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International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics

Vol. 15 (2018) 1850034 (14 pages)

c World Scientific Publishing Company
DOI: 10.1142/S0219887818500342

Cosmological implications of dark energy models

in modified gravity

Nadeem Azhar∗,‡ , Abdul Jawad∗,§ , Sarfraz Ahmad∗,¶

and Iftikhar Ahmed†,
∗Department of Mathematics, COMSATS Institute of
Information Technology, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
†Department of Mathematics, Riphah International University

Lahore 54000, Pakistan

‡nadeemazharsaeed@gmail.com
§jawadab181@yahoo.com
§abduljawad@ciitlahore.edu.pk
¶sarfrazahmad@ciitlahore.edu.pk
iffi6303@gmail.com

Received 21 August 2017

Accepted 16 October 2017
Published

We discuss the interacting modified QCD ghost dark energy and generalized ghost pil-
grim dark energy with cold dark matter in the framework of dynamical Chern–Simons
modified gravity. We investigate the cosmological parameters such as Hubble parameter,
deceleration parameter and equation of state. We also discuss the physical significance
 and statefinders. It is found that the results
of various cosmological planes like ωϑ − ωϑ
of cosmological parameters as well as planes explain the accelerated expansion of the
Universe and are compatible with observational data.

Keywords: Dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity; QCD ghost dark energy; gener-
alize ghost pilgrim dark energy; cosmological parameters and plane.

PACS: 95.36.+d, 98.80.−k

1. Introduction
The study of spacetime and of the nature of gravity, without any doubts, at high
energies can be treated as the most important and perplexing issues in theoretical
physics. Understanding the accelerating expansion of the Universe has become a sig-
nificant challenge for theories of gravity. Supernova Ia [1, 2] provides the authentic
evidence of phase transaction of Universe from deceleration to acceleration. Some
other observational data like gravitational lensing (GL), microwave background
radiation (MBR) [3, 4], large-scale structure (LSS) [5] and Sloan Digital Sky Sur-
vey (SDSS) [6] speculate that the Universe is expanding at a very high accelerated
rate. These astrophysical data suggest that this cosmic acceleration phenomenon

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N. Azhar et al.

is due to the nongravitating mysterious fluid, dubbed as dark energy (DE) [7–13].
Researchers are trying to find the properties and origin of this exotic matter, where
negative pressure is the only known property of DE. The cosmological constant
favors this exotic matter, but it faced two basic problems of cosmic coincidence [14]
(energies densities of dark matter and DE are comparable to current time when the
expansion of Universe is accelerating) and fine tuning problem [15, 16] (corresponds
to inconsistent theoretical and observational values of cosmological constant).
In order to avoid these problems, various dynamical DE models have been pro-
posed for elaborating the accelerated expansion scenario. The well-known dynam-
ical DE models are quinton [17–19], quintessence [20], pilgrim DE (PDE) [21–23],
k-essence [24–26], Chaplygin gas with its modified models [27–29], holographic DE
(HDE) and its modification models [30, 31], new agegraphic DE [32, 33] and QCD
ghost DE [34]. Veneziano ghost dark energy is the promising candidate of DE, in
which the energy density ρϑ can be described in terms of QCD parameter and
has the ability to solve U (1)A problem in quantum chromodynamics QCD. Due to
the dynamical background, the ghost field has a small contribution to the vacuum
energy but it provided vanishing contribution in the vacuum energy in Minkowski
space-time [35, 36] (i.e. Λ3QCD H, here ΛQCD ∼ 100 MeV is the smallest QCD scale).
Cosmic coincidence and fine tuning problems can also be solved with the help of
these models [37–42]. Recently, a new form of this DE has been presented in which
the QCD ghost DE density ρϑ associated with the horizon radius [43] and the cor-
responding model is known as the modified QCD ghost DE. Its mathematical form
is given as
(1 − )α
ρϑ = , (1)
r̃t
1
where α is dimensionless numerical constant, r̃t = H (Hubble horizon) and H = ȧa .
Also,  can be defined as
r̃˙t Ḣ
= =− . (2)
2H r̃t 2H 2
Substituting Eq. (2) in (1), we obtain


