Chinese mythology

Chinese mythology (中國神話 Mandarin Chinese: Zhōngguó Shénhuà) is a collection of cultural

history, folktales, and religions that have been passed down in oral form or within the written tradition of
mainstream Chinese culture. These include creation myths and legends and myths concerning the
founding of Chinese culture and the Chinese state. China is also home to many other mythological
traditions, including Tibetan mythology, Turkic mythology, Korean mythology, and many others. Like many
mythologies, Chinese mythology has in the past been believed to be, at least in part, a factual recording of
history.. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk
religion.[1] Chinese mythology includes creation myths and legends, such as myths concerning the founding
of Chinese culture and the Chinese state. Chinese mythology was long believed to be, at least in part, a
factual recording of history. Thus, many stories regarding characters and events of the distant past have a
double tradition: one which presents a more historicized and one which presents a more mythological
version.[2]
Historians have written evidence of Chinese mythological symbolism from the 12th century BCE in
the Oracle bone script. Legends were passed down for over a thousand years before being written in books
such as Classic of Mountains and Seas (山海經) and the Taiping Yulan. Other myths were passed down
through oral traditions, such as theater and song before being recorded as novels such as Epic of
Darkness. Historical documents and philosophical canons such as Book of Rites, Records of the Grand
Historian, Book of Documents, and Lüshi Chunqiu all contain Chinese myths.

Major sources and concepts[edit]

Some myths survive in theatrical or literary formats as plays or novels. Books in the shenmo genre
of vernacular fiction revolve around gods and monsters. Important mythological fiction, seen as definitive
records of these myths, include:

 Verse poetry associated with the ancient state of Chu such as "Lisao", "Jiu Ge", and "Heavenly
Questions", contained in the Chuci anthology, traditionally attributed to the authorship of Qu
Yuan of Chu
 Fengshen Bang (Investiture of the Gods), a mythological fiction dealing with the founding of the Zhou
dynasty
 Journey to the West attributed to Wu Cheng'en, published in the 1590s; a fictionalized account of the
pilgrimage of Xuanzang to India to obtain Buddhist religious texts in which the main character
encounters ghosts, monsters, and demons, as well as the Flaming Mountains
 Baishe Zhuan, a romantic tale set in Hangzhou involving a female snake who attained human form and
fell in love with a man
Presiding deities[edit]
Nüwa and Fuxi represented as half-snake, half-human creatures.
The concept of a principal or presiding deity has fluctuated over time in Chinese mythology. Examples
include:

 Shangdi, also sometimes Huángtiān Dàdì (皇天大帝), appeared as early as the Shang dynasty. In
later eras, he was more commonly referred to as Huángtiān Shàngdì (皇天上帝). The use
of Huángtiān Dàdìrefers to the Jade Emperor and Tian.
 Yu Di (the Jade Emperor) appeared in literature after the establishment of Taoism in China; his
appearance as Yu Huang dates back to beyond the times of Yellow Emperor, Nüwa, or Fuxi.
 Tian (Heaven) appeared in literature c. 700 BCE, possibly earlier as dating depends on the date of
the Shujing (Book of Documents). There are no creation-oriented narratives for Tian. The qualities of
Tian and Shangdi appear to have merged in later literature and are now worshiped as one entity ("皇
天上帝", Huángtiān Shàngdì) in, for example, the Beijing's Temple of Heaven. The extent of the
distinction between Tian and Shangdi is debated. The sinologist Herrlee Creel claims that an analysis
of the Shang oracle bones reveals Shangdi to have preceded Tian as a deity, and that Zhou dynasty
authors replaced the term "Shangdi" with "Tian" to cement the claims of their influence.
 Nüwa (also referred to as Nü Kwa) appeared in literature no earlier than c. 350 BCE. Her
companion, Fuxi, (also called Fu Hsi) was her brother and husband. They are sometimes worshiped
as the ultimate ancestor of all humankind, and are often represented as half-snake, half-humans. It is
sometimes believed that Nüwa molded humans from clay for companionship. She repaired the sky
after Gong Gong damaged the pillar supporting the heavens.
 Pangu, written about by Taoist author Xu Zheng c. 200 CE, was claimed to be the first sentient being
and creator, “making the heavens and the earth.”[3]

Time periods[edit]
Three August Ones and Five Emperors[edit]
Main article: Three August Ones and Five Emperors
During or following the age of Nüwa and Fuxi came the age of the Three August Ones and Five Emperors.
These legendary rulers ruled between c. 2850 BCE to 2205 BCE, before the Xia dynasty.
The list of names comprising the Three August Ones and Five Emperors vary widely among sources. The
most widely circulated and popular version is:

