neufert ird EditionErnst and Peter Neufert Architects’ Data Third Edition Edited by Bousmaha Baiche DipArch, MPhil, PhD School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University and Nicholas Walliman DipArch, PhD, RIBA School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University b Blackwall ScienceThis book provides architects and designers with a concise source of core information needed ta form a framework for the detailed planning of any building project. The abjecive is to save time for building designers during their basic ives: tigations. The information includes the principles of the ‘design process, basic information on siting, servicing and constructing buildings, 2s weil a illustrations and descrip tions of a wide range of building types. Designers need to be ‘well informed about the requirements fr all the constituent parts of new projects in order to ensure that their designs Satisfy the requirements of the briefs and thet the buildings conform to accepted standards and regulations The extended contents list shows now the book is orga: rise and the order ofthe subjects discussed. To help read fers to identity relevant background information easily, the Bibliography (page $88) and list of related British and inter. national standards (page 895) have beon structured in a way that mirrors the organisation of the main sections of the book. To avoid repetition and keep the book to @ manageable length, the different subjects are covered only once in fll Readers should therefore refer to several sections ta glean all of the information they require. For instance, a designer ‘wanting te prepare a scheme fora collage will need toreter to ‘other sections apart from thet on collages, such as — ‘draughting guidelines; muttistorey buiéings: the various sections on services and environmental control restaurants for tho catering facilities; hotels, hostels and flats for the student accommodation; office buildings for details on working environments; libraries: car parks; disabled access {in the Rousing and residential section|; indoor and outdoor sports faities:gardens; as wellas details on doors, windows, Slaits, and the section on construction management, ete, Readers should noto that the majority of the material is from European contributors and this means that the detail ABOUT THIS BOOK on, for example, climate and daylight is from the perspective of a temperate climate in the northern hemisphere. The Concitions at the location of the proposed building will always have to be ascertained fram specific information on the locality. A similar situation is 10 be seen in the section on roads, where the illustrations show traffic driving on the Fight-hand side ofthe road. Again, oral conditions must be taken into consideration for each individual case The terminology and style of te texts UK English and this clearly will need to be taken into account by readers accus famed to American English. These readers wil need to be aware that, for example, ‘it’ has been used in place of ‘elevator’ and ‘ground floor’ is used instead of “ist floor (and ‘first floor for ‘second’ et. ‘The data and examples included in the text are drawn from 4 wide range of sources and as a result a combination of conventions is used throughout for dimensions, The mea surements shown are all metic but a mixture of metres ‘centimetres and milimetros is used and they are inthe main ot identified, Readers will also find some superscript numbers asso: ciated with the measurements. Where these appear by ‘dimensions in metros with contimetres, for instance, they represent the additional millimetre component of the mea sure (eg. 128" denotes 11, 260m, 5mm). Anybody familiar with the metric system will not find this troublesome and those people who are less comfortable with metric units can use the Conversion Tables given on pages 617 to 627 t0 clarify any ambiguities The plans and diagrams of buildings do not have scales as the purpose here isto show the general layout and express relationships between different spaces, making exact sealing lunnecessary. However, al elevant dimensions are given an the detailed drawings and diagrams of installations, to assist in the design of specific spaces and constructions‘The Publishers wish to thank, in particular, Dr Bousmaha Baicho, of the Postgraduate Research School, School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, for his enormous, ttfors and patience in averseeing the final English language fedition. They would also like to thank his colleague, Dr Nicholas Walliman, also of the Postgraduate Research ‘School, for his valuable contribution on questions of content {and terminology. ‘The Publishers are also especially ratoful to Paul Stringer {or his efforts in managing the editorial and production work fon the new edition and for hie exceptional attention to detal “They would also lke to thank Mark Straker of Vector for his ‘work on the ilustrations and text, Richard Moore for proof reading, and the following for their work on the translation Bantrans Services, Chris Charlesworth, Chiltern Language Services, Katharina Hesse, Jeff Howel, Keith Murray, Amy Newland and Wordswop. Finally, they would like to thank the following for con: teibuting information and illustrations to this exition: “Martin Pugh, Trevor Fish, Group Property Services, Barclays Bank Pie Peter J. Clement, Group Property, NatWest Group Mary Heighway and members’ of stat, Public Relations, Environment Agency Pick Everard, Graham Brown, Andrew Robinson, Pick Ever. ‘ard jArchitecs, Surveyors, and Consulting Engineers) and 4. Sainsbury's Ple AscaNVCEC Architects Lesley Bailie, Office of Health Economics ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Simon Marshal, railway expert Stanley Partnership, Architects, Cheltenham ‘Malcom Lee, National Small-Bore Rille Association (NSRA\ Britisn Steel Strip Products Matthew Foreman, Katy Harris, Jo Olsen and members of staf, Foster and Partners, London La Kershaw and colleagues at RIBA Publications, the Royal Institute ofthe British Architects for permission to repro ‘duce forms on page 48 (copyright RIBA Publications 1999) Derek Wolterdale, Principal Track and Gauge Engineer at Railtrack, and members of staf of Railtrack Graeme Loudon, The Met Office Pam Beckley (Copyright Administrator, the Controller, and members of staff of the Copyright Unit, HMSO for per ‘mission to reproduce illustrations (Fig 1, page S41 and Fig 8, page 542) trom Health Building Note 36 (Crown copy Fight moterial is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’ Stationery Office) Addison Wesley Longman for permission to reproduce ilustrations (Fig. 1, page 101 and Fig. 18 page 158) from The Climate ofthe British sles (Chandler & Gregory! Dr Ray Ogden, Professor Mike Jenks, Margaret Ackil Postgraduate Research School, School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University Chris Kendrick, School of Architecture, Oxtord Brookes Uni The illustrations on pages 134-7 are reproduced from The Building Regulations Explained and Mustrated (Powell Smith & Billington) Blackwoll Sciance Lt,Throughout history man has created things to be of service to him using measurements relating to his body. Until relatively recent times. the limbs of humans were the basis far a the units of measurement. Even today many people would have 2 better understanding of the Size of an object if they were told that it was so many men high, so many paces long, so many feet wider or so many heads bigger. These are concepts we have from birth, the sizes of whieh can be said to be in our nature. However, the introduction of motric dimensions put an end to that way of depicting our world Using the metric scale, architects have to try to create ‘8 mental picture that is 98 accurate and as vivid as possible. Clionts are doing the same when they measure Toms on a plan to envisage the dimensions in reality. Architects should familiarise themeeives with the size of rooms and the objects they contain so that they can Picture and convey the real size of yet to-be designed furniture, rooms of buildings in each line they draw and fach dimension they measure. We immediately have an accurate idea of the size of an jobject when we see 2 man (real or imaginary) next toi It isa sign of our times that pictures of buildings and rooms presented in aur trade and professional journals are 100 often shown without people present in them. From pictures alone, we often obtain a false idea of the size of these rooms and buildings and are surprised how different they appear in reality ~ frequently, they seem ‘ayuch smaller than expected. One of the reasons for the failure of buildings to have cohesive relationships with ‘one another is because the designers have based their ‘work on different arbitrary scales and not an the only ue ‘Scale, namely that of human beings. It this is ever to be changed, architects and designers must be shown how these thoughtlessly accepted measurements have developed and how they can be avoided. They have to understand the relationship between the sizes of human limbs and what space 2 person requires in various postures and whilst moving around. They must also know the sizes of objects, Uiensils, clothing ete. in everyday use to be able to determine suitable dimensions for containers and furnituee. In addition, architects and designers have to know ‘what space humans need betwoon furniture ~ both in the hhome and in the workplace ~ a8 well as how the furniture ccan best be positioned. Without this knowledge, they Wl be unable to ereate an envionment in which no space is wasted and people ean comfortably perform their duties for enjoy relaxation time, Finally, architects and designers must know the dimensions for minimum space requirements for people moving around in, for example, railways and vehicles These minimum space requirements produce strongly fixed impressions from which, often unconsciously, other dimensions of spaces are derived ‘Man is not simply a physical being, who needs room, Emotional response is no less important: the way people feel about any space depends crucially on how it is divided up, painted, lit, entered, and furnishes. Starting out from all these considerations and perceptions, Ernst Newfert began in 1926 to collect methodically the experiences gained in # varied prectice land teaching activities. He developed a ‘theory of planning’ based on the human being and provided a frameork for assessing the dimensions of buildings and their constituent parts. The results were embodied in this INTRODUCTION book, Many questions of principle were examined, developed and weighed against one another for the first Inthe current edition up-to-date technical options are included to the fullest extent and common standards are taken into consideration. Description is kept to the absolute minimum necessery and is augmented or replaced as far as possible by drawings. Creative building designers can thus obtain the necessary information tor design in an orderly, brief, and coherent form, which otherwise they would have to collect together laboriously from many reference sources or obtain by detailed measurement of completed buildings. Importance has been attached to giving aniy a summary; the fundamental data and experiences are compared with finished buildings only i it is necessary to provide # suitable example BY and large, apart from the requitements of pertinent standards, each project is different and so should be studied, approached an designed afresh by the architect. Oniy in this way caa there be lively progress within the spit of the times. However, executed projects lend themseives too readily to imitation, or establish ‘conventions from which architects of similar projects may find difficulty in detaching themselves. If creative ‘architects are given only constituent parts, as is the intention here, they are compelled to weave the components together into their own imaginative and Unified constuction Finally, the component parts presented here have been systematically researched from the literature to provide the data necessary for individual Ouilding tasks, checked ‘out on well-known buildings of a similar type and, where hecessary, determined from mode's and experiments The objective of this is always that of saving practising building planners from having ta carry out all of these basic investigations, thereby enabling them to devote themselves ta the important creative aspects of the taskr] H A A H M H : A H H H H H UNITS AND SYMBOLS © eee of ving 8 wns in et Jum Me ey eat cal | * 8 | | 4 ® samen fan rived na D santo an nts soundUNITS AND SYMBOLS = aoe = Mathematical symbols fer oves |smw rome Jaen > gener tan = bh [= 2 eter an Foto i Elum | a tg a ale bss ee | fom [Rta corns fecern [em imam ae — : 2 ae 7 ear = lementy eu =| fm |= : nn eS eaten — fenttcnn fiw |S | empty ea ES some fie |i ‘Sime ame = infinity = ir Ul psae ~ wee 4 mot identically equal to = - volume on iia meaa|s. [ome [ve 1 fantom = a a= conan ==} = 11 soe Section para ne |” 225 : Greek alphabet eee em Ee se sone ce ft 8 tot Fy igen 20 7 so ante m fe sion oe ny ea emf nat Mom Nave [tant | pent -oamtsninnt 1h (iow ted x toapea ao ae ow ima renee nee | Moccia Mn mm ee eee oe ees 06 lotemicron ms | onan Eo tags Javncine | geal ceuee fe ee |e | | wet maa 0 toh) phi Jorn |r [yeeros ty esi © Stand stanatony unis for he constreton induryDG soot eer tomate [te perp ae i @ sheets [ame = © se tomar es Pade uncudingenbonars ® © Fermatsrpn aa DOCUMENTATION AND DRAWINGS The format of documentation (whether in the form of plans, reports, letters, envelopes ete) has, apart from in the USA, generally been standardised to’ conform to tv internationally aecepted {150} series of paper sheet sizes in the ‘A, ’B ‘Cand 'D’ ranges, These standard paper formats are derived from a rectangular sheet with an area ‘of 1m2, Using the ‘golden square’, the lengths ofthe sides, are chosen as x = 0.841 and y = 1.189m such that “This forms the basis for the A series. Maintaining the same ratio of length to width, the sheet sizes are worked out by brogressively halving (or, the other way round, doubling) the sheet ares, 3s would happen if the rectangular sheet was repeatedly folded exactly in half =). Additional ranges (B, C, and D) ste provided for the associated products that require larger paper sizes, ie posters, envelopes, loose-teat fle binders, folders ete. The formats of range B are designed for posters and wall charts. The formats in ranges C and D are the geometric mean dimensions of ranges A and B and are used to ‘manufacture the envelopes and folders to take the A sizes, @ The extra size needed for loose leat binders, folders and box files will depend on the size and type of clamping device employed The strip oF side margin formats ate formed by halves, quarters, and eighths of the main formats (or envelopes, signs, drawings etc.) + 6) + @. Pads and duplicate books using carbonless paper also have standard formats but may have a perforated edge or order, which means the resulting pages will be corresponding amount smaller than the standard sheet size ®. During book-binding, a further tim is usually necessary, siving pages somewhat smalier than the standard format size. However, commercial printers use paper supplied in the RA or SRA sizes and this has an allowance for trimming, which allows the final page sizes to match the standara formats. T 5 moreno [we [wan [ae oor a oy Sh) === EE , Taran dea mang Soa = tw aon | @ eyes any aan with A tad frmat@ sented toni ‘ ae 4 @ 190 wens ay I Fe ney coma 1 | QD het veons rd uote Lad DOCUMENTATION AND DRAWINGS The use of standard drawing formats makes it easier for architects to lay out drawings for discussion in the design office oF on the building site, and also facilitates pasting and filing. The trimmed, orginal drawing oF print must therelore conform to the formats of the ISO A series. Q)-@ The box for written details should be the following distance from the edge of the drawing: for formats AO-A3 tomm for formats At-AG 5mm For small drawings, a fling margin of up to 25mm can be Used, with the result that the usable area of the finished format will be smaller. ‘As an exception, narrow formats can be arrived at by stringing together