Ḣ
ρϑ = α 1 + H. (3)
2H 2

However, a generalized fluid can also be adopted whose energy density is given
by [44]
ρϑ = (αH + βH 2 )u . (4)
This is also called the generalized ghost PDE.
In the present work, we discuss various cosmological parameters (Hubble, equa-
tion of state, deceleration) and planes (r − s, ωϑ − ωϑ
) for elaborating the present
cosmic acceleration. We will assume interacting scenario of modified QCD DE

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Cosmological implications of dark energy models in modified gravity

and generalized ghost PDE models with cold dark matter (CDM) in dynamical
Chern–Simons modified gravity. The format of the paper is as follows. Section 2
contains the basic equations of dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity as well
as cosmological parameters like Hubble, equation of state and deceleration param-
eters. Section 3 explores the statefinder plane and ωϑ − ωϑ
plane. The last section
consists of detailed discussion of our results.

2. Cosmological Parameters
Various modified/alternative theories have been presented in order to explain the
accelerated expansion of Universe such as f (R) [46], f (T ) [47], f (G), f (R, T ) [48],
f (R, G) [49], Brans–Dicke [50], dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity [51],
etc. Recently, the dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity has attracted much
attention of the researchers. Cosmological study has been made in this theory
with different DE models [52–56]. The Friedman equation described by dynami-
cal Chern–Simons modified gravity for flat FRW Universe can be written as
1 1
H2 = (ρϑ + ρm ) + b2 a−6 , (5)
3 6
where H is Hubble parameter defined as H = ȧa and the dot shows the time
derivative of a, 8πG = 1, ρϑ and ρm are the energy densities of DE and CDM,
also b is constant of integration. In the presence of DE and CDM, the continuity
equation takes the form

ρ̇m + 3Hρm = Γ, ρ̇ϑ + 3Hρϑ (1 + ωϑ ) = −Γ, (6)

where Γ is the interaction term which can be chosen as

Γ = 3d2 Hρm . (7)

However, the generalized forms of interaction terms are given in [45]. Here d is
interaction constant. For this value of Γ, CDM density turns out to be
2
ρm = ρm0 a3(d −1)
, (8)

where ρm0 be the constant of integration. In this portion, we will consider the
physical consequences of cosmological parameters corresponding to the modified
QCD ghost DE and the generalized ghost PDE.

2.1. Hubble parameter

To examine the physical significance of Hubble parameter in modified QCD ghost
DE as energy density, we extract it by using Eqs. (3), (5), (6) and (8) as
 
Ḣ 6 αH 2 b2 a−6
= H2 − − H02 Ωm0 a3(d −1) − . (9)
H α 3 6

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N. Azhar et al.

Modified QCD ghost DE Generalized ghost PDE

74.14

120 d 0.6 74.12

d 0.7
74.10
100 d 0.8 d 0.6
74.08
d 0.7
H

H
74.06 d 0.8
80
74.04

60 74.02

74.00
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
z 1 z 1

Fig. 1. (Color online) Plots of Hubble parameter (H) versus 1 + z for modified QCD ghost DE
(left panel) and generalized ghost PDE (right panel) in dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity.
However, red solid, green dashed and blue dotted curves correspond to d = 0.6, d = 0.7 and d = 0.8,
respectively.

Similarly, the Hubble parameter for generalized ghost PDE can be obtained by
using Eqs. (4)–(6) and (8)
2
3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1) H − b2 Ha−6 )
Ḣ = . (10)
6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u
The trajectories of Hubble parameter (H) for modified QCD ghost DE and gen-
eralized ghost PDE versus red shift function is shown in the left and right pan-
els, respectively, of Fig. 1, for different values of d2 = 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 (red, green,
blue, respectively) while the other constant parameters are H0 = 1, Ωm0 = 0.25,
α = 1.05, b = 10.01, m = 0.01, u = 1 and β = 0.5. The left panel of Fig. 1 shows
that the values of H lie within the range 70+25
−25 at the near future as well as present
era. The right panel of Fig. 1 exhibits that the values of H lie within the range
+.07
74.07−.07 at the present and near future era.