 The Three August Ones (Huáng)

 Fuxi: companion of Nüwa
 Yellow Emperor ("Huang Emperor"): often regarded as the first sovereign of the Chinese nation
 Shennong ("Divine Farmer"): reputedly taught the ancients agriculture and medicine
 The Five Emperors (Dì)
 Shaohao: leader of the Dongyi (Eastern Barbarians); his pyramidal tomb is in present-
day Shandong
 Zhuanxu: grandson of the Huang Emperor.
 Emperor Ku: great-grandson of the Huang Emperor and nephew of Zhuanxu.
 Yao: son of Ku; Yao's elder brother succeeded Ku, but he abdicated when found to be an
ineffective ruler.
 Shun: successor of Yao, who passed over his own son and made Shun his successor because of
Shun's ability and morality.
These rulers are generally regarded as morally upright and benevolent, examples to be emulated by latter
day kings and emperors. Historically, when Qin Shi Huang united China in 221 BCE, he felt that his
achievements had surpassed those of all the rulers who had gone before him. He combined the ancient
titles of Huáng (皇) and Dì (帝) to create a new title, Huángdì (皇帝), which is usually translated
as Emperor. The Chinese refer to themselves as 炎黃子孫 ("Descendants of the Flame and Yellow
Emperors").
Great Flood[edit]
Main articles: Great Flood (China) and Yu the Great
Shun passed on his place as emperor to Yu the Great. The Yellow River, prone to flooding, erupted in a
huge flood in the time of Yao. Yu's father, Gun, was put in charge of flood control by Yao, but failed to
alleviate the problem after nine years. He was executed by Shun, and Yu took his father's place, leading
the people to build canals and levees. After thirteen years of toil, flooding problems were ameliorated under
Yu's command. Shun enfeoffed Yu as ruler of the geographic region of origin of the Xia, in present-
day Henan.
Xia dynasty[edit]
Main article: Xia dynasty
Upon Yu's death, his position as leader was passed not to his deputy, but rather to his son Qi. Sources
differ regarding the process by which Qi rose to this position. Most versions agree that Yu designated his
deputy, Gaotao, to be his successor. When Gaotao died before him, Yu then selected Gaotao's son, Bo
Yi as his successor. One version holds that all those who had submitted to Yu admired Qi more than Bo Yi,
leading Yu to pass his power to Qi instead. Another version holds that Bo Yi ceremoniously offered the
position to Qi, who accepted, against convention, because he had the support of other leaders. Yet another
version claims that Qi killed Bo Yi and usurped his position as leader.
The version currently most accepted in China has Yu name Bo Yi as successor because of the fame Bo Yi
had achieved teaching people to drive animals with fire during hunts. Bo Yi had the support of the people,
which Yu could not easily stand against. However, the title Yu had given Bo Yi came without power; Yu
gave his own son all the power in managing the country. After a few years, Bo Yi lost popularity, and Yu's
son Qi became favored. Yu then named Qi as successor. Bo Yi did not go willingly and challenged Qi for
the leadership. A civil war ensued. Qi, with strong support from the people, defeated Bo Yi's forces, killed
Bo Yi, and solidified his own rule.
Qi's succession broke the previous convention of meritorious succession, and began what is traditionally
regarded as the first dynasty of Chinese history. The dynasty is called "Xia" after Yu's center of power.
The Xia dynasty is semi-mythological. The Records of the Grand Historian and the Bamboo Annals record
the names of 17 kings of the Xia dynasty. However, there is no conclusive archaeological evidence of its
capital or its existence as a state of significant size. Some archaeological evidence for a significant urban
civilization before the Shang Dynasty exists.
Shang dynasty[edit]
Main article: Shang dynasty
Jie, the last king of the Xia dynasty, was supposedly a bloodthirsty despot. Tribal leader Tang of
Shang revolted against Xia rule and eventually overthrew Jie, establishing the Shang dynasty, based
in Anyang. Book 5 of the philosopher Mozi described the end of the Xia dynasty and the beginning of the
Shang. During the reign of King Jie of Xia, there was a great climatic change. Legends hold that the paths
of the sun and moon changed, the seasons became confused, and the five grains dried up. Ghouls cried in
the country and cranes shrieked for ten nights. Heaven ordered Shang Tang to receive the heavenly
commission from the Xia dynasty, which had failed morally and which Heaven was determined to end.
Shang Tang was commanded to destroy Xia with the promise of Heaven's help. In the dark, Heaven
destroyed the fortress' pool, and Shang Tang then gained victory easily. [4]
The Shang dynasty ruled from c. 1766 BCE to c. 1050 BCE. It came to an end when the last despotic
ruler, Zhou of Shang, was overthrown by the new Zhou dynasty. The end of the Shang dynasty and the
establishment of the Zhou is the subject of the influential mythological fiction Investiture of the Gods. Book
5 of Mozi also described the shift. During the reign of Shang Zhou, Heaven could not endure Zhou's
morality and neglect of timely sacrifices. It rained mud for ten days and nights, the nine cauldrons
(presumably used in either astronomy or to measure earth movements) shifted
positions, pontianaks appeared, and ghosts cried at night. There were women who became men while it
rained flesh and thorny brambles, covering the national highways. A red bird brought a message: "Heaven
decrees King Wen of Zhou to punish Yin and possess its empire". The Yellow River formed charts and the
earth brought forth mythical horses. When King Wu became king, three gods appeared to him in a dream,
telling him that they had drowned Shang Zhou in wine and that King Wu was to attack him. On the way
back from victory, the heavens gave him the emblem of a yellow bird.
Unlike the preceding Xia dynasty, there is clear archaeological evidence of a government center at Yinxu in
Anyang, and of an urban civilization in the Shang dynasty. However, the chronology of the first three
dynasties remains an area of active research and controversy.