a row of identical or adjacent formats out of the format range. From normal roll widths, the following sizes ean be used to give formats in the A series for drawing paper tracing paper 1800, 1860™mm {derived from this 1280, 1250, 660, 900m) for prt paper £650, 900, 1200" If all the drawing formats up to AO are to be cut from a paper web, a oll width of atleast 900mm will be necessary. Drawings which are to be stored in AA box files should be folded as follows: +) (1)The weting nox must always be uppermost, in the correct place and clearly visible. (210n starting to fold, the wicth of 210 mm Wold 1) ‘must always be maintained, and itis useful to use a 210 297 mm template, (@)Fold 2's a triangular fold started 297mm up from the Dattam leftthand corner, 0 that on the completely folded drawing only the lef bottom field, indicated with a cross, will be punched or clamped. (The drawing is next folded back parallel to side ‘a’ using a 185 x 298mm template. Any remaining area 's concertina folded so as to even out the sheet size {nd this leaves the writing box on the top surface. If itis not possible to have even folds throughout, the final fold should simply halve the area left (e.g. At fold 5, AO fold 7). Any longer standard formats can be folded in a similar way. (5) The resulting strip should be folded from side 'b’ to ive a final size of 210 x 297 mm. To reinforce holes and filing edges, @ piece of AS size cardboard (148 x 210mm) can be glued to the back of the punched part of the drawing © mension and scheme for edingDOCUMENTATION AND DRAWINGS Arrangement Leave a Sem wide blank strip down the left hhand edge of the sheet for binding or stapling. The writing box on the extreme fight + @ should contain the following details (type of drawing (sketch, preliminary esign, design etc.) (2)type of view or the part of the building illustrated (layout drawing, plan view, section, elevation, ete) (2) scale = (a) dimensions, f necessary. +] "| on drawings used for statutory approvals {and those used by supervisors during construction! it might also contain: {3} the elient’s name (and signature) (2) the building supervisor's name (and = signature) {31 the main contractors signature pete © suradie arrangement of wat dea {the building supervisor's comments about inspection and the building permit (if necessary on the back of the sheet A north-point must be shown on the ‘drawings for site layouts, plan views et. —a Scales “The main scale of the drawing must be given in large type in the box for weitten details, Other scales must be in smaller type and these scales must be repeated next to their respective diagrams. All objects should be drawn to scale; where the Yah = the whole of the ‘crotch upwards "Yeh = leg length from the ankle to the knee and from the chin to the navel length af foot hhead length from the hsir parting to the bottom of the chin, distance between the nipples ‘Woh face height and width (including the ears}, hand length to the wrist ‘yas face width atthe level ofthe bottom of the nose, leg width (above the ankle) and so on. The sub-divisions go up to Yeoh. half of the body, from the Yen ven During the last century, A. Zeising, brought greater clarity with his investigations of the dimensional relationship of man’s proportions, He made exact ‘measurements and comparisons on the basis ofthe golden section. Unfortunately, this work did not receive the atention it deserved until recently, when a significant researcher in this field, E, Moessel, endorsed Zeising's work by making thorough tests carried out following his methods. From 1945 onwards, Le Corbusier used forall his projects the sectional relationships in accordance with the {olden section, which he called ‘Le Modulor’~ p. 30. 15REQUIREMENTS MAN: DIMENSIONS AND SPACEMAN: SMALL SPACES© ‘ening Can @-© erodection terbon nie and wer vps amas aN ‘Tne function of housing is to protect man against the weather and to provide an environment that maintains his well-being ‘The required inside atmosphere comprises gently moving (vt. not draughty), well oxygenated a, pleasant warmth and air humidity and sufficient light. To provide these. conditions, important factors are the location and orientation of the housing inthe landscape (~»p. 272) as well asthe arrangement ‘of spaces in the house and its type of constuction. The prime requirements for promoting a lasting feeling of wollbeing are an insulated construction, with appropriately Sized windows placed correctly in rolation to the room furnishings, sufficient heating and corresponding draughe‘ree The need for sir Man breathes in oxygen withthe air and expels carbon dioxide ne exhales. These vary ip quantity Sepending on the individual's weight, food intake, activity anc surrounding environment» Q-@ Ie has been caleveted that on average human beings produce 0.020m%n of carton dioxide and 40gh of water vapour. "A carbon dioxide content between 1 and 3 con stimulate doaper breathing, ta the ai in tho dweling should not a far as porsble, contain more than The. This means, with a single ‘change af ar por hour, a requirement for an alr space of 32m per fault and 150 fr each end. However, because the natural rate (of air exchange in freestanding buildings, even with closed ‘windows, reaches 1/2 to 2 times this amount, 16-24 is ‘Sufficient (depending on the design) as a normal air space for adults and 8-121 for children. Expressed anther way, with 2 oom height 2.5m, a oom flaor area of 4-8.6m> for each adult is adequate and 32-4 8m? for each child. With a greater rate of fr exchange, le. sleeping with @ window open. oF venation ‘ia ducting), the volume of space per person for ving rooms can be racuced to 75m? and for bedrooms to 10m? per bed. Where air quality is likely t0 deteriorate because of naked ‘ight, vapours and atner pollutant fae in hospitals of factories) and in enclosed spaces (such as you in en auditorium), rate of ‘xchange of air Must be artficaly boosted in order to provide the lacking oxygen and remove the hermful substances. ‘Space heating ‘The room temperature for humans at rests atts most pleasant betwoen 18 and 20°C, and for work between 15°end 18°C, depending on the level of activity. A human being produces ‘bout 15kcally per kg of Body weight. An adult weighing 70kg thetelore generates 2520kcal of heat energy per day, although the quantity produced varies according to the circumstances. For instance iinereases with & drop in room temperature just eit dove with exercise, "When hesting 8 00m, cate must be taken to ensure that ow temperature heat i used to warm the room air an the cold side fof the room. With surface temperatures above 70-80°C decom- position can take place, which may irritate the mucous membrane, mouth and pharyr and mako the ai feel too éry. Because ofthis, steam heating and iron stoves, with their high surface temperature, are not suitable for use in blocks of flats BEES meas tence MAN AND HIS HOUSING © wening oom humidity Room air is most pleasant with a elative air hhumielty of §0-60%, f should be maintained between limits 40% and 70%. Room air Which Is toa moist promotes germs, mould 01d bridging, rot and condensation. ~ ©). ‘The production of water vapour in hum beings varies in accordance with the provaiing conditions and performs an Important cooling function. Production Imma wih hg wey oft com, ticularly when the temperature goes hove 37 Wlood temperature Bay ght IE NENT Iay Ry, adam @ vet eemet an | 920 cel = i 5 Ly i 1 FT) EERN ee i Ectp Neat i : * ea om sriroetae, * mactenooaie ce @ Fiat ot comfort Pats ot comton ROOM CLIMATE same way 98 the ean has climate, he ses of ings bo se clot at mearurabie vaio for a pressu, Mut, inthe bay sein bala wen he by ‘manages thermal raqusion withthe isha of eft a te ‘Ssuipata om tho Boaycoresoonds with tne aquirium loss of est tome surounaing area ‘Temperature regulation and heat loss from the body ‘The hur bey ean fle roe he fate thie ones Mea sing Ssveral_mochanisms’ inceasing bivad siteulaion in the. skin incrosing th Blood excuanon speed vasa dition and sere ng Sweat Won cold, the body uses Muscular shivering 19 gorarate ea is lost ffom the Body in throo main ways: conduction oowetion and radian, Condon the proces ht ae ons ‘ne srfoco to another surface when they ae contact fa fot eract wi the for. Tha tof eat vasor depends 0 the aurace Eondoctvites ofthe metros nvoved. Copp for axampie has high thormalconduetvty whe at of as owe maxing porousinasitng Imetoal. Convection is he proces of body est beng lot ete sek ‘arms the surrounding at This poses = yoversed By the wolcty of {he creating a inthe room snd te temperate sterol Dewees {he clthed and unclathe args otthe body sr ultone ato ven by convecson:ir-watm tse by coat ih hot bjects fey ‘autora rss, caol off on the caing and sks again As vulstse the a cari stand floating partis wan The uk the heting ‘medium flows eg aatorsn radiator fs user the development Stescutaton. Al abjects, including the human body. emit hee osaton in sezordance to forpertaresferano bebween the ay susace am ‘hoof the ambient ara ti properion tothe somes ofl he ay buoute emporsture and thereors 1 tas as high the temperture ‘outles The wavelength otha rasation ala changes wth temperate {he ngher th surface temzeature the shorter the waweength. Above 50°C: root bocomes wale as ight. The radiation below th lente alld ina root raion. faites mal aeons, pontrates the Si wout heating Ian's absorbed by for rfeted of thers bodies In absorbing the radiation, thee dod bodes Vnctucing Maran otis) are warmed Ths fala hoa absorption by the body te rom ‘le stove! sth mom pasar sansation for hur for psa tesaons and als the most helt, ‘evaporation of moisture from the sweat glands ana bathing. Te Body surface and vapour pressure dierent between the sun dnd Strung areas ore key factors hore. Recommendations for internal climate Ban ai temperature of 20.244 re convorsble Both in summer ang in ‘inter ‘Thesuraunding surace arene shoud not ier by Move than BEE rom the air tomparaturo. A change hea tempetetute cn be compensated or by changing the surface lmperatre (es wth 'S'oo gress sifterence between th at an surface temper scessve movement oar tae place The main eis ae 8 2 tho oor temperature should be 179° more The surace temperate ofthe seing depande upon the height of he Tm. The temperature send by humane ts someuner ahs aveage ten ‘oom ait empurture ht of sounding rutace, Te Importen to contol air movement aod Mumity 26 ta 36 posable The movement can ho sensed ae saughts and tis has the Efecto fei enting ofthe body eine ar humisyof 400% = Comfort Wir alower humiy eg. 9) dt parce ae tae “Tomainain the quality of thai controled ventions deal-The coy cuntan ofthe ae must bo replaced by oxygon. ACO, content ot Oss by volume should not he excaeded. and terete ein “he rah al requirement at humane comes fo abot 320m £0 the bir ehange in eng rooms should be 0.4 0.8 tes te foom volume Comparative relative humiaty valuesvmowvtiaty © creeds putogene aN Jinn © SEREL ewan uncorgennd wenacewne ne BUILDING BIOLOGY Woldbrunn Waldkatzenbach, among others, nave” been rasearching the effects that the environment has an people: in particular the etlects of the ground, buildings, rooms, bslding Geological effects Stretched acrass the whole of the earth isa se-cllc ‘global net ‘consisting of stationary waves, thought o be induced by the sun. However ts regularity, according to Harmann, is such that Suggests an eanhly radiation whicn emanates ftom inside the ferth and is effected by crystaline stuctures in the earth's crust, 2 spacing of about 2 50m_Atrightanglas fo these are othe sips funaing in an eastwestarection at a spacing of about 2m = have peychologically detrimental effects, particulary when one is Yepeatedly at rest over a point of intersection fr long periods {e.g when in bed). In adtion to this, zooms which same pathogenic influences. These intersection points only b fr joints the ground, or watercourses The later in particular, frethe most nfuental = 3) Hence there a cumulative ettect involved so the best atuation isto make use ofthe undisturbed Zone oF area of 180*230m between the global stupa - According to Hartmann, the mast effective action isto move the bed out of the cisurbance area, particularly away tram the ‘According to Palm, the apparent global 2<250mis made up of halfistance ines. The actual network ‘would be, a2 2 results global nat with svipa at 4-Sm and 56m enres, runing dead straight in the eastiwest direction all ound the earth. Every 7th one of thee net sinps ie reported to be of a soccallad 2nd order and have an influence many times Greater than the others. Also based on sevenths, an even Songer disturbance zone hes been identified asa so-called rd fice This at a spacing of about 250 and 300mm respectively. The intersection points here are alsa fale particularly strongly ‘Also accorsing to Palm, in Europe there are deviations From the above nore of up 10 18% from the northisouth and the fastest directions, Americans have observed such stripe with the aid of very sensitive cameras Trom aeroplanes fying at & heignt of several thousand meters. In addition to this, The diagonaie algo form torr awn globsl net, running north east to has its own pattern of sttong sevenths, which are about one ‘quarter as song again in thee eect Cam influence the neode ofthe compass, Thus variations of 1-2 Steady result in faulty location and this is sigeficant because the fedges of the srps ae particularly pathogenic. Careful detection Df al the relationships requires much time and experience, and btn needs several investigations to cross check ihe results, The se zones a0 located with divining rods oF radio Interesction between ground and ire. atthe earth's surface. Endros nas demonstrated with models thet these breaks ar sao Setectabla on the solid floors of multistorey buildings, = (h He Underground steam i) and measured the strength of the ‘isturbanees above a watercourse 3) ‘The main detrimental effect of such pathogenic zones is that of ‘deuitalsation’ lor example, tiredness, distoroances of the hear, kidneys, circulation, breathing. stomach and metabo, tnd could extend as far ae serious chronic diseases such as ally pathogenic time (5) The been dlscovered to be a source eq height 3m. wacth 4m, length Sm) and round houses oF hexagonal plans (honeycomb are also praised 212 © Ratan pee © we rier of lang ‘phat sheeting diverts the southert inclined radiation BUILDING BIOLOGY Physicists recognise that matter exists in three phases, dopanding on (gaseous For example, with water when under Oi existe #89 solid a) namely cat normal temperatire = (= wate: wnen ove 100 ‘els team. Other materia change phase at dierantemparatures. ‘The atoma of molecles that makeup the materiale in cont ‘mason. In slid metas, for example, the atoms worte around fed tomperture, tho bonds folding space atoms together ave broken ‘down and metal igetston occurs enabling te tara to move mare treaty = Frac heating suses more excaton ofthe atoms ur he toting point reached. Her, the mation seo energete tat he soe an escape al erator fore of atacton an dipars to fom Sninous sate” @) On the reverse side a stra or merlot ‘movement tops completely ot sole sro O kein OK =-273 1510) materais. The atomic or molecular arangerent of Sach rote {ves tte oan properties and dietates how tract to and act te Surroundings. In the case of glass, for example, afoough tot Spparenty solid ot room temperature, does oy have a stalling Etrsture, the ators being in random, amorphous state, Ki thoratore,tecancaly, a supercooled lig The Bens oF vapost ‘molscuesin air depends onthe temperature 0 the weter molecules difuse to the cooter side (ere the density slower. To replace them, air molecules ase to the Tosge, both movements beng indore bythe ditain resistance ofthe wal constuction = Many yoets of research ‘on building materia by Schade Speck _syggpts hat organic mater abeorb or resk up ration of eval ‘ngin For instance, sepa mating wth 100mm stip edge overs ‘round place on concrete Toor diverted he previously pene a.ng Tadiation. The adjacent room, however, racsived bundled diverted rays. = @ =D. In an aternate experiment a ganulted cok oor owed a capaiy to abr the radiation, Cork eet 25 00mm ck compressed and sealed, tngued