2.2. Equation of state parameter

In order to check the behavior of EoS parameter of modified QCD ghost DE, we
can obtain its mathematical expression by using Eqs. (3), (6)–(8) as follows:
   
2 2 3(d2 −1) 1 6H αH
ωϑ = −1 − (3H0 Ωm0 d a ) αH 1 + H2 − − H02 Ωm0
2H 2 α 3
−1  
2 b2 a−6 2
× a3(d −1) − − 3 − b2 a−5 + 3(−1 + d2 )a−(2−3d ) H02 Ωm0
6
    
6H αH 2 b2 a−6
+ 2H H2 − − H02 Ωm0 a3(d −1) − 3H αH
α 3 6
   −1
1 6H 2 αH 2 3(d2 −1) b2 a−6
× 1+ H − − H0 Ωm0 a − . (11)
2H 2 α 3 6

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Cosmological implications of dark energy models in modified gravity

Modified QCD ghost DE Generalized ghost PDE

0.993

11.9120 0.994

d 0.6 0.995 d 0.6

11.9125
d 0.7 d 0.7
d 0.8 0.996 d 0.8

ω
ω

11.9130
0.997

11.9135 0.998

0.999
11.9140
1.000
0.99990 0.99992 0.99994 0.99996 0.99998 1.00000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1 z 1 z

Fig. 2. (Color online) Plots of equation of state parameter ωϑ versus 1 + z for modified QCD ghost
DE (left panel) and generalized ghost PDE (right panel) in dynamical Chern–Simons modified
gravity. However, red solid, green dashed and blue dotted curves correspond to d = 0.6, d = 0.7
and d = 0.8, respectively.

For generalized ghost PDE, EoS parameter can be extracted by using Eqs. (4),
(6)–(8)
2
ωϑ = −1 − (3d2 H02 Ωm0 a3(d −1)
)(αH+ βH 2 )−u − (uH −2 (α+ 2βH))(3(α + βH))−1
2
× (3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 )
− u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 . (12)

The graph of ωϑ versus 1+z for modified QCD ghost DE (left panel) and generalized
ghost PDE (right panel) is plotted in Fig. 3. From the figure, it is clear that (ωϑ )
lies in the range of ωϑ < −1 (phantom region) of the Universe at the present and
future epoch for all values of d2 for the modified QCD ghost DE model. However,
for the generalized ghost PDE, the trajectories of EoS parameter (ωϑ ) lie in the
quintessence as well as cosmological constant of the Universe at the present and
future epoch.

Modified QCD ghost DE Generalized ghost PDE

2
0.990

0 0.992

0.994
q
q

2 d 0.6 d 0.6
d 0.7 d 0.7
0.996
d 0.8 d 0.8
4
0.998

6 1.000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1 z 1 z

Fig. 3. (Color online) Plots of q versus 1+z for modified QCD ghost DE (left panel) and generalized
ghost PDE (right panel) in dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity. However red solid, green
dashed and blue dotted curves correspond to d = 0.6, d = 0.7 and d = 0.8, respectively.

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2.3. Deceleration parameter

The deceleration parameter is the dimensionless measure and distinguishes de-
celerated as well as accelerated stages of the Universe. Its expression is given
by

äa Ḣ
q=− = −1 − 2 , (13)
ȧ2 H
where −1 ≤ q < 0 expresses the accelerated phase of the Universe, while non-
negative q represents the deceleration phase of the universe. Substituting Eq. (9)
in (13), we get deceleration parameter of modified QCD ghost DE as
 
6 2 αH 2 3(d2 −1) b2 a−6
q = −1 − H − − H0 Ωm0 a − . (14)
αH 3 6
In case of generalized ghost PDE, this parameter can be obtained by inserting
Eq. (10) in (13)
2
3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1) H − b2 Ha−6 )
q = −1 − . (15)
6H 3 (αH + βH 2 ) − uH 2 (α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u

The plots of q (deceleration parameter) versus 1+z (redshift parameter) for modified
QCD ghost and generalized ghost PDE are shown in the left and right panels,
respectively, of Fig. 5. The trajectories of q in both cases represent the accelerating
as well as decelerating phase of the Universe according to the variation of redshift
parameter.

3. Cosmological Plane
This section consists of two well-known cosmological planes like (r − s) and ωϑ − ωϑ

plane.