Creation and the pantheon[edit]

Chinese mythology holds that the Jade Emperor was charged with running of the three realms: heaven,
hell, and the realm of the living. The Jade Emperor adjudicated and meted out rewards and remedies to
saints, the living, and the deceased according to a merit system loosely called the Jade Principles Golden
Script (玉律金篇, Yù lǜ jīn piān). When proposed judgments were objected to, usually by other saints, the
administration would occasionally resort to the counsels of advisory elders.

Dragon[edit]

Dragon-gods, from Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by E. T. C. Werner

Main articles: Chinese dragon and Dragon King
The Chinese dragon is one of the most important mythical creatures in Chinese mythology, considered to
be the most powerful and divine creature and the controller of all waters who could create clouds with their
breath. The dragon symbolized great power and was very supportive of heroes and gods.
One of the most famous dragons in Chinese mythology is Yinglong, the god of rain. Many people in
different places pray to Yinglong to receive rain. Chinese people use the term 龍的傳人 ("Descendants of
the Dragon") as a sign of their ethnic identity.

Religion and mythology[edit]

Further information: Religion in China and Chinese folk religion
There has been extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism,
and Buddhism. Elements of pre-[Han dynasty] mythology such as those in Shan Hai Jing were adapted into
these belief systems as they developed (in the case of Taoism), or were assimilated into Chinese culture
(in the case of Buddhism). Elements from the teachings and beliefs of these systems became incorporated
into Chinese mythology. For example, the Taoist belief of a spiritual paradise became incorporated into
mythology as the place where immortals and deities dwelt.

Important deities and mythological figures[edit]

Wen Chang, Chinese God of literature, carved in ivory, c. 1550–1644, Ming dynasty.

 Deities with Buddhist appellations

 Dizang: ruler of the ten hells
 Four Heavenly Kings: four Buddhist guardian gods
 Gautama Buddha (釋迦牟尼, Shìjiā móu ní)
 Guanyin (also Kuanyin): bodhisattva associated with compassion
 Laughing Buddha
 Baosheng Dadi: god of medicine
 Cangjie: had four eyes, invented Chinese characters
 Chang'e: moon goddess
 Chiyou: tyrant who fought against the then-future Yellow Emperor
 City god
 Da Yu (Yu the Great): founder of the Xia dynasty famed for his introduction of flood control and upright
moral character
 Daoji: compassionate folk hero known for wild and eccentric behavior
 Dragon King
 Eight Immortals
 Cao Guojiu
 Han Xiangzi
 Han Zhongli
 He Xiangu
 Lan Caihe
 Lü Dongbin
 Li Tieguai
 Zhang Guolao
 Erlang Shen: possessed a third eye in the middle of his forehead that saw the truth
 Four Emperors (四御, Sì yù): heavenly kings of Taoist religion
 Yu Huang (Jade Emperor)
 Beiji Dadi
 Tianhuang Dadi
 Empress of Earth
 Fangfeng: giant who helped fight flood, executed by Yu the Great
 Feng Meng: apprentice to Hou Yi, and his eventual murderer
 Gao Yao
 Gong Gong: water god/sea monster resembling a serpent or dragon
 Guan Yu: god of brotherhoods, martial power, and war
 Hànbá (旱魃)
 Houyi: archery deity; married to Chang'e, a moon goddess
 Kua Fu: a giant who wanted to capture the sun
 Kui Xing: god of examinations and an associate of the god of literature, Wen Chang
 Lei Gong: god of thunder
 Lung Mo: Chinese woman who became a goddess after raising five infant dragons
 Mazu: goddess of the sea
 Meng Po: responsible for reincarnated souls forgetting previous lives
 Nezha: Taoist protection deity
 Nüwa: creator of humans
 Pangu: a deity that separated heaven and earth
 Siming: god of lifespan and fate
 Sun Wukong (also the Monkey King): protects mankind from demons
 Tam Kung: sea deity with the ability to forecast weather
 The Cowherd and Weaver Girl
 Three August Ones and Five Emperors: a collection of legendary rulers
 Three Pure Ones: the Taoist trinity
 Daode Tianzun
 Lingbao Tianzun
 Yuanshi Tianzun
 Tu Di Gong: god of wealth and merit
 Tu Er Shen: managed the love and sex between homosexual men
 Wenchang Wang: god of culture and literature
 Wong Tai Sin: possessed healing power
 Wu Gang: endlessly cut down a self-healing bay laurel on the moon
 Xi Wangmu: Queen Mother of the West
 Xiang River goddesses (Xiangfei)
 É huáng (娥皇)
 Nǚ yīng (女英).
 Xihe, goddess of the sun
 Xingtian: headless giant decapitated by the Yellow Emperor as punishment for challenging him; his
face is on his torso as he has no head
 Yanluowang: God of death
 Yuqiang: Yellow Emperor's descendent, god of north sea and wind
 Zao Jun: kitchen god
 Zhao Gongming (also Cai Shen): god of prosperity
 Zhong Kui: vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings
 Zhurong: god of fire