and grooved al oun ae alsa sunabie = ‘Clay i fogared as “healthy earth’ and bricks and roofing tos fired at about 880°C give tho optimum living conditions. For brieklayng,aulphurfree white line ie recommended, produced by aking burr ime in a Saking pit and where fty lime is produced ‘ough maturation. Hydraute Ime shovld, however, be used i ‘nals subject to damp, Lime hae wel known anomptie Guaiios an S cormmonly used oe Ime ween in stables and cow sheds, Plaster is considered best when i red as for bow 200°C a5 possible. preferabiy witha. sonstant huricty sila to ara textes eater sik ete} Sandetone a9 natural Ime-eandstone fe ccoptabe Bu should not be used for complete wa materials. Timber preservation Weatments should be derived fom the dition oF wood isa (29. as wood vinegar, wood ol! oF wood tar) Tiber reacts well to. ooute and. therefore ‘ecommended that genuine ter be used for inter cladding, hecessary as slywood using natrat glues. Ideally the ‘ld rules Should be followed: timber fled oly in winter. during the waning ‘moon, then watered for one year in a clay pit before Wis sawn However, thi every expansive, For insulation, natural building materials such as cork grancles and cork sheets tincluding those vith bitumen coating) ee Fecommended, a6 well esa plant-based mating (eg. sem grass, Coconut fibre ete togethor with expended vay end datomseecus anh oss meal Plates, miners fore, mineral wool glass fore, ‘erated concrete, foamed concrete and covrugatedslvminum fall remot consisored to be satisfactory. ‘Norma glass for gaving or erstal glass counts es neutral. eter sill is quartz glase for bioglass. which transite 70-80% ofthe Siteswiolet hight. Doub ewst With glass welded edges are ‘sealed edges. One is seoptcal about colouted Met! trjected by Palm for extorar was wel 6 for vse on large areas Tis cludes copper for rots on dwelnge (out not on churches. Ganerlly the adic et avoid the extensive us of meta ‘Coppers tolerated the best Kon i ejected racintors,alogely, case surance in adv fm) Zine ale tolerated ae ead Bronce too, accptate 76% copper an aluminium i ogara 9 having ‘ture, Asbestos soul not be used With psnting ta eeommended {hat o carol tty is made of th contents snd mead of manufacture tt the paint in order to proven the nroducton of damaging radon, Pastis are_gonerly regarded es Nevng mo harmful me fact Concrete, parulry reforcod caneet, a reected io sabe and arches buss however, permed in foundations and callaate bn anal at nts, date sw Semin tenant Svael peas aon panied test Sn pc os bette ee ith [rPhiedipiedepening on | hetime dy Incardng 1) Distance aren around a trator st ‘tacts on poplin beds 9 to 12 (cean BUILDING BIOLOGY A ditferentiation should be made between concrete with clinker ‘aggregate and man-made plaster {which have extremely high racition valuest and "natura cement and plaster. Lightweight ‘onerete with expanded clay aggregate is tolerable. "Al pipes for water cold or hot, sewage or gas radiate to theie surroundings and can influence the organs of living creatures 29 wel as plants. Therefor, rooms that are occupied ‘by humans and animals for lang periods of time (ea. bedrooms land living rooms) should be a {ar away 95 possible from Pipework Consequently, is recommended that all Installations are concentrated inthe centre of the dweling, in the htehen or bathroom, or collected togerher in a service wal (ip.277 @). ‘These is @ similar problem with electrical wiring earrying alternating current, Even if current does not flow electrical Felds with pathogenic eltects ore formes, and when current is being drawn, the electromagnetic felds created are reputed 19 bbe even mare harmful. Dr Hartmann found an immediate cure none case of disturbed well-being by geting the pation pul ‘out the plug and therefore eliminate the current in tho flex ‘vin went around the head of his bed ~(D, In another case similar symptoms were cured by moving @ cable running bbetwoen an elactre heater and the thermostat rom behind the head of the double bed to the other side of the room» (2) Loose cables are particularly troublesome, as they produce @ 50He alternating Meld syndrome. In addition, electrical ‘equipment, such as heaters, washing machines, dish wash Bolles and, particulary, microwave ovens with defective sea, situated next to or beneath bedrooms send out pathogenic Faiation through the walls and floors, so tat the inhabstonts fate often in an area of several influences ~(). Radiation can largely be avoided in new buildings by using wiring with appropriate insulating sheathing, In existing statutes tho only Solution isto relay the eables or switch off she current at the ‘meter. For this purpose It is now possible to obtain automatic Shutoff swifehes when no current is Being consumed. In this ease, separate circu is required for appliances that constantly (eg. freezers, rofigerators, boilers et "Additional, harmful radiation covers large areas around transformer stations (Schroder Speck measured radiation fom 3,10-20000V station as far away as 30-50m to the north and 420-150m to the south), electric taiiways and high-voltage powerlines. Even the power earthing of many closely spaced houses can give rise to pathogenic effet ‘The human metabolism is influenced by ions (electrically charged particles). & parson in the open airs subjected 10 8 tlectreal voltage of sbout HOY, although under very sight urrent due tothe lack of a charge cari There ean be up to Several thousand ions in ane cube metre of ait, depending on ‘geographica location and local conditions ~»(@) They vary in ‘Sze and it the medium end small ions that have a biological teffet. A strong electrical force field is produced betwoen the mostly negatively charged surlace of the earth and the postvely charged air and this affects the body. The esearch of ‘achishewski inthe 1920s revealed the benelical influence of negative fons on animals and humans, and showed 2 progressive reduction inthe eletresl potential of humans with Increasing age. In alton, the more negative ions there aren the air, the slower the rate at which humans age. Research n the last 50 years has also confirmed the beneficial effects of hegative ions in the trestment of high Blood pressure, asthoa, {creulation problems and rheumatism. The positive ions are predominant in closed rooms, partculsly H they are dusty. Fooms; but only negatively charged oxygenated air is biologically valuable. There isa large choice of devices which can be placed in work and utlty rooms to artificially produce the negative ions (8. whieh produce the desirable steady fla, Such steady fields (continuous current fields) change the polarisation of undesirably charged ions to create improved {oom air conditions. The dovices are available in the form of caling electrodes and table or floor mounted wits (SU ie-a maarurement value; derived Irom Suht, the home town of Schrader Speck! 23LLL THE EYE: PERCEPTION 00 00 00 00 00000000 oo 0000001 © tumrana ] The Ha of vin of the ~ < sae : > fa fronting, thus timing the tances at which oblate pen con be sstinguished wecurataly ”(@) Oznremncee © Witt ne Motes Teron ‘igocemety| O eS he Soncionty mon we eos) THE EYE: PERCEPTION Interpretation ‘The activity ofthe eye is divided into seeing and observing, Seeing first of all serves our physical safety but observing takes over where seeing finishes; it leads to enjoyment of the ‘pictures’ registered through seeing. One can differentiate between a sill and a scanned picture by the way that the eye stays on an abject or scans along it. The Stil picture is cisplayed in a segment of the area ofa cle, ‘whose diameter isthe same as the distance af the eye from the object, Inside this field of view the objects appear tothe faye ‘at a glance’ - @), The idea! stl picture is cisplayed in balance. Balance is the first characteristic of architectural beauty, (Physiologists are working on a theory of the sixth sense ~the senso of balance or static sense ~ that underpins the sense of beauty we feel with regard to symmetrical harmonious things and proportions |» pp. 27-30) or when Wwe are faced with elements that are in balance.) Outside this framework, the eye receives its impressions bay scanning the picture. The scanning eye works forward ‘long the obstacies of resistance which it meets as it cirects tseif away from us in width or depth. Obstacles of tho same for recurring distances are dotected by the eve 3s a beat” or 2 ‘iythm, which has the same appeal as the sounds received by the ear from music. “Architecture is Frozen Music. This effect occurs even when regarding @ stil of ‘scannad picture of an enclosed area» () and ‘A room whose top demarcation (the ceiling) we recognise in the stil picture gives 2 feeling of security, but fon the other hand in long rooms it gives a feeling of depression. With a high cling, which the eye can only recognise at frst by scanning, the room appears free and sublime, provided that the distance between the wall, and hence the general proportions, are in harmony. Designers ist be careful with this because the eye is susceptible 10 ‘optical ilusions, It estimates the oxtent of width more fexactly than depths or heights, the latter always appearing larger. Thus # tower seems much higher when seen from ‘above rather than from below ~ p. 24 09 and (3. Vertical ledges have the effect of overhanging at the top and horizontal ones of curving up in the middle ~ p. 28 () ~ {B. When taking these things into account, the designer should not resort to the other extreme (Barogue) and, for example, reinforce the effect of perspective by inclined Wwindows and cornices (St Peter's in Rome) of even by Comices and vauiting painted in perspective and the like The decisive factor for the measurement of size is the size of the field of view = @and, f applicable, the field of vision + @ and, for the exact differentiation of details the size of the field of reading» @ and @. The distance of the latter ‘determines the size ofthe details to be differentiated The Greeks complied exactly with this rule. The size of the smallest moulding under the cornice of the individual temples of varying height is so dimensioned that, at an angular distance of 27°», it complies with the reading field of 0°. From this also results the reading distances for books (which varies with the size of the letters) and the seating plans for auditoriums ot. 2526 MAN AND COLOUR Colours have a power over humans. They can create feelings of well-being, unease, activity or passivity, for Instance. Colouring in factories, offices or schools can enhance or reduce performance; in hospitals it can have @ postive influence on patients’ health. This influence works indirectly through making rooms appear wider ar narrower, thereby giving an impression of space, which promotes feeling of restriction or freedom» @)~ It also works directly through the physical reactions or impulses evoked oe by the Individual colours end ©. The strongest impulse Senne nal elu cle: 3) Sih ad ek colours and gHoct comes fom ranges then flaw yaloa, es, gree ‘rie. yate wire ae” 7 shar tet on temane ‘and purple, The weakest impulse effect comes from blue, eee reeny blue and violet fhe cold and passive colours). Stnge-sit wang sony ‘Strong impulse colours are stable ony for small areos 7 ina room. Conversely, ow impulse colours can be used for large areas, Warm colours have an active and stimulating ‘fect, which in certain circumstances ean be exiting. Cold cine colours have a passive effect ~ calming and spiritual. Green causes nervous tension. The effects produced by colour ‘also depend on brightness and location Warm and bright colours viewed overhead have a spiritually stimulating effect; viewed from the side, = gsi warming, drawing closer effects and, seen below, 2 G mr “~ Joo tightening, elevating eect. rs a Warm and dark colours viewed above are enclosing or me cigniied: seen from the side, embracing: and, seen below, Suggest safe to grip and to tread on. ran @ Lem aod haan colours inst sae a somone Cold and bright colours above brighten things up end ee are relaxing: from the side they seem te lead awey, and seen below, look smooth ana stimulating for walking an. Cold and derk colours are threatening when above; cold and sad from the side; and burdensome, dragging down, ‘when below. White isthe colour of total purty, cleanliness and order. White plays 2 leading role m the colour design of rooms, breaking up and neutralising other groups of colours, and thereby create an invigorating brightness. As the colour of order, white Is used as the characteristic surface for warehouses and storage places, for road lines and traffic @ Dav colors make oom (5) Bight colours give wt tev rooms sem to be” ©) foams seam ghar with markings tower Hteoingrarehesvly sonar on mals and A 7 Ovum Onur = © See Sci non Brightness of surfac Values between theoretical white (100%) and absolute black (0%) white paps 84 ight brown approx. 25 grass green aprox. 20. asphalt, dry approx. 20 chalky white 80 pure beige approx.25 lime green,pastel approx. 50 asphalt, wet approx. 5 citron yellow 70 mid brown approx. 15. silver grey. approx.38 oak, dark approx. 18 ivory approx. 70 salmon pink approx. 40 grey ime plaster approx. 42 02k, light approx. 33. ‘ream approx 70 full scaret 16 dry concrete, grey approx. 32 walnut approx. 18 ‘old yellow, pure 60. earmine 10 plywood approx 38 light spruce approx. 50 Straw yellow 60 deep violet approx.5 yellow brick approx. 32 aluminium foil a light ochre approx. 60 _light blue 40-50 fed brick approx. 18 galvanised iron sheet 16 pure chrome yellow 50 deep sky blue 30 darkclinier approx. 10 pure orange 25-80 turquoise blue, pure 15 mid stone colour 35© Sie poporions ond © eevee wana @ Pentagon and golden action (2) Bacagen and the golden DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Basis There have been agreements on the dimensioning of buildings since early times. Essential specific data originated in the time of Pythagoras. He started from the basis that the numerical proportions found in acoustics ‘must also be optically harmonious. From this, Pythagoras eveloped his right-angled triangle.» ©. It contains all the harmonious interval proportions, but excludes both the disharmonious intervas (.e. the second and seventh ‘Space measurements are supposed to have been derived from these numerical proportions. Pythagoras or ‘ophantine equations resulted in groups of numerals.» (2) @ that shoul be used for the width, height and length of rooms. These groups can be caleulated using the formula ate b =o ca miy 32) In this x and y are all whole numbers, xis smaller than y, land mis the magnification or reduction factor. The geometric shapes named by Plato and Vitruvius are also of eticalimportanes (ie. cle, iangle » @)and square @ from which polygonal traverses can be constructed). Tho respective bisection then results in further polygonal traverses. Other polygonal traverses (0.9, heptagor » rnonagon «f) can only be formed by approximation or by superimposition. So we can construct a fiteen-sided figure + @ by superimposing the equilateral triangle on the pentagon. The pentagon or pentagram has @ natural relationship with the galden section, just like the decagon which is ‘derived from it , @ and ~ p. 30. However, in oarlior times its particular dimensional relationships found hardly any ‘application. Polygonal traverses are necessary for the design and construction of so-called “ound! structures. The determination of the most important measurements (radius fechord cand height ofa triangle h} are shown in. ~ (3 anc @ @ sowoximere nerosen @ mm \ \ GB) Messuromant etelaon in) Pohvgonel woverse p28 B torte28 DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Basis ‘A rightangled isosceles fie, having two equal sides) angle with a base-to height fatio of 1:2 isthe triangle of quadrature ‘An isosceles triangle with a base and sidos that can be contained by a square was, sucessfully used by Knauth, the master of Cathedral construction, forthe determination of the dimensional relationships for the @ Sevan developed tom he Strasbourg Cathedral cetagon De) Deach’s mid triangle ‘more pointed than the previous ane deseribed, as its height is determined by the point of a siewed square, I, too. was successfully used for details and components. Apart from these figures, the dimensional proportions of the octagon can be detected on a whole range of old structures. The so-called diagonal triangle serves a5 a basis here. The tiangle's height isthe diagonal ofthe square built fon half the base 2). The sides of the rectangle depicted in ) have a rato of 1:92. ln accordance with this, all nalvings or daublings of the rectangie have the same ratio of 1: +2. The ‘step ladders within an octagon make available the geometric ranges in DS G DO. The steps of square coots trom 1-7 are shown in G @-o © The connection between square raots of whole numbers is a sae shown in @ The process of factoring makes possible the application ‘of square roots for building in non rectangular components. sens By building up approximated values for square figures, Mengeringhausen developed the MERO space frames. The Drincipe isthe so-called ‘snail. @)~ (@. The inaccuracies fof the right angle are compensated for by the screw connections of the rods at the joints, & subtly differentiated approximated calculation of square roats of whole numbers ‘vn for non-rectangular components is available from the Use of continued fractions {+ p. 30) in the formula expressed as G = waaay n=1 146 wom — seit 1 euaan¢ 84 SE © wena ncceenag a D continues traction 2DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Application The application of geometric! and dimensional relationships on the basis oft details given earlier as described by Viruvis ‘According 0 his investigations, the Raman theatre, for example, is uit onthe tangle tuned four times.» (Phe Greek theatre fon a square turned three times.» 