3.1. Statefinder plane

Statefinder parameters (r, s) are two cosmological parameters introduced in [57] by
using three cosmic derivatives of a (scale factor), which are defined for flat universe
as
1 d3 a r−1
r= and s =  . (16)
aH 3 dt3 3 q − 12

The (r, s) plane can discriminate various DE models according to their behavior at
the present time. Different DE models generate different trajectories on the plane. In
this plane if {r = 1, s = 0}, then the trajectory shows ΛCDM model, {r < 1, s > 0}
expresses phantom and quintessence era, if {s < 0, r > 1}, then it represents the
chaplygin gas, {r = 1, s = 1} corresponds to CDM limit. For modified QCD ghost

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Cosmological implications of dark energy models in modified gravity

DE, Eq. (16) takes the following form


1 2
r = 1− 18H0 Ωm0 a3d −2 (1 − d2 ) − 6b2 a−5 + (18H 2 − αH − b2 a−6
αH 2
  
2 6 αH 2 b2 a−6
− 6H02 Ωm0 a3d −3
) H2 − − H02 Ωm0 a3(d −1) − , (17)
α 3 6

2 2
s= 18H0 Ωm0 a3d −2 (1 − d2 ) − 6b2 a−5 + (18H 2 − αH − b2 a−6 − 6H02
α
  
3d2 −3 2 αH 6 2 3(d2 −1) b2 a−6
× Ωm0 a ) H − − H0 Ωm0 a −
3 α 6
    −1
36H 2 αH 2 3(d2 −1) b2 a−6 2
× − H − − H0 Ωm0 a − + 9H . (18)
α 3 6

For generalized ghost PDE, the statefinder parameters turn out to be

2
9(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1) H − b2 Ha−6 )
r = 1+
6H 3 (αH + βH 2 ) − uH 2 (α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u
2 2
+ H −3 ((3a−(2−3d ) H(−18(3(−1 + d2 )2 H02 Ωm0 + 2b2 a−(3+3d ) )H 3 (α + βH)2
2
+ u(H(α + βH))u (6(3(−1 + d2 )2 H02 Ωm0 + 2b2 a−(3+3d ) )β 2 H 3
2
− (−2 + u)a−1 (−3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 + b2 a−(3+3d ) )α2 (3(αH + βH 2 )
2
× (3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)
2
× (αH+ βH 2 )u )−1 + βH 2 (−2b2 a−(3+3d ) (−9α+ 2(−1 + u)a−1 β(3(αH + βH 2 )
2
× (3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)
× (αH + βH 2 )u )−1 ) + 3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 (9(−1 + d2 )α + 4(−1 + u)a−1 β
2
× (3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 )
2
− u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 )) + αH(b2 a−(3+3d ) (6α + (5 − 4u)a−1 β
2
× (3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 )
− u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 ) + 3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 (3(−1 + d2 )α
2
+ (−5 + 4u)a−1 β(3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))
× (6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 )))))((−6H 2 (α + βH)
+ u(H(α + βH))u (α + 2βH))2 )−1 ) (19)

2
9(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1) H − b2 Ha−6 )
s=2
6H 3 (αH + βH 2 ) − uH 2 (α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u
2 2
+ H −3 ((3a−(2−3d ) H(−18(3(−1 + d2 )2 H02 Ωm0 + 2b2 a−(3+3d ) )H 3 (α + βH)2

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2
+ u(H(α + βH))u (6(3(−1 + d2 )2 H02 Ωm0 + 2b2 a−(3+3d ) )β 2 H 3 − (−2 + u)
2
× a−1 (−3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 + b2 a−(3+3d ) )α2 (3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)
2
× a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1
2
+ βH 2 (−2b2 a−(3+3d ) (−9α + 2(−1 + u)a−1 β(3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)
2
× a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 )
+ 3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 (9(−1 + d2 )α + 4(−1 + u)a−1 β(3(αH + βH 2 )
2
× (3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)
2
× (αH + βH 2 )u )−1 )) + αH(b2 a−(3+3d ) (6α + (5 − 4u)a−1 β(3(αH + βH 2 )
2
× (3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)
× (αH + βH 2 )u )−1 ) + 3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 (3(−1 + d2 )α + (−5 + 4u)a−1 β
2
× (3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 )
−u (α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 )))))((−6H 2 (α + βH) + u(H(α + βH))u

2
× (α + 2βH))2 )−1 ) (3(2(−1 − 3(αH + βH 2 )(3Ωm0 H02 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H

− b2 Ha−6 )(6H 3 (αH + βH 2 ) − uH 2 (α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 ) − 1))−1 .

