave remain sinusoidal and do not break in phases called as the coherence time (t,) The distance travelled by the wave in the time interval t, is called as the length of coherence () Bandwidth (Av) is related to t, as Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at:wuwmadeessypublicationsor | Aso avaliable at leading e-commerce portals: #3 an rain Page 8eon) tomes Cae MADE EASY Important Formulae Sheets * Optical Instrumentation ‘Seno ata Wr eb ORE ae Basic Parts in Laser 1, Active Material * It's the material kept inside the cavity. + Itparticipate in the laser generation process. 2. Excitation/Pumping Mechanism * The process by which the atoms are raised from the lower level to the upper level so that necessary population inversion is obtained is called as the pumping. itis classified as: {a) Optical Pumping: In this method the population inversion is attained by means of strong source of light such as gas discharge, flash lamp or arc lamp. {b) Chemical Pumping: In this method population inversion is obtained by suitable chemical reaction without any need of other source of energy. {c) Electrical Pumping: In this method population inversion is obtained by means of an intense electric discharge in the medium and is suited to gas medium. Classification of Lasers Solid Gas ‘Semiconductor * Ruby laser (made of Ruby crystal) + He-NelaserAtomiclaser * Ga As laser + NG-YAG laser * Argon laser (lon laser) * CO, laser (molecular laser) Gas Laser * Highly monochromatic light * Most pure spectrum * Continuous and pulsed output * Power variation can be from low value to high value (.e, mW to MW) Semiconductor Diode Laser * Its output is slightly broad. * Most widely used laser due to low cost and simple to design and operate. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) * An LEDis a forward Biased p-n junction which emits visible light when ON currents made to tlow through it ‘Conduction Band Energy — Symbol Valance Band Momentum —e ‘* The lightis emitted when electrons from the N-side cross the junction and recombine with the holes on the P-side. Resurect Formulae and Key Theory Concepts, jus before examination; read “A Handbook of instrumentation Engineering” by MADE EASY Publications Buy online at:wuwmadeessypublicationsor | Aso avaliable at leading e-commerce portals: #3 an rain Page 10