21 Both dosigns result in & fdadecagon, This recognisable onthe stats, Moessel hes ted the use of proportional relationships in accordance wth {@) although this not obvious. The only Greek theatre whose plan view is based on 8 pentagon stands in Epideurus » @ In ahousing estate recently uncovered in Antica Ost the ot raed 9 Being the ‘ase square. Thus the HOW ion shows an approximate methog for squaring the excle (@) The whole bnising compix, fom ste plan tothe general mont deta is built with these dimansional proportions. in fis. four books on architecture, Palladio ives. @ eometical Koy, which is based on the details given by Pythagoras, He uses the same space relationships “crle triangle, square, ete) and harmonies for his structures (» @) and Such laws of proportion can be found formulated in absolutely clasr rules by the cultures of the ancient peopies of Indians with their "Menasera’. the in accordance with the “Toukeu' se wath thir “Kiwaeino” method have created structural systematics, which guarantoe traditional “davelopment and offer immenso economic advantages. inthe 76th century and Iter, st was not @ harmonic but a srangement of dimensions which was prefered 2. system developed from this. twas only withthe introduction of the modular ordering system that the Understanding of harmonic and proportional dimensional Telationships returned» € and €8, Detais ofthe coordination ‘system and coordination dimensions are given on pp. 34-5. @ Hoe morse in a house at © sonenese weer ang © Seer hyo Paass Sretopea tom a ange20 areca: | O)oaan aes © Cominued rasan: golden sseton — ae © spanation othe vate DIMENSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Application of Le Modulor The architect Le Corbusier developed a theory of Proportion, which Is based on the golden section and the ‘dimensions of the human body. The golden section of a segment of line can be determined either geometrically or by formulae. t means that a line segment can be divided so that the whole of the line segment can be related toa bigger dividing seqment, just as the larger isto the smaller + Thats: 1 major ‘and shows the connection of proportional relationships between the square, the cicie and the triangle (2) The golden section of a line segment can also be determined by a continued fraction Gatel 6 This i the simplest unending regular continued fraction. Le Corbusier marked out three intervals in the human body, Which form a known golden section series according to Fibonacci. These are between the foot, the solar plexus, the hhead, the finger ofthe raised hand. First ofall Le Corbusier started out from the knewn average height for Europeans (1.75m pp. 16-17), which he divided up in accordance with the golden section into 108.2 - 66.8 - 41.45 ~25.4em 4s this last dimension was almost exactly equal to 10 inches, he found in this way a connection withthe English inch, although not for the larger dimensions. For this reason, Le Corbusier changed over in 1947 to 6 English feet (7.828m) as the height of the body. By golden. section division he built the red row up and down =). As the stops in this row are much too big for practical use, ho also but Up a blue row, starting from 2.26m lie, the fingertips of the raised hand, which gave double the values expressed in the red row -- . The values ofthe red and blue rows were converted by Le Corbusier into dimensions which were Practically applicable.For any construction project. completed standard description forms give the most valuable ond clearest information, an are ‘eal for estimating, for the constrtion supervisor and 98. permanent reference in the site office. Any time consuming {uetes based on false information are vitualyelimneted: the time gained more than compensating the etfort involved in ‘completing the record Book. At the tap ofthe form, there are ‘columns fr entering relevant room dimensions, a way e88y Feferied to. The inputs are most simply made using kay words, The column ‘size’ should be used merely for entry of the necessary dimensions of the items, eg. the height of the skiting board oF the feze, the width of the window sil Finaly, several spaces are provided for spacial components, A ‘space should be eft free under each heading, 20 thatthe form can easily be extended for special cases. The reverse side ofthe form is best lett free so that drawings may be added to ‘laborate on the roam description on the next sheet, Tha A format pages are duplicated, each position containing exsetiy the some tox; the sheets are kept up to date and eventually bound together. At the conclusion of the bulging work, the record bo9k i he basis forthe settlement of claims, using the dimensions at the head of the room pages. Later, the record ‘book provides an objective record of progress, ands avallable {or those with specialist knowledge, ‘Standard Numbering Systom ‘Metiicunts of linoae measurement wore first defined in France Jn 1790, although offical recognition did net take place unt 1840. The mete was established as the new decimal unit of Jength on 2 seientife basis, defined as the length of a simp peridulum Raving a swing of one second at sea lavel on latitude 45°. standard numbering system was devised in Gormany, shorlly after World War | to achieve uniformity and Standardisation in the measurement of machines and technical equipment —a system alsa used in France and the USA. The Saning point for measurement is the Continental unit of ‘measurement: the mete. lo the Imperial system (used in the UK, USA and elsowhere, 40 Inches = 1916m = 100m, ‘The requirement of building technology to: geometrical subdivisions. precluded the uso of the purely decimal subivision of the metre, so the Standard Numbering System, based on the structure of 2s, was introduced Into the decimal structure: 1,2, 4,8, 16, 31.5, 63, 125, 250,600, 1000 (The oaiser Spart division and the finer 20: and 40-part division Series are inserted appropriately with their intermediate values) The geometrical 1O;par division of the standard hhumbes series was formed from the halving series (1000, 50, 250, 125, «| and from the doubling series (1, 2, 4, 8, 16,» Because x =3.14 and v10- 3.16. the number 22, following 16 in the series, was rounded down to 31.5. Simvarly, inthe halving sequence, 2:5 was rounded vp to 63 Standara numbers olfer many advantages in calculations: 11 the product and quotient of any two standard numbers are standard numbers 2. inogor powets of standard numbers are standard numbers, ane 3 double for half standard numbers 8 standard number Building measurements Incontrat to engineering, i building constuction, ther ile requirement for a geometic division as opposed to the prevailing arithmetic addition of ential structural components (eg, blocks, beams, joists, girders, columns and. windows Routine measurements for standard components must, tmerefore, comply with these requirements. However, they should also conform to concopts of teenrieal standardisction and the standard numbering system. & standard systom of measurement for bulging construction was bated on the Standara numbering system, and ths is the basis for many further building standards and of measurement for design and onstruction, parteularly in building constuction above ground: BUILDING SUPERVISION PT SES EET tm @ stesso cord bok BASIC MEASUREMENT VE Pigs amen noon caarcnin 0h ler] = e nde 1 @ aC BG) [8] OH [a] DH) ew DES, Ca (2B) Fe) <> Cn) ‘ae <> Ho) fa] woe kK aaae @ reproenation of he Standard Number Sere tan esas 1) ‘Standard measurements ‘The conttoling dimensions are dimensions between key reference planes (e.g, floortoloor height: they provide not ‘nly a amewark for design bet also a basis which components ‘and assamblies may refer 0». Standard dimensions are theoretical but, in practice, they provide tho basis for individual basie structural and finished ‘measurements; thus all bulding components are linked in an ‘organised way (eg. standaré building brick length ~ 260mm {225mm in URI, in stu eanerate wal thickness ~ 250mm.) @® Horizontal controling dinenton a32 BASIC MEASUREMENTS Individual (mostiy small} dimensions are used for details of basic construction Finishing e.g, thickness of joints! plaster, dimensions of rebates, wall fxingsjtolerances). Basic ]]_ sttuctural measurements relate, for example, to masonry (excluding plaster thicknesses), structural flor thicknesses, Lunplastered doors and window openings. Finished measurements refer ta the finished building leg. net ‘measurements of surface finished rooms and openings, net areas and finished floor levels). For building construction ‘without joints, nominal dimensions equal the stendard dimensions; with joints, the allowance for the joint is | subtracted: e.g. building brick nominal length = standard Fength (250mm) ~ thicknese of intormediate joint (10m: 240mm; nominal thickness of in-situ concrete wa Standard thickness = 280mm. In accordance with the standard number and measurement systems, small dimensions (=28 mm), are chosen {in rim) as: 25, 20, 18 128, 10, 8, 63, 5, 32, 25, 2, 18, 1.25, 1. In many European <2 _| countries, even smal structural components conform with the standard building numbering system, e.g. standardised ‘bulging brieks. A nominal brick dimension of 240% 118mm reconciles the old non-metric format (250% 120mm oF 260% 130mm with joints) with the new standard (250% 125mm with joints) With the appropriate height, with Joint, of 625mm {nominal brick dimension = 52am), this ives an aspect ratio of 250%125%82.5- &2:1. .@) ‘Other basic construction component dimensions (e.g. conerete blocks -. p. 63, window and door openings.» p 176-87 and floor levels) ate similarly aligned. so these numerical values reoccur. The UK brickwork dimensions differ in the past, large variations in the size of ordinary fired clay products often led to critical problems when bonding elay bricks; now, BS 3921: 1895 provides one tw | Standard for dimensioning ( @): coordinating size Joo ths Es a oa CT en ee a ae JL ILL Lara at + aoe a 4 DE ELL) © Act tevanon nate eck ian in the UM (225%112.5x75mm, including 10mm in each direction for joints and tolerances), and the relating work size (215 (2 headers plus 1 joint) « 102.8 x 65mmJapan has the oldest building size regulations where, Foliowing the great fre in Tokyo in 1657, the style and size of houses were laid down on the basis of systematic measurement according to the ‘Kiwariho method’. The basic dimension was the Ken - 6 Japanese feet = 1.818m ‘The cistances between the wall axes were measured in helt for whole Ken, windows doors and even mat sizes were termined on this basis, which considerably simplified house building in Japan, making it quicker and cheaper Examples = BOL, in Germany, @ similar system wos developed in the area of halttimbered construction, prior to the introduction of the metre. The determining unit was the Prussian foot, which was most widely propagated end corresponded to the Rhenish and Danish foot. The dimension between the axes of uprights wes mostly 1 Getach = 2Elien = 4 feet»). The Prussian, Rhenish and Danish foo, still in use in building practice in Denmark, translated as 312 5mm, the Elle as 625mm and the Gefach {8 125m, in the metric system. Private construction firms had adopted a similar system of 1.25m, for their system buildings, particularly for wood panel construction. The UK and USA adopted a systom of measurement based on 4 feet, which is close to 125m, with 4 English feat 41.218m. Building panels (e.g. hardboard) manufactured fon US machines are therefore 1:25m wide in countries Using the metic system. German pumice boards for roofs also have the standard dimension of 2 1.25 = 250m, the same as plaster boards. Finally, 12 is the preferred number in the standarc umber system. The series of measurements resulting from 1.25m was standardised in| Germany in 1942 with the corresponding r09f slopes + nthe meantime, thousands of types. of structural components have been produced to this system of measurement, The distance between the axes of beams in finished ceilings today is, accordingly, usually 125/2 625mm = the length of the stride of a haman adult p. 17. Unified distances between axes for factory and industrial premises and accommodation Industrial structures and structures for accommodation are mostly subdivided in plan into a series of axes at right fngles. The line of measurement for these axes is always the axis of the structural system of the construction. The separations between axes are dimensional components of the plan, which determine the position af columns, supports, the centres of walls, etc. In the case of rigid frames, the centre axes of the bearing points of the foundations are decisive. The measurements are always referenced to the horizontal plan and vertical projection plane, even in the case of sloping roots In industrial structures, 2 basic measurement of 2.5m applies to the spacing of axes. Multiples of this give axis Spacing of 5.0, 75 and 10.0m, ote. In special cases Siete de Etat ae otoaerata BASIC MEASUREMENTS {accommodation oF slab structures), a basie measurement of 28072 = 1.25, or @ multiple thereof, can be used, This ‘esuts in intermediate dimensions of 1.28, 3.75, 625, 8.75m. However, so far 2s possible, these sub-dimensions should not be used above 107m Appropriate geometric steps over 10m are recommended ‘as follows: 1250m, 15.00m, 20.00m, 25.00m, 30.00, 40,00, 50.00m, 60.00, (62.50m), 80.00m, 100.007 Roof slopes depend on the type of roofing and the sub: construction emplayed. The following roo! slopes have been established to correspond with practical requirements: 4.20 for boarded roofing on steel and reinforced ‘concrete structures and mood eement roots with the exception of special designs such as shell ana savetooth roofs, et 12128 for boarded rooting on wooden structures 4 for corrugated cement roofing, ridged zine roofing, corrugated sheet rooting, steel roots on tice work or casings, ribbed steel roofs of galvanised, double folded sheet and roofing in waterproof paper based materials for accommodation premises 42 for lat roofs, ete The systematic unification of industrial and accommadation structures has been 9 aradual process of type development. The cited axis spacings influence the individual structural components: columns, walls. cailings, trussos, puting, rafters, rao? planking, windows, glazing, doors, gates, crane” runways and other elements, The establishment of a specified basic measurement for the spacing of axes creates the prerequisites for a hierarchical system of measurement standardisation for individual Structural components and