(20)

The graphs of statefinder parameters for modified QCD ghost DE and general-
ized ghost PDE are shown in the left and right panels of Fig. 4, respectively. For
modified QCD ghost DE, the plane corresponds to chaplygin gas model, ΛCDM

Modified QCD ghost DE

Generalized ghost PDE
2
0.007

0 0.006

0.005
2
0.004
s

4 0.003

6 0.002

0.001
8
0.000
0 20 40 60 80 0.970 0.975 0.980 0.985 0.990 0.995 1.000
r r

Fig. 4. (Color online) Plots of r versus s for Hubble horizon modified QCD ghost DE (left panel)
and generalized ghost PDE (right panel) in dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity. However,
red solid, green dashed and blue dotted curves correspond to d = 0.6, d = 0.7 and d = 0.8,
respectively.

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Cosmological implications of dark energy models in modified gravity

model as well as phantom and quintessence region. For generalized ghost PDE, the
plane corresponds to ΛCDM model as well as phantom and quintessence regions.

3.2. ωϑ -ωϑ Plane
Caldwell and Linder [58] discover this method by dividing ωϑ -ωϑ
into two regions:
the thawing part in which (ωϑ
> 0, ωϑ < 0) and freezing part in which (ωϑ
< 0, ωϑ <
0). To find ωϑ
for the modified QCD ghost DE, taking derivative of Eq. (11) with
respect to x = ln a, we get

1
ωϑ
= − a −1
36H04 Ω2m0 a−4
αH 2 (6H02 Ωm0 a−3 + a−3d2 (b2 a−6 − 6H 2 ))2
  
6H αH
× −(−1 + d2 )αH + a−1 (α − d2 α − 4a−1 H 2 ) H2 −
α 3
 
2 b2 a−6 2
− H02 Ωm0 a3(d −1) − − 6H02 Ωm0 a−(1+3d ) αH(b2 d2 (7 + 3d2 )
6
× a−6 + 3H(b2 d2 (1 + d2 )a−7 − 2(−1+ d2 )H(−2 + 3d2 + (−4 + 3d2 )a−1 H)))
+ a−1 (b2 (−3 + d2 )a−6 α + 2H 2 (4b2 a−7 − 9(−1 + d2 )α − 2a−1
  
6H αH 2 b2 a−6
× H((−4 + 3d2 )α + 12H))) H2 − − H02 Ωm0 a3(d −1) −
α 3 6

2
− 2a−6d − b2 a−4 αH(b2 a−6 + 6H 2 (5 + 4a−1 H)) + (−αb4 a−11

+ 2H 2 (b2 a−5 (b2 a−7 + 9α) + 4H(b2 a−6 α − 3b2 a−6 H + 9H 3 )))
  
6H αH 2 b2 a−6
× H2 − − H02 Ωm0 a3(d −1) − . (21)
α 3 6
For generalized ghost PDE, we have
2
ωϑ
= −a−1(9d2 (−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 a−(2−3d ) (H(α + βH))−u + (3ua−2 (−2b2 a−3
2
− 3(−1 + d2 )2 H02 Ωm0 a3d )(α + 2βH))(−6H 2 (α + βH) + u(H(α + βH))u
2
× (α + 2βH))−1 + 3d2 H02 Ωm0 ua−(3−3d ) (H(α + βH))−1−u (α + 2βH)
2
× (3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 )
2
− u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 + (2ua−3 (−b2 a−3 + 3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 a3d )
2
× β(3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)a3(d −1)
H − b2 Ha−6 ))(6H(αH + βH 2 )
− u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 )(−6H 2 (α + βH) + u(H(α + βH))u
2 2
× (α+ 2βH))−1 + (ua−(3−3d ) (−3(−1 + d2 )H02 Ωm0 + b2 a−(3+3d ) )(α + 2βH)
× (−6H 2 (α + βH)(2α + 3βH) + u(H(α + βH))u (uα2 + 2(1 + 2u)βH

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Modified QCD ghost DE Generalized ghost PDE

3 0.00

2 0.01

1
0.02
0
ω

ω
0.03
1
0.04
2

0.05
3

4 3 2 1 0 1.000 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.995 0.994 0.993

ω ω

 versus ω for Hubble horizon modified QCD ghost DE (left

Fig. 5. (Color online) Plots of ωϑ ϑ
panel) and generalized ghost PDE (right panel) in dynamical Chern–Simons modified gravity.
However, red solid, green dashed and blue dotted curves correspond to d = 0.6, d = 0.7 and
d = 0.8, respectively.