Spirit of the well, from Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by E. T. C. Werner
Zoomorphic guardian spirits of Day and Night, Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) Chinese paintings on
ceramic tile

Cosmology[edit]
Directional[edit]

 The Four Symbols of the Chinese constellation

 Azure Dragon: east
 Black Tortoise: north
 White Tiger: west
 Vermillion Bird: south
Mythical places[edit]
See also: List of mythical Chinese mountains

 Mount Buzhou: mythical mountain

 Diyu: hell
 Feather Mountain: a place of exile during or just after the world flood
 Fusang: a mythical island interpreted to be Japan
 Jade Mountain, a mythological mountain
 Kunlun Mountain: a mythical mountain, dwelling of various divinities, and fabulous plants and animals
 Longmen: dragon gate where carp can transform into dragons
 Mount Penglai: paradise; a fabled fairy isle on the China Sea
 Queqiao (鵲橋; Quèqiáo): bridge formed by birds flying across the Milky Way
 Tiantang: heaven
 Xuanpu (玄圃; Xuánpǔ): a mythical fairyland on Kunlun Mountain
 Yaochi (瑤池; Yáochí): abode of immortals where the Queen Mother of the West lives.
 Youdu: the capital city of Di Yu
Concepts[edit]

 Cords of the Sky

 Pillars of the Earth
 Sky Ladder

Mythical creatures[edit]
Abstract[edit]

 Zhulong: the torch dragon, a solar deity

 The Four Fiends (四凶, Sì xiōng):
 Hundun: chaos
 Taotie: gluttony
 Táowù (梼杌): ignorance; provided confusion and apathy and made mortals free of the curiosity
and reason needed to reach enlightenment
 Qióngqí (窮奇): deviousness
Birds[edit]
 Sanzuwu (三足烏; sānzúwū): three-legged crow that represented the sun birds shot down by Houyi
 Qing Niao (青鳥; qīngniâo): mythical bird and messenger of Xi Wangmu
 Fenghuang (鳳凰; fènghuáng): Chinese mythical bird, sometimes translated as "phoenix"
 Bi Fang (畢方)
 Crane: linked with immortality, may be transformed xian
 Jiān (鶼; jian1): mythical one-eyed bird with one wing; 鶼鶼: a pair of such birds dependent on each
other, inseparable, hence representing husband and wife
 Jiguang (吉光; jíguāng)
 Jingwei: mythical bird which tried to fill up the ocean with twigs and pebbles
 Jiufeng: nine-headed bird used to scare children
 Peng: giant mythical bird
 Shang-Yang (商羊): a rainbird
 Sù Shuāng (鷫鷞; su4shuang3): mythical bird like a crane; described as a water bird
 Vermilion Bird: icon of the south, sometimes confused with the Fenghuang
 Zhen: poisonous bird
Dragons[edit]
Main article: Chinese dragon