their matching interconnection The spacings betwoen axes are simply added together, without intermediate measurements. However, mason, lass panes, reinforced concrete panels ete, must include fan element for the jointing arrangements The points of support for a travelling crane can be Unified on the basis of the standardised axis spacings The matched, standardised components and assemblies are interchangeable, can be prepared of" site and used in & Versatile manner, Mass production, interchangeability of Ccomponents/assemblies and the availabilty of standardised components and assemblies in store result in savings in work, materials, costs and time. The arrangement of the structural axes brings considerable simplification to building supervision. pos 80 105-5) $10 Com 2Soovanate tysters bre planes ae =—_- WTI LY) t © comnts ten Components in he @ Ceorainarespce woundes a4 MODULAR SYSTEM International agreements on the planning and execution of building wark and for the design and manulacture of building components and semifinished products. are incorporated into national standards. The modular system is a means of coordinating the dimensions epplicable to building work. The term ‘coordination’ is the key, indicating that the ‘modilar layout involves an arrangement of dimensions and the spatial coordination of structural components. Therefor, the standards deal with geometrical and dimensional requitements. The modular system develops a method of design and construction which uses a coordinate system as 2 ‘means of planning and executing building projects. A coordinate system is always related to specific objects, Geometric considerations By means of the system of coordinates, buildings and components are arranged and their exact positions and Sizes specified, The nominal dimensions of components as weil a6 the dimensione of joints and interconnections can thereby be derived. )-@) ‘A coordinate system consists of planes at right angles to feach other, spaced according to the coordinate measurements, Depending on the systom, the planes can be different in size and in all three dimensions As @ rule, components are arranged in one dimension between parallel coordinate planes so that they ill up the coordinate dimension, including the allowance allocated 10 the joints and also taking the tolerances into account. Hence ‘a component can be specified in one dimension in terms of its size and position. This is referred to as. boundary reference. + + In other eases, it can be advantageous not to arrange 2 component between two planes, but rather to make the ‘contal axis coincide with one plane ofthe coordinate system, The component is intially specified in one dimension with referance to its axis, but in terms of position only. (7) .42 ‘A coordinate system can be divided into sub-systems for different component groups, e.g. load-bearing structure, component demarcating space, ete. + @) {thas been established that individual components ne not be modularised, e.g. individual steps on stairways, windows, doors, et. +8 For non-modular components which run along or across the whole Building, a so-called ‘non-madular’ zone can be Introduced, which divides the coordinate system into two- Sub systems. The assumption is that the dimension of tl component in the non-modular zone is already known at the time of setting out the coordinate system, sine the non. ‘modular zone can only have completely specified dimensions. Further possible arrangements of _nan-modular components are the so-called centre position and edge position within modular zones. »¢8\~ 6 ® meintrced concrete staicane nio=h © Candin of conouren darts witha common dso Saas COORDINATE SYSTEM AND DIMENSIONING Modular Arrangements in Building Practice The units for the modula arrangement ace M = 300mm for the basic module and 3M = 300mm, 6M = 600mm, and 12M = 1200mm, for the multicmodules. The limited ‘multiples of the prefered numerical series are generated in this way. The coordinate dimensions - theoretical standard imensions ~ are, ideally, generated from these. These limitations are the result of functional, constructional and economic factors. +O) In addition, there are standardised, non-modular ‘extending dimensions, |= 25mm, 50mm and 75mm, efor matching and overlapping connection of components. = @) The coordinate system in practical usage Using rules of combination, diferent sizes of components: an also be arranged within 8 modular coordinate system. With the help of calculations with numerical groups (e.g. Pythagaras) or by factorisation (e.g. continued fractions). on-rectangular components ean also be arranged within 8 modular coordinate system. +2) + @) By constructing polygonal traverses (e.g. triangular, rectangular, pentagonal and the halves of the same), the so called ‘round’ building structutes can be devised. » 7) ~ Using modular arrangements, technical areas such as those for structural engineering, electrotechnology, transport ation, which are dependent on each other from a ‘geometrical and dimensional viewpoint, can be combined. “@ © Aevtaton oration show 48 eng 124 te an iw © emote nan ce at ing er angen 3536 D praia ted erate ‘ion tet cagdog © Ror @ ‘al ante by sutra of ferper ll supported {ope stl suppers BUILDING DETAILS Functional Use of Materials In the earliest civilisations, building form was dictated by the techniques of binging, knotting, tying, plaiting and weaving. Building in timber followed later, and in neary all _ivilisations became the basis for architectural form (see the example of the Greek temple «(Sand @). Recognition of this is relatively recent, but there is an increasing number of examples which support the accuracy of this theory. Unde researched this matter at length and established that Moorish architectural skills originate from {imber construction, in particular the Alhambra at Granada The internal surface decor of Moorish buildings has its source in weaving techniques {like the ribbons and beaded astragals on Greek buildings), although it was actually pressed into the gypsum by moulds or inlaid as ‘Acujelos (glazed strips of clay). In several roams of the Alcazar in Seville one can clearly see in the corners of the roams the knotting together of the walls in the gypsum finish exactiy in the way that the wall earpets of the tents were knotted at the corners in eatier centuties, Here the form derived from tent construction was simply transferred to the gypsum moula: Under the same conditions, forms which result from the material, construction and functional requirements are similar or even identical in every country and time The ‘eternal form’ was traced by V. Wersin with convincing examples. He showed that utensils used in the Far East ana in Europe in 3000 ee are strikingly similar to those in use today, With new material, new technology and changing use, a different form inevitably evalves, even though embellishments can obscure ar conceal the true form, or even give the impression of something quite ferent tbaroque}. The spirt ofthe age tends to decide the form of the bung, Today, in the buildings of ather periods, we study not so ‘much the result as the origin ofthe art Each style arrives at its ‘eternal form’, its true culmination, after which it is Geveloped and refined. We still stive after a true expression with our use of concrete, steel and glass. We have achieved success in finding some new and convincing solutions for factories and monumental buldings, in which the need for extensive window areas determines and expresses the The plain and distinct representation of the building pars, in conformity with ther technical functions, provides possibilities for new forms in the details and the outward ‘exprossion of buildings. Herein lies the new challenge for architects today. It is wrong to believe that our age needs only to develop cloan technologiea! solutions and leave it to the next period to cultivate a new form emenating {rom these structures ~ @). On the contrary, every architect has the duty to harness contemporary technical possibilities extonsively and to exploit their anitie potential to create buildings that express the ethos of the modern world («p. 39). This requires tact, restraint, respect for the surroundings, organic unity of building, space and construction, and harmonious relationship between the articulation of interior spaces and the exterior farm, in addition to fulfilling technological, organisational and ‘economic demands. Even major artists with true creative rive {those who have something to say are subject to these restrictions and are influenced by the spirit of the age. The clearer the artistic vision or the view of life of the artist, the more mature and rich the content of his work, and the longer it will endure as @ beautiful abject of true art for alltime.FORM The Result of Construction history, from ancient stone tombs, in which even the lay observer can. disci futomebile of 1900 that even down to the provi basic timber form, to the itated the horse-drawn carriage of @ whip holden 3728 Slender supports give stel-ramed construction the tightest possible appearance. (D). However, this form is not Permitted everywhere. Exterior unenclosed supports are rarely allowed 2) but, if combined with externally visible For many building types, building regulations require fire resistant or even fire proof construction and encased stee! members consequently resemble reinforced concrete, ® ® In shell structures, forces are distributed uniformly in all directions. Types include: cupola with segments +3) oblong Cable structures foriong spans have been in use since early times. @@. Circus tents are the best known lightweight suspended diaphragm structure. @. Modern reinforced The challenge for architects is to ereste form based on a fusion of architectural expression and knowledge of the technological principles of modern construction techniques. This unity was lost in the wake of the Industrial Revolution, before which available forms were used on a ‘decorative’ basis in any construction type, whether in stone, wood or plaster. FORM Modern Construction Techniques and Forms a NS © Boe or tom horizontal gliders, can create an especialy ight but sold appearance of unobstructed space» (. Steel and aluminium structures are particulary suitable for light open halis with few supports and cantilevered roofs = 2). Typical characteristics are cantilevered floors on beams. © trom tower cores.» @, oF house core supports. =P, of ‘88 mushroom structures. © sane Ous shell. , rhythmically aranged transverse shells =, rows of shells with inclined supports at neutral points <2. © BRE wen oer ® concrete suspended disphragms with rigid edge beams can create economical and impressive buildings (3, and may be used as basis for cantilever constructions a8 ‘The latest fire protection techniques can obviate the need for concrete encasement altogether, Intumescent coatings are often used for protecting structural steelwork against fire (especially the visually expressed elements). These look like normal paint but, in the event of fire, they foam, thus creating a protective layer around the steel!In the time betweon the beginning of the 18th century (the period of witeh-hunts, superstition, leaded lights and fort like houses, a form whieh is stil occasionally in demand) and the present day, astonishing advances have been made in science, technology and industry, AS a result the outlook of society has changed radically. In the intervening Centuries it is clearly evident from buildings and their Getails, as well as other aspects of Ifo, that people have become freer and more selfaware, and their buildings lighter and brighter. The house today is ne longer perceived a8 a fortress offering protection against enemies, robbers or ‘demons’ but rather as a complementary framework for our THE DESIGN OF HOUSES The Expression of the Period and its Conventions © en ee way of life - open to nature and yet in every respect protected against its inclemency’ People generally see and feel shings uifferently Designers must therefore use their creativity as far as possible to translate our shared experience into reality and ‘express it through the materials at their disposal. The ftttude of the client is of the greatest significance in this issue. In some ways, many clients and architects are stil living inthe 16th century while few of each have arrived in the new millennium. IFthe ‘centuries’ meetin the right way, then a happy marriage between client and architect is assured40 ® © Seetremaratncce seeped © an Bococm ana pa @ Imoroved design tor Qe » © wir oom plane: bedroom Building programme The work begins with the drawing-up of a detailed brie, ‘withthe help of an experienced architect and guided by the questionnaire shown on the following pages. Before planning starts, the following must be known 1 Site: location, size, site and access levels, locstion of Services, building and planning regulations and conditions. Ths information should be sought from the focal authority, service providers and legal representatives, and a layout plan to comply with this should be developed. 2 Space requirements with regard to areas, heights, positioning and their particular relationship with one nother, Dimensions of existing furniture, Finance: site acquisition, legal fees, mortgages ete. «pp. 4250, Proposed method of construction construction, stoping roof, fat roof et. (brick, frame DESIGN METHOD Working Process The sketch scheme is begun by drawing up individual rooms of the required areas 2s simple rectangles drawn to sale and put provisionally ito groups. After studying the movements of the people and goods thorizantaly and vertically), analyse circulation and the relationships of rooms to each other and the sun =p. 272. During this stage the designer will progressively obtain a clearer understanding of the design problems involved. Instead of starting to design at this stage they should, on the basis of their previous work to establish the ‘building area determine the position of the building on the site, by exploring the various means of aecess, the prevailing wind tuee growth, contours, aspect, and neighbourhood. Ty out several solutions to explore all possibilities») and use their pros and cons for a searching examination - unless of course a single obvious solution presents itself. Based on the foregoing, decision-making is normaly fairly quick, and the ‘ides’ becomes clearer; then the real picture of the bullding emerges -» Qs Now the first design stage can begin, firstly as an forganisational and spiritual impression in the mind, From this, 9 schematic representation of the genera configuration of the building and its spatial atmosphere is built up, from which the designer can develop the real proposal, in the form of plans and elevations. Depending tupon temperament and drawing ability a quick charcoal sketch, oF 2 spidery doodle, forms the first tangible result of this ‘birt The first impetus may become lost if the efforts of assistants are clumsy. With growing experience and maturity, the clarity of the mental image improves, allowing ito be communicated more easly. Older, mature architacts are often able to draw up a final design in freehand, correctly dimensioned and detailed. Some refined mature works are created this way, but the verve of their earlier work is often lacking. ‘ter completion ofthe preliminary design, 9 pause of 3-14 days is recommended, because it provides @ distancing from the design and lets shortcomings reveal themselves more clearly. It also often disposes of assumptions, because in the intervening time preconceived Jdoas are pur asiae, not least asa result of discussions with staff and clients. Then the detailed design of the project is begun with the assistance of various consultants (eg. @ structural engineer, service engineers for heating, water and electricity! firmly establishing the construction and installations, Following this, but usually before, the plans are ‘submitted {0 the relevant authorities for examination and permission (which might take about 3-6 months). During this time the costs are estimated and specification and Bill of Quantities produced, and the tendering procedure is undertaken, so that as s00n as the pormission to proceed is received, contracts can bo granted and the work on site commenced. All those activities, rom receiving the commission tothe start of building operations for a medium-sized family house, takes on average 2-3 months of the architect's time, for larger projects (hospitals, etc.) 6-12 months should be allowed. i is not aduisable to try to make savings at this juncture; the extra time spent is soon recovered during building operations ifthe preparation has been thoroughly carried out, The client thus saves money ang mortgage interest payments. The questionnaire | «pp. 41 and 42) and the room specification folder (. p. 31) will be important aids,BUILDING DESIGN Preparatory Work: Collaboration with Client Preparatory work is often done in a rush, resulting in an insufficiently detailed scheme being put out to tender and ‘commenced on site. This is how ‘inal’ drawings and costs only become available when the building is nearly complete Explanations are of no help to the client. The only way of solving the problem is faster and better organised work by the satchitect and sufficient preparation in the design office and on the construction sie. Similar information is required for most building projects, $0 detailed questionnaires and pro formas, avaliable when the commission is received, can be used to speed things up. Certainly there will be some variations, but many factors are Common and make questionnaires useful to all those involved in the project, even if they are only used as checklists. ‘The following questionnaire is only one of the labour saving pro formas which an efficient and well-run architect's office should have available, along with pro formas for costing purposes, ete Briefing Questionnaire ‘Commission No, Employer: Projet Description information collected by Copies to: formation on the cleat 11 What is ther financial status? Business outlook? Total capital employed? } confidential Where was the information obsained? | 2. How does the business seem to be conducted? 