2
× (α + βH)))(3(αH + βH 2 )(3H02 Ωm0 (d2 − 1)Ha3(d −1)
− b2 Ha−6 ))
× (6H(αH + βH 2 ) − u(α + 2βH)(αH + βH 2 )u )−1 )(H(α + βH)
× (−6H 2 (α + βH) + u(H(α + βH))u (α + 2βH))2 )−1 ). (22)

The ωϑ − ωϑ
planes for modified QCD ghost DE and generalized ghost PDE are
shown in the left and right panels of Fig. 5. It can be observed that ωϑ − ωϑ
plane
corresponds to thawing, ΛCDM limit (ωϑ , ωϑ
) = (−1, 0) as well as freezing regions
for modified QCD ghost DE model. The ωϑ − ωϑ
plane for generalized ghost PDE
corresponds to thawing region and ΛCDM limit.

4. Conclusion
Chern–Simons modified gravity is one of the modified gravities which has stood
out in recent years [59]. This modification includes the addition of the Pontryagin
density (it is simply a topological term, unless the coupling constant is not constant
or promoted to a scalar field in four dimensions) which exhibits the violation of
parity symmetry in Einstein–Hilbert action. This is not a random extension but it
is actually motivated by both string theory, as a necessary anomaly-canceling term
to conserve unitarity [60] and loop quantum gravity [61]. The detailed information
about this proposal is given in the paper and references therein [62]. By promoting
the coupling constant towards a scalar field, the dynamic formulation of Chern–
Simons gravity has been studied recently which includes neutron star binary [63],
spacetime with and without black holes [64] etc.
In this work, we have investigated the cosmological evolution of two DE models
such as modified QCD ghost DE and generalized ghost PDE in dynamical Chern–
Simons modified gravity. We have explored various cosmological parameters as well
as planes by taking the interacting scenario of these DE models. We have plotted
Hubble parameter (H) for modified QCD ghost DE and the generalized ghost PDE

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Cosmological implications of dark energy models in modified gravity

versus red shift function is shown in Fig. 1. The left panel of Fig. 1 shows that the
values of H lie within the range 70+25 −25 at the near future as well as the present
era. The right panel of Fig. 1 exhibits that the values of H lie within the range
+.07
of 74.07−.07 at the present and near future era. We have also observed that EoS
shows phantom behavior of the Universe for modified QCD ghost DE model while
exhibiting quintessence as well as vacuum era of the Universe for generalized ghost
DE model (Fig. 2).
We have also evaluated the deceleration parameter and found that trajectories
of q in both cases represent the accelerating as well as decelerating phase of the
Universe according to variation of redshift parameter (Fig. 3). We have also devel-
oped the plane of statefinder parameters for both DE models (Fig. 4). It is found
that for modified QCD ghost DE, the plane corresponds to chaplygin gas model,
ΛCDM model as well as phantom and quintessence regions. For generalized ghost
PDE, the plane corresponds to ΛCDM model as well as phantom and quintessence
regions. The ωϑ − ωϑ
planes for modified QCD ghost DE and generalized ghost
PDE have also been constructed (Fig. 5). It can be observed that ωϑ − ωϑ
plane
corresponds to thawing, ΛCDM limit (ωϑ , ωϑ
) = (−1, 0) as well as freezing regions
for modified QCD ghost DE model. The ωϑ − ωϑ
plane for generalized ghost PDE
corresponds to thawing region and ΛCDM limit.
It has been observed that Chern–Simons modified parameter (b) plays a crucial
role in order to generate compatible results with present day observations. Also,
we have found that in the presence of this parameter, the trajectories of r − s
and ωϑ − ωϑ
planes correspond to ΛCDM model ((r, s) = (1, 0) for r − s plane
and (ωϑ , ωϑ
)=(−1, 0) for ωϑ − ωϑ
plane). This exhibits that the present models of
modified QCD ghost dark energy and generalized ghost PDE mimic with ΛCDM
model.

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