 Chi: hornless dragon or mountain demon

 Dilong: the earth dragon
 Dragon King: king of the dragons
 Fucanglong: the treasure dragon
 Jiaolong: dragon of floods and sea
 Shenlong: the rain dragon
 Teng: the flying dragon
 Tianlong: the celestial dragon
 Yinglong: the water dragon, powerful servant of Yellow Emperor
 Zhulong: the luminous red celestial "torch dragon" (only part-dragon)
Fishlike[edit]
Main article: Fish in Chinese mythology

 Mermaid (人魚)
 Kun (also Peng): giant monstrous fish form of the Peng bird.
Humanoid[edit]

 Kui: one-legged mountain demon or dragon who invented music and dance; also Shun's musical
master
 Jiangshi: a reanimated corpse
 Ox-Head and Horse-Face: devils in animal forms[5] and guardians of the underworld
 Xiāo (魈; xiao1): mountain spirit or demon
 Yaoguai: demons
Mammalian[edit]
Further information: Dog in Chinese mythology, Bovidae in Chinese mythology, and Horse in Chinese
mythology

 Jiuwei Hu (九尾狐): Nine-tailed fox

 Nian: lives under the sea or in mountains; attacks children
 Longma: winged horse similar to the Qilin
 Luduan: can detect the truth
 Xiezhi (also Xie Cai): creature of justice said to be able to distinguish lies from truths; it had a long,
straight horn used to gore liars
 Qilin: chimeric animal with several variations. The first giraffe sent as a gift to a Chinese emperor was
believed to be the Qilin; an early Chinese painting depicts this giraffe replete with the fish scales of the
Qilin. Qilin was believed to show perfect good will, gentleness, and benevolence to all righteous
creatures.
 Pixiu: resembled a winged lion
 Rui Shi (瑞獅, Ruì Shī): guardian lions
 Huli jing: fox spirits
 Xīniú (犀牛): a rhinoceros; became mythologized when rhinoceroses became extinct in China.
Depictions later changed to a more bovineappearance, with a short, curved horn on its head used to
communicate with the sky
 Bai Ze: legendary creature said to have been encountered by the Yellow Emperor and to have
given him a compendium listing all the demons in the world
Simian[edit]
Further information: Simians (Chinese poetry) and Monkeys in Chinese culture

 Chinese Monkey: warded off evil spirits; highly respected and loved
 Xiao (mythology), described as a long-armed ape or a four-winged bird
Snakelike and reptilian[edit]
Further information: Chinese dragon and Snakes in Chinese mythology

 Ao: a giant marine turtle or tortoise

 Bashe: a snake reputed to swallow elephants
 Xiangliu: nine-headed snake monster
 White Serpent

Mythical plants[edit]

 Fusang: a world tree, home of sun(s)

 Lingzhi mushroom: legendary fungus of immortality
 Peaches of Immortality: legendary peaches of immortality
 Yao Grass: grass with magical properties

Mythical substances[edit]

 Xirang: the flood-fighting expanding earth

Literature[edit]

 Imperial historical documents and confucian canons such as Records of the Grand Historian, Lüshi
Chunqiu, Book of Rites], and Classic History
 In Search of the Supernatural: 4th century compilation of stories and hearsay concerning spirits,
ghosts, and supernatural phenomena
 Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, by Pu Songling, with many stories of fox spirits
 Zhiguai (誌怪): literary genre that deals with strange (mostly supernatural) events and stories
 Zi Bu Yu: a collection of supernatural stories compiled during the Qing dynasty

See also[edit]

 Agriculture in Chinese mythology

 Ba gua
 Celestial bureaucracy
 Chinese astrology
 Chinese creation myth
 Chinese folk religion
 Chinese folklore
 Chinese legendary creatures
 Chinese mythology in popular culture
 Chinese spiritual world concepts
 Dog in Chinese mythology
 Fish in Chinese mythology
 Fuxi
 Geese in Chinese poetry
 Great Flood (China)
 Guanyin
 Horse in Chinese mythology
 Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor
 I Ching
 Imperial examination in Chinese mythology
 List of deities
 Nüwa
 Panhu
 Sanxing (deities)
 Simians (Chinese poetry)
 Teng
 Yuan Ke

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ (Yang, 4)

2. Jump up^ Yang, 12–13
3. Jump up^ Werner, E.T.C. (1922). Myths and Legends of China. New York: George G. Harrap &
Co. Ltd. p. 77.
4. Jump up^ Mozi. "非攻下 – Condemnation of Offensive War III".
5. Jump up^ "Wenlin Software for Learning Chinese, Version 3.4". Wenlin Institute.

References[edit]

 Paper, Jordan D. (1995). The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion. Albany,
New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2315-8.
 Yang, Lihui, et al. (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. New York: Oxfor