3 Who i our main contact? Who is our contact is his absence? Who has the final authority? 4 Has the client any special requests regarding design? 5 Have they any special interest in art? (ln particular with regard to our atttude and design method.) 16 What personal views of the chant need to be taken into account? 7 Whois lable to cause us dificltios and why? What could be the effects? 8 Is the customer interested in publication of his building later on? 9 Da the drawings have 10 be capable of being understood by laymen? 10 Who was the client's architect previously? 11 For what reason did he or she not receive this 12 Ie the client thinking of further buildings? Ifso, when, what type, how large? Have they already been designed? Is there the possibility that we might obtain this ‘commission? What stops have been taken. in this tiretion? With what success? Uw Agreements on foos 1. On what agreement withthe client are the conditions of engagement and scale of professional charges based? 2 What stages ofthe work are included inthe commission? 2 Is the estimated project cast the basis for the feo calculation? 4 What is the estimated project cost? ‘Axe we commissioned to carryout th interior design? Has a form of agreement between employer and architect been signed and exchanged? | Persons and firms involved io the project 1 With whom do we have to conduct preliminary iscussions? Whois responsible for what special areas of activity? Who is responsible for checking the invoices? Which system of ordering and checking will be used? Will we have authority to grant contracts in the name of the lion’? Iso, to what value? Do we have written ‘confirmation for this? Who does the client racornmand a Contractor or subcontractor? (Trade: Name; “Address; Telephone) 6 Is a clerk of works essential or merely desirable, and should he or she be experienced or junior? When is he or she requited, and for how long (duration of job or only part? 7 Have we explained duties and position of clerk of works to cheat? 8 Is accommodation available for site offices and material storage? What about forntut, telephone, computers, fax, heating, lighting, WC and water? WVGenerat 1 Is hoarding required? Can it be let for advertising? ts signboard requited and, if so, what will be on it? 2 Exact address of the new building and name after completion? 9 Nearest railway station? 4 Postal disticutown? 5 Is there a telephone on site, and if not when will one be ‘vailable? Aternatvely is there a tolophone inthe vicinity? 5 Have we obtained a local edition of tho national working rules for the building industry? Are there any additional clauses? V The project Who has drawn up the building programme? Is it exhaustive or has it 10 be supplomented by us or others? as the cient to agree again before the design work starts? 2. Has the new building to be related to existing and future builaings? 3 Which local regulations have to be observed? Who is building inspector or district surveyor? Who is town planning officer? 4 What special literature is available on this typeof building? ‘What do we have in our files? 5 Whore have similar buildings been but? 6 Have we taken steps to view them? VI Basie design factors 11 What are the surroundings like? Are landscaping and trees ta be considered? What about ciate, aspect. access, anc prevailing wind? 2 What is the architecture of existing buildings? What ‘materials were employed? 3 Do we have photographs of neighbourhood with viewpoints marked on plan? If not, have they been ordered? {4 What other factors have to be considered in our design? 5 What are the existing floorto flor heights and heights of buildings? What is the situation with regard to roads, building lines, future roads, tees types and sizes)? ‘What future development has tobe considered? Is it desirabi to plan an ares layout? ‘ce there regulations r restrictions concerning elevationat treatment in dist? 9 What is known of attitude of town planning officer or committee towards architecture? Is it advisable to discuss initial sketches with town planning officer before proceeding? 10 Incase of appeal. i anything known of the time taken anc the ministry's decision in similar cases in this district? aa2 Vil Technica fact finding 1 What sort of subsoil is common to this area? 2 Has the site been explored? Where have tral holes been sunk? What were the results? 3 What s load-bearing capacity of subsoil? 4 Average ground water level? High water level? 5. Has the site beon built on previously? Type of buildings? How many storeys? Was there basement and, if so, how deep? 6 What type of foundation appears to be suitable? What type of construction s envisaged? In deta Basement floor: Type? Applied load? Type of load? Floor finish? Insulation? Tanking? Ground tloor: Type? Applied load? Type of load? Finishes? Other floors: Type? Applied load? Type of load? Finishes? Fool: Structure? Loading? Type of loading? Root Cladding? Protective finishes and coatings? Gutters? Internal or external downpipes? 8 What insulation materials are to be employed? Sound insulation: horizontalivertical? Impact sound herizontalivertica? Heat insulation: horizontaliverical? 9. Type of supports? Outer walls? Partitions? 10 Staircase structure? Applied load? 11 Windows: stee/timber/plasticiwood/aluminium? Type and weight of glass? internal or external seating? Single, ‘double or combination windows? Double glazing? 12 Doors: steel frames? Plywood? Stee!? Lining? Fire grading? Furniture? With’ an automatic door closing evice? 13 Type of heating: soli storage? 14 Domestic hot water: amount required and at what times? Where? Water softener required? 15 Ventilation: air conditioning? Type? Air change? in which rooms? Fume extraction? Smoke extraction? 18 Cooling plant? Ice making? 17 Water supply? Nominal diameter of supply pipe and Pressure? Is pressure constant? Water price per cubic metre or water rate? Stand pipes required? Where ang how many? 18 Drainage nd sewerage? Existing? Connection points? Nominal bore of main sewer? invert levels? Where does the sewage flow to? Soak pits? Possible, advisable, permitted? Septic tank oF other sewage treatment necessary? 19 Nominal bore ofthe gas supply pipe? Pressure? Price per ccubie metre? Reduction for large consumption? Special ‘equlations concarning installation of pipes? Ventilation? 20 Electricity? AC. oF D.C? Voltage? Connection point? Voltage drop limit? Price per KW? Off-peak? Price reduction for large consumption? Transformer? igh voltage transformer station? Own generator? Diesel steam turbine, windmill? 21 Telephone? Where? ISTD? Telephone box? Where? Cable duct requirad? 22 Intercom? Bells? Lights? Burglar alarm? 23 What type of it? Maximum load? Speed? Motor at top for bottom? 24 Conveyor systems? Dimensions? Direction of operation? Power consumption? Preumatc tube conveyor? 25 Waste chutes or sink destructor disposal units? Where? Size? For what type of refuse? Waste incineration? Paper baling press? 28 Any additional requirements? fueigasiolectricity/oil? Fuel BUILDING DESIGN Preparatory Work: Questionni {cont.) Vil Records and preliminary investigations 1 Have deeds been investigated? Copy obtained? Anything relevant with regard to the project planning? 2 Map of the locality available? Ordered? Transport tails? 3. Does site plan exist? Ordered? 4 Does contour map exist? Ordered? ‘5. Water supply indicated on plan? 6 Mains drainage drawing checked out and cleared? 7 a Gas supply shown on the drawing? Is electricity supply agreed with Board and shown on plan? Underground cable or overhead line? 8 Telephone: underground cable or overhead wires? 10 Have front elevations of the neighbouring houses been ‘measured or photographed? Has their canstruction been investigated? 11 Has datum level been ascertained snd fixed? 12 Is site organisation plan required? 13Where does the application for planning permission have te be submitted? How many copies? In what forin? Paper size? With drawings? Prints? On linen? Do drawings have to be coloured? Are regulations for signs and symbols on drawings understood? 14 Requirements for submission of the structural culations? Building inspector? {Normally decided by count planning department) 1X Preliminaries 1 How far is the construction site from the nearest rail freight depot? 2 Is there a siding for unloading materials? What gouge? What are the offloading facilities? 3. What are access roads like, in general? Are temporary Access roads necessary? 4 What storage space facilities are available for materials? ‘Ausilable area openiunder cover? What is their level in felation to site? Can several contractors work alongside ‘one another without any problems? 5 Will te employer undertake same of the work himsel supply some material? If so what: landscaping, site cleaning/security services? 6 Method of payment, interim certificates, ete.? Otherwise what terms and conditions of payment are to be expected? 7 What local materials are available? Are they particularly inexpensive in the area? Price? X Deadlines for 1 Preliminary sketches for discussion with staff and consuttanta? 2 Preliminary sketches for meetings with the client, town planning officer, district surveyor o building inspector? Sketch design ito sealel with rough estimates? Design ito sealel? Estimate? Specification? Bill of Quantities? Submission of the application for planning permission ‘and building regulations approval with structural calculations, ete:? 7 Anticipated time for gaining permits? Officia! channels? Possibilities for speeding things up? 8 Pre-production drawings, working drawings? 8 Selection of contractors? Letters of invitation? Despatching of tender documents? 10 Closing date for tenders? Bill of Quantities? Acceptance of tender? Progress. chart? Date for completion? 12 Possession of site? Commencement of work? 13 Practical completion? 14 Final completion? 15 Final account?Organisation The range of topics discussed in this section are listed below: A Definition of terms 10Building design 20 Building construction 1B Duties and outpuls for constuction management 3OConstruction planning “Definition of duties and outputsicantents 112Aimmsrisks of construction planning 113Means and tools for construction management +" Construction drawings Sectional drawings {component drawings, junction drawings! + Special drawings * Specifications * Arealroomicomponent schedules, specifications, bill of quantities 20 Tender action and letting of contracts 21 Definition of duties and outputsicontents 22 Aimairishs of tender action and letting of contracts 23 Means and to0' of tender action and letting of contracts +" Contract laws and regulations + Contract conditions and articles of agreement + Technical conditions and preambles + Standard specifications, manufacturers’ specifications ‘and performance specifications 30 Construction supervision 235 Definition of duties and outputsicontents 82 Aimsirisks of construction supervision 33 Means and tools of construction supervision © Standard procedures * Techniques of projact managemontaime management ‘A Definition of terms Definition of duties describing the necessary architectural services and the relevant fees ate contained in the ‘respective guidelines for each country or professional body, 6g. the RIBA Architects’ Plan of Work in the UK, or the HOA [Honorarordaung fur Architekten und Ingenieurel in Germany, 10 Building design ‘The briefing ang design stages (A-D in RIBA Plan of Work, 1-4 in HOAI} include inceptionifeasibiity (3%), outline proposals (7%), scheme design (115) and approvals planning (6%). Design services typically represent 27% of the total fee, 2.0 Building construction ‘The production drawings and information stages (E-H in FIBA Pian of Work, 5-9 in HOAl) include detail design, production information, bill of quanttias (if applicable) (25%), preparing tender documents (10%), tender action (4%), ‘site supervision (31%), project administration and documentation (3%). Construction management duties typically represent 73% of the total fee BB Duties and outputs for construction management 110 Construction planning 111 Definition of duties and outputs/contents Basic services "Working through the results of stages 2 and 4 (stage. by stage processing information and presenting solutions) ~ taking into account the urban context, design parameters, and functional, technical, structural, economic, energy (e.g. rational energy use) biological, and economical requirements ~ and co ‘operating with other building professionals, to bring the design to the stage where itean be constucted * Presenting the design ina full set of drawings with al the necessary documentation including detail and onstruction drawings, '50t0 1:1, and accompanying specifications in text CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT In sehemes which include interior fitings and design, preparing detailed drawings of the rooms and ftings to scales 1:25 to 1:1, together with the necessary specifications of materials and workmanship Coordination of the input ofthe other members of the design taam and integrating their information 10 produce a viable solution Preparation and co-ordination of the production “drawings during the building stage Additional services ‘These additional services can be included as basic services it they are specifically sted in a schedule of services. This will negate some of the limitations in the standard lst of basic services “Setting up a detailed area-by-area specification in the form of @ room schedule to serve as a basis for ¢ description of materials, areas and volumes, duties {and programme of works * Setting up a detailed specification in the form ofa bill ‘of quantities to serve as a basis for a description of materials, duties and programme of works Inspection of the contractors’ and sub-contractors’ specialist design input developed on the basis of the specification and programme of works, ro check that it accords with the overall design planning * Praduetion of scale models of detalls and prototypes * Inspection and approval of design drawings produced by organisations outside the design team, testing that they accord with the overall design planning (eg fabrication drawings from specialist manufacturers and contractors, setting-up and foundation drawings from machine manufactures), insomuch as their contracts ‘do-not form a part of the main contract sum {upon ‘whieh the professional faes have been calculated) 112 Aims/risks of construction planning Construction planning aims to ensure a trouble- and fault free execution of the works. This requires a complete and detailed establishment of the formal and technical requirements, and their complisnce with formal, legal technical and economve matters *'Legal basis: planning and building regulations, and other regulations such as safety guidelines, eg. for places of assembly + Technical basis: established standards and techniques of construction and materias, e.g. building standards, Consultationiagreement with specialists and specialist * Economic basis: cost contral techniques, e.g. cost estimatesiealculations, and consultation/agreement ‘with specialists i this field Insufficient construction planning results in - among oxher things — wastage of materials (correction of errors, breakages and decay, waste of productive time. itime wasting, duplicated workl,and persistent loss of value [planning mistakesiconstruction faults). 113 Means and tools for construction management Construction drawings contain ail the necessary information and dimensions for construction purposes: ormal sesle is 1:50 ‘Sectional drawings {component drawings, junction rawings), expand on the construction drawings with Aadcitional information on parts of the building works; Formal scale is 1:20 , 1:10, 135 or 12. ‘Special drawings are tailored to the specific requirements of eloments of the work (e.g. reinforced conerete work, steotwork or timber structural work) and Show only the essential aspects of the other building features which relate to that particular specific elament of work: normal seale is. 1:50, depending on the particular heeds. National standards and conventions. govern the 344 drawing modes which, ideally, should be compatible with CCAD computer aided design) and the standard methods of Specification and measurement of quantities and pricing, Suitable sofware packages are available, ‘Arearroomicomponeot schedules, specifications, bills of quantities, contain ful information - in the forrn of lists and tables ~ about the sizes (.g.longth, wicth, height, area and volumel, the materials (e.g. wall coverings and floor finishes), and equipment (e.g. heating, ventilation, sanitary, electrics, windows and doors) of which make up the building, bulging elements, rooms or other areas, They setve 88 a basis for a full specification of materials and workmanship. Bills of quantities are commonly used in the UK and for large contracts in other countries. 2.0 Tender action and letting of contracts i.e. the preparationico-operation during tender action anc letting of contracts 2.1 Definition of duties and outputs/contents ie. stages G + H in RIBA Pian of Work, and 6 + 7 in HOAL Basie services * Production and collation of quantities as a basis for setting up specifications, using information from ‘other members ofthe design team Preparation of specifications with according to trades Co-ordination and harmonisation of specifications prepared by other members of the design team ‘Compiling the preambies of the specifications for all the trades Issuing the tender documents and receiving tenders Inspection and evalvation of the tenders, including preparation of a cost breakdown by element, in co: ‘Operation with the rst ofthe design team engaged in these stages Harmonisation and collation of the services of the design team engaged in tender action Negotiation with tenderers Setting up of cost predictions, including the fixed price and variable price elements of the tenders Co-operation during the granting of contracts Additional services * Setting up specifications and bills on the basis af area ‘schedules and building schedules Setting up alternative specifications for additional or specie works Compiling comparative cost estimates for the evaluation andior appraisal of the contributions. of other members of the design team Inspection and evaluation of the tenders based on specifications of materisis and workmanship, including a cost breakdown Setting up, inspecting and valuing cost breakdowns according to special conditions 2.2 Aims/risks of tender action and letting of contracts The tender action aims to formulate contract documents which will enable the construction work of a project to be carried out within the civil logal framework, thus affording the relevant structure of regulation and guarantees. Tenders ean be sought when al he relevant information is avaiable for costing. Tender documents consist of schedule of conditions (eg. specifications and contactual obligations) plus clauses with descriptions (eg. possibilities for Inspecting the details of the conditions location, data of the projeet commencement and completion / limit to time and Additional costs. Tender documents that includ the price of the work and signature of the contractor (or his rightful representative) become an offer, which can be negotiated ‘or accepted unchanged, resulting in the formulation of @ contract, ‘governing everything necessary forthe carving Out of the schedules CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT works (2.6. type and extent of the work, amount and manner of payment, timetable and deadlines, and responsibilities To prevent, from the outset, differences of Understanding and opinion between the members of the Contract ~ and to make clear their mutual eesponsiilt Contract documents (and hence aiso the tender documents} must be comprenensive and comple Unclear, incomplete tender documents lead t© poor building contracts, which provoke conflict. time overruns defect, loss of value and additional costs, 2.3 Means and tools of tender action and letting of contracts Contract laws and rogulations depend on the country and local situation, and regulate, through the building contract, the legal relationship between the cient and the contractor They generally determine what constitutes a valid contract, how long the lablties of the contract are valid recourse to damages, dispute settlement, professional responsibilities ang liabilities, and other aspects with regard to contractual Felationships Contract conditions and articles of agreement are specific 10 the particular form of contract being used. Because there are many types of standard contract document, it is important that 9 suitable contract type is chosen to meet the needs of the particular project. Typical hheadings of clauses of # contract for larger works are listed here: Identification of the diferent members mentioned in the contract, and 8 description oftheir role and duties, eg. employer, contractor, sub-contractors or architect Interpretation, definitions, ete. Contractors obligations The contract sum, additions oF deductions. adjustments and interim certificates. for partial completion of work * Architect's instructions, form and instructions during the contract Contract and other documents, centficates for completions Statutory obligations, notices, fees and charges * Levels and setting out of che works * Materials, goods and workmanship 10 conform to (Front facing tciadding) of 25-50mm thickness (Taverne, imestone, grantee isnot included inte ‘rose sction and the facing i anchored tothe masonry with now corroding fe FI ® Solem? aMASONRY Bricks and Blocks + BS 6100: Section 5.3: 1984, masonry units include several terms: unit special, shaped standard shaped, cant, 7 = plinth, butinose, squint, solid, cellar, hollow, perforated, Gommon, facing, spli-faced, lintel, fixing, coneete, calcium Silicate, sandiime, flint, fred-lay, teracota,faienc header, stretcher, closer iking, queen) and ait brick rick: a ‘masonry unit not over 338mm in length, 225 mm in wath T13mm in height. The term ‘brick includes engineering. frogged, hand-made, stock, wte-cut, rsticated, rubber. tle and damp proof course bricks. Block a masomy unit fxeeeding the size of any dimension of brick including © site at iar ® singe eat titaced dense concrete, lightweight concrete, lightweight agaregate concrete, serated concrete, autovlaved aerated concrete, hormal insulation. foam tiled concrete, eink. Sry walling, cavity closer and quoin blocks. All masonry work must be horzontally and vertically tue, and properly aligned in accordance with regulations. On double leafed masonry »@) + floors and roof must be supported only By the inner let. Masonry leafs should be joined with 9 min. of stainless stel wie tis, 3mm in iamoter. per sa im. The ties are separated 250mm vertically and 750mm horizontally. Lo © wesactayten © Sta etse Orca ae © seems om — @ armen (© Permissible vein ecees and slat a baced and acing wallBes ZZ © Destin maonry wth) oma enna ‘ei fil covey neiaton rough intel MASONRY Bricks and Blocks Masonry walling has to be braced with lateral walls and the tops restrained by upper floors (cellular principe. Bracing walls are plate-like components which stiffen the structure against buckling -. p. 63 43. They are rated as supporting walls if they carry more than their own weight from one storey. Non-supporting walls are plate-ike components which are stressed only by their own weight and do not provide buckling suppor, Recesses and slots have to be cut ‘Out or positioned in the masonry bonds. Horivantal and slanting recesses are permitted, but with a slenderness ratio of © 140mm and thickness = 240mm under special requirements» p. 63 gS. Ties should be provided for connection between external walls and partition walls acting as bracing walls that transmit horizontal toads. Horizontal reinforcement is required in structures of more than two complete storeys or whieh are more than Teltim Jong. ifthe site conditions demand it, or where there are walls with many or large openings (if the sum of t ‘opening widths is more than 60% of the wall length, ot where the window width is over 2/2 of the storey height or ‘more than 40% ofthe wall length 7 [wor [oom] as Toes [oh Po eons [ses AT @ airing materia equsement or maronry wor@ Aestorg o otert MASONRY Bricks and Blocks Solid masonry walling comprises a single lea, where the facing work is attached to the background masonry by @ masonry bond. Each course must be at least two bricks! blocks in depth, betwaen which there is 8 continuous, cavity free longitudinal marter joint of 20mm thickness. The facing leaf is included inthe load: bearing cross-section 9. 63. In double leaf walling without cavity, for load considerations, only the thickness of the inner leaf is taken Ingo account. For calculating the slenderness ratio and spacing of the bracing components, the thickness of the Inner shell plus half the thickness of the outer 1s used. i regulations allow it the cavity can be completely filled {double leat cavity walling with insulating cavity fil, Double leaf cavity walling without cavity fil. min. thickness of inner leaf - 12, ort Ite 20mm reinforcement; steei diameter = 8mm, = Sm at = crossover points We Wall types, wal thicknesses: Evidence must be provided Fara icoxammemn tee seston of required structural wall thicknesses. This not necessary where the selected wall thickness is clearly adequate. When : re [ae [eva To28 | ejecting the wal thickness, particular attention should be i [STE TF paid to the function of the was with regard to thermal and ms [= | ™_[ a [2 |» | @] Sound insulation, ire protection and damp-proofing. Where foe Poe pa [oe [ee] external wals re not built of frost resistant brick or stone, : an outer rendering, ot other weather protection should be provided, © Areos of openings in non supporting walls only mortar tao ‘Supporting walls are predominantly subjected to compressive stresses, These panel type structural elements cory com Jae Toya] a¥@ provide for the acceptance of vertical loads (e.g Hoar Soy |S | ERSR"| ana root loads) and horizontal ads (eg. wind loads aon ae eee LTS & amen mata nem et man tie © Minima manny feta pry and tee ae @ cee snd sting trains wae 65EXTERNAL WALLS Low-energy Building Construction The thermal insulation eristics of external san important lament in the saving of thermal energy. Tho insu lation provided by low energy building construc tion is greatly affected by the connections between the various building compo nents. Significant heat losses can occur in these locations. Standard cross sections depicting various types of building. materials indicate the insulation values which can be achieved. A large range of building materials are available, such a concrete, eatay ont masoncy, timber, insulation DE "as tmateras plaster core wee wr reeds and clay. Clay has © covey wation ®© double akin concrete proved itself a8 9 building “ 2g material for thousands of ‘ years. It is the most $ common and most tested Iaterial in the world and, biologically and ecologically, is an exemplary materia Finished clay insulation products are now available and are well suited to today level of technology @- © tpemrnr oat win tine Se ite ® Wena Ce ® Weare?MASONRY BONDS © eration vane ® veiaon on Engan wna] Onwatrnchr one ade: © wanes onto © ever @ Bnet, witha ick pe @® Newsy loaded Hor fish ©) ih bricks on ede tering @ 02s totes sa. 2 wick) GB) Ae 25 tolon +. He Beh68 Fireplace ops AAS FIREPLACES Every open fire must be connected to its own separate flue and should be immediately adjacent to the next = \))- a Flue erose-sections must bo matched to the sige ofthe open fire. @. The effective height of the flue from the smoke hood tothe chimney mouth should be » 4.5m. The angle of 2 connecting flue to the main flue should be 45° «(9-08 Oper fires must not be sited in rooms with less than 12m? floor area. Only wood with a low resin content, and beech, ‘ak, bitch or frit tree timber with few knots, should be used for burning. In the case of the use of gas appliances, reference should be made to the relevant regulations. Air for combustion must come from outside and needs to be able to enter even if the doors and windows are airtight. Air admission openings can usetully be sited in the base of the fire, or at the Tront, and ducts that introduce aie to a position close to the fireplace opening should be provided ~ The fireplace opening must be separated from combustible materials and builtin furniture by at least BootImm to the front, above and to the sides. «(6-7 Open fires must be constescted from non-combustible materials that satisty local regulations and must he of stable onstauction. The floor walls and grate and the smoke hood should be made from fire clay bricksislabs, fire resistant conerete or cast iron (although the grate and hood are often ‘metal. Any Bricks or stones used must be of sutable type for chimney construction, Smoke hoods ean be made from ‘2mm steel brass, or copper sheet pening eamienion| © imei ase o ope fre omComparative values of efcioncy 1) |) ie | © Rocemnanemteney © cnimnay bogs sbove he a ee Seen © Aesemcenina wn iter ‘more tml to afters them CHIMNEYS AND FLUES Flues and chimneys are ducts in ancl on buildings, hich are intended exclusively to convey the gases from fireplaces to the ‘outside over the roof The following should be connected to 3 ‘ue: freplaces with @ nominal heat output of more than 2044: {5 fie places with more than 30K: evary fireplace in Buldings vith more than five fll storeys: every open fire and forge fire firoplaces with a means of opening and every fireplace wth burner and fan, Provision shouldbe made in the foundation plans to support the weight of the fireplace, fue and chimney. Flues ust have ‘srculr or rectangular intoral cross-sections. The eross ection ‘must be = 100emn, with a shortest side of 100mm. Brick Fuss ‘must have a shortest internal side of length > 135mm, the longer Side must not exceed 1.5 times the length of tne shorter. The shortest efective fue height > 4m: for gaseous fuels > &m. The ‘mouth ofthe chimney should be > 400mm above the apex ofthe oot, where the roof slope is greater than 20° and for rt slopes: loss than 20° tis dimension i> 1m +. Where chimneys are Closer to structures onthe oof than between 1.8 and 3 times the height of the structure, t must be ensured that they clear the structure by at least Im, Where the mouth ofa chimney is above a roof whieh has a parapet which i not closed an al four sie, it must be a least tm above the parapet. Every flaw must have 14> 100mm wide by 2 180mm high clearing opening which is t least 200mm lower then the lowest fireplace connection. Chimneys which eaanot be cleaned from the mouth opening. ‘must nave an adeitional cleaning opening inthe fue in the root ‘spaco or in the chimney above the root. The folowing material may be used for single skin flues: light concrete block, clay bricks, lime sandstone -salid bricks, foundy bricks Materials for treble skinned chimneys, with outer casing, insulation layer and moveable inner lining can be formed Components in light conerte at freciay forthe inner lining: for the outer casing, formed componants in light concrete, masonry stone, bricks with vartial perforations, ime sandstone, founcry bricks, oF arated concrete blocks, For the insulating layer. non combustibie insulating material must be used, Exposed outer surfaces of tho chimney in the roo! space should be provided With a rough east fini ofa least 5-T0mm thekness, Flue walls ‘rust not be loacbearing. The chimney can be clad with sates, shingle sates or cement tre sheets. Zinc or coppar sheet can be fixed tothe chimney on tothe substructure using dowels inot wooden dowels). Preabricsted claddings are recommended cowette Ba Bg [| eeion or | YEH CB t T © mans trimatten (Pann 6970 © (ioctl cnn VENTILATION DUCTING Extract fan units should meet the ventilation requirements of bathrooms and lavatories in residential and non. residential buildings (such as schools, hotels and guest houses) and extract sir from ane or several rooms ito an extract duct + @~ 2). Ventilation systems should be sized for a minimum of 4 complate changes of air in the coms which need to be ventilated. flow of 60m'/h is adequate for bathrooms witha toilet and a flow of 30m is adequate for one toilet. Every internally sited room to be ventilated must have a non-closabie ventilation opening, The size of the area through which air flows must be 100mm? for avery 1m of room volume. Gaps around the door may be taken a3 equivalent to 250mm. In bathrooms, the temperature must not fall below 22°C, due to the flow of air. The velocity of flow in th living area should be > 0.2m's. The exrausted sir must be led outside. Each individual ventilation system must have its own main duct 3) Central ventilation systems have common main ducting for 3 numberof living areas» @)- © = ‘The effective functioning of branching duct convection ventilation systems depends essentially on the available cross-section area of duct available per connection « @, The cross:section of the ventilation shaft for single-duct systems without mechanical exteact + in bathrooms and WCs without open windows [up to 8 storeys) should be 1500mm? per room © ceca lm @ cod onan lm lessee (ETT ora i Tears © ate et ean ‘Ie wea © Sey and exactSERVICES: CONNECTIONS In houses for one and two families there is no necessity for ‘Mains connections rooms should be planned in collaboration with the mains service providers. They must be in locations which can be accessed easily by al e.g. off the staircase or cellar corridor, or reached directly from outside) and they must not be used for through passage. They have to be on an outside wal, through which the connections can be routed «=. Walls should have a fre resistance of atleast 30 (minutes). Doors shoul be atleast 650/1950mm. With district heating schemes, the door must be lockable. A floor ‘gully must be provided where there is connection to water or district hesting mains. Mains connections roams must be ventilated to the open air. The room temperature must not ‘exceed 30°C, the temperature ofthe drinking water should not ‘excood 25°C, and the room must not be susceptible to frost. For up to 30 dwellings, or with district heating for about ton dwellings, allow the following room size: clear width 21.80, length 2.00m, height 200m... For up to ‘approximately 60 dwellings or where there is district heating ‘or 30 dwellings: 1.80m wide, 35m long, 20m high. @ se ot manne © Pome naan© covet rot n ROOF STRUCTURES Couple roofs represent the most economical Solution for low building wicths, Collar roots are never the cheapest for slopes under 45%, ut are sultable for large free span roots, Simply supported roots ate always more expensive than couple roofs and are only used in exceptional Roofs with two hangers |vertical posts! almost always are the most economical construction >> >>> Purlin roofs with three hangers are only considered for vary wide buildings. Roofs form the upper enclosure of buildings, protecting them from precipitation and atmospheric effects (wind, old, heat). They comprise a supporting structure and a root ‘cover. The supporting components depend on the materials Used (wood, tee, reinforced conerete, raat slope, type and ‘weight of roof covering, loading, ete. Loading assumptions: must comply with current regulations (dead-weight, live loads, wind and snow loadings). A distinction is made between roots with and without purlins, bacause of thelr diferent steuctural system, and of the different functions of the supporting components, However, these two types of construction may be combined. The different types of foad ‘wansfer also have consequences for the internal planning of the building ZH |b © strate puri oot LL © con count otwth ct and prin:ROOF STRUCTURES. Ina purin root, raters have a subordinate funetian (round section timber spars also possible for small spans!. Purlins are load-bearing beams, conducting loads away from the rafters to the supports. Regular supports are required for the purlins trusses or cross walls) Early type: ridge puslin with hanger. Double pitch purlin roofs have at least one anger, situated in the centre of the roaf, Suitable when the length of the raters & 5m: on wider house structures, with rafter length > 4.5m, ther two or more puelins with suitable vertical hangers are required. A rafter root (rigid triangle principe) is possibe in simple form, with short rafters up 2 45m. If the rafters’ length exceeds 4.5m, intermediate Support is required in the form of collars, This regular strong system of construction provides @ supporttiee: internal roof space. Couple close roofs require a strong tensile connection between the feet of the rafters and the: cxlling beams. Sprocketed eaves are 2 common feature, diving a change of angle in the roof slope. Simple couple {nd collar roof construction is unsuitable for large coots. Collar roots are suitable for building widths 10 approx 32.0, rafter lengths up to 7.6m, collar lengths up to 4m The collar roof isa threeliak frame with a tension member Pretabricated roof trusses are a very comman form of structure for pitched roofs. While economical in the use of| timber and ‘ight and easy to erect, they have the disadvantage of totally obstructing the roof space. © Semen g mmm amet 0 of praia hight to supported apan = 18-420, © Magan gn na opt oa re an reat AN 1b AS gs 3ROOF STRUCTURES. SU © am sop stan @ Sept conesinaROOF FORMS: @ Prremia vo. polvaonst © Sronton| @ Tete oat tye strom ROOF COVERINGS Thatched roots are of rye straw or reeds, hand threshed 1.2-1.4m long on battens, 300mm apart withthe thatching ‘material aid butt-end upwards and built up to a thickness of 180-200mm. The life of such a rool is 60-70 years in a sunny climate, but barely half that in damp conditions. Shingle roots use oak pine, larch, and, rarely, spruce. Slate roofs are laid on 25mm thick sheathing of = 160mm wide planks, protected by 200 gauge felt against dust and wind: Overlap is 80mm, preferably 100mm. The most natural efect is given by “German satin’ » «2. Rectangular patterns are more suitable for artificial slates (coment fibre tiles)» {3. Tiles: choice of plain ti antiled roof @, (@=@ or conc capping » {. Special shaped tile standard roo! tiles ~ Qe @ taza @ Tree tomen 5‘coronated coment Hire Min. rot slope and sheet boerd wth rdge and even (2) Meet ee —— oth aes Sos oe Rae . | @ Cerrone tre cement ROOF COVERINGS Cement fibre sheet roots have corrugated sheets with purlins 700-1450mm apart with 1.6m long sheets, oF 1150-117mm with 2.5m long sheeis. Overlap: 150-200mm_ »)-@), Metal sheet roofs are covered in rine, titanium coated zinc, copper, aluminium, galvanised steel sheet, etc. - + ©. Many shapes are avaiable for ndge, faves, edge, ete. Copper sheet comes in commercially produced sizes». Copper has the highest ductility of al etal roofings, so it Is suitable for metal forming operations, pressing, stretching and rolling. The ‘characteristic patina of copper is popular. Combinations involving aluminium, titanium coated zine and galvanised steel should be avoided, combinations with lead and high rade steel are quite safe. Capper roots are impervious to ‘water vapour and are therefore particularly suitable for cold roots =p. 81 Roo! load: calculation in KN perm of roof surface. Root coverings ate per Tm? of inclined roof surface without rafters, puting and ties. Rooting of roo tiles ang conerete roof tle: the loadings do not inelude mortar jointings ~ add 1 N/m? far the joints. © Sree sate ss fa ES : “8 SESE] AAA en i EEE [TEt [eee] Sac . © arvamernca Ocoee 76 vont @ Min. sone corsgana Stmetaotesowanes’ © SimvecetebeanmedDORMERS b. FS f ~ | | l= tL Ai —] FI =] ol oo) {l FI. SQ) {I is | I i OL — . ay WY pLOFT SPACE Unoccupied roof space in old Alpine farmhouses served a ‘stores’ for the preservation of harvested crops ihay, straw, etc. They were open atthe eaves, $0 that cold external ait circulated around the roof area, the temperature being litle different from the outside» , so that snow would lie uniformly distributed on the roof. The living rooms below ware protected from the cold by the goods stored in the ‘00f space. If the root space was heated, without adequate thermal insulation, the snow would melt and ice would build up on the roof - @. The installation of thermal insulation material under the ventilated roof alleviates the Situation. Openings are arranged on two opposite sides of the ventilated roof space, each equivalent to at least 2% of the reat area whichis to be ventilated. So that dampness can be removed, this corresponds on average 10 a slot height of 20mmim +). © Wrecine ater @ Bimomion oot on @ Seamplecaeuatin of he vetinioncroteamction of dae rotica etsi aed eae] Ae wales \ coon mca © tet goto rm ot © section vt oat et ROOF SLOPES AND FLAT ROOFS Cold root. 81: constructed with ventilation under root ‘covering: critical in respect of through flow of air ifthe stone. is less than 10%, therefore, now only used with vapour barrier. Warm root in conventional form = x (constauction including 2 vapour barrier from beneath is roat structure ~ vapour barrier ~ insulation ~ weatherproofing ~ protective layer. Warm roof in upside-down format. p. 81 construction from beneath is roof structure ‘weatherproofing — insulation using proven material — protective layer 2s applied load. Warm root with concrete ‘weatherproofing sp. 81: built from underneath: insulation “concrete panels as roof structure and waterprooting Irisky!. Solid slab structure ~ must be arranged to provide room for expension due to heat; consequently, flexible joints arrangement over supporting walls. p. 80 8\-B and separation of internal walls and root slab (Styrofoam strips {re first attached by adhesive to the underside of the siab| Prerequisites for correct functioning: Buin slope > 15%, and preferably 3% (or @ build-up of surface water can result Vapour barrier: if possible, as a 2mm roof felt Incorporating aluminium foil on a loosely lad slip layer of| perforated glass fre mat on top of the concrete roof slab, treated with an application of bitumen solution as a dust seal. The vapour barrier is Ini as far beneath the roo! build up as required to exclude condensation +2 + ah Insulation ef non-rotting material (loam); see dimensions in « @y two-layer arrangement or single layer with rebated joints: idealy, interlocking eebates ail round Roof membrane on vapour permeable membrane (corrugated felting or insulating layer to combat bubble formation}, triple layer using the pouring and rolling technique with two layers of gless fibre based roofing felt with a layer of glass fibre matin between, or two layers of felt using the welding method with thick bitumen course (42 Simm). A single layer of sheeting is permissible, but due to risk of mechanical damage causod by the thinness of the layer and possible faulty seams, two layers offer additional safety. Protective layer should consist, if possible, of a 50mm ballast layer with 15-0mm qraia size on @ doubled hot brush applied layer on 2 separating membrane; prevents bubble formation, temperature shocks, mechanical stresses, and damage from UV radiation. Additional protection with &-mm layer of rubber shred sheeting under the ballast layer. The joints should be hot sealed (a basic prerequisite for terraces and roo! gardens) Essential detail points Outlets» p. 80-7) @ always thermally insulated, two raining levels, with connection also at the vapour barrier, to form an outlet thon sealed against the drain pipe. For thermally insulated discharge pipe with condensation layer . 80 @ for prevention of damage due to condensation. ‘The surface slope to the intakes should exceed 3. A ‘ventilator’ for the expansion layer is not required. The flexible joint should be continued to the edge af the root P. 8. @)~@. The edge details must be flexible, using aluminium or concrete profiles » p. 80» ~ Gh zine connections are contrary to technical regulations {eracking ff root covering). Wall connection should be > 150mm above the drainage level and fixed mechanically, not by adhesive only f steel roof decking is used a8 a load bearing surface, the roof skin may crack due to vibration: precautions are required to increase the stiffness by using a thicker sheet or 2 covaring of 15mm woodwoo! building ‘board mechanically fixed), to reduce the vibrations (gravel ballast layer} and crack resistant roof sheeting! The vapour barrier on the decking should always be hot fused [due to thermal conduction) 7980 FLAT ROOFS Warm Roof Construction© seeding @ Mion vention on a FLAT ROOFS Cold Roof Construction Roof terrace suraces are loose laid in a bad of shingle oF on block supports. Advantage: water level is below surface: na severe freezing. Roof gaiden has surface drainage through nage lavors, ballasting of shingle or simar, wath 9 fier layer on top +p: 80 Roofs over swimming pools, ete. are suspunded clings with ventilated of heated vois! see Table @- p19. Usualy, the Contribution of al layers up to the vapour baie, cluding thea boundary layer ives @ max. 135% ofthe resistance to het i ‘On wood Gis a simple solution, and good value for money. NB: insulation above the vapour barrier should be thickor than with @ concrete root, not anly due to the low surface weight, But also Because the contribution af the layers ‘ould otherwise be too high ‘An inverted root») is an unusual solution with long-term durability (up to now. however only achievable with various polystyrene foam materaish. Shingla lone 28 the upper rout layering is insufficient in certain cases; itis better to have 8 paved surface. Advantage: quicly waterproof, examination for Aetects is easy, no limit 10 use, Insution 10-20% thicker than fora normal warm root Wien @ concrete root always dry out inthe summer; unsuitable for humid rooms. The risks dopandent onthe care taken bythe manufacturer ta avotd racks dua to the geometry shrinkage) and solving the problem ‘A completely fist cold root 's only allowable with vapour barrio: diffusion resistance — pp. 111-14 of the inner skin 2 10m: the air layer here is only for vapour pressure balance, analogous to the warm raof, as it does not function propery as a ventilation system unless the slope isa least 10% Layer sequence » @ and @®. NB: inner skin must be sitight tongue and groove panelling is not. Insulation - p. 79 Waterproofing as for warm root "» p. BO, Slope » 15% preferably 3% ~ important for drainage, Inlet. should, be Insulated in the ar cavity region: use insulated inet pipes» @ Iris necessary for the vapour barrier to be unbroken (ight overlapping and wall connections, particularly for swimming pools: unavoidable through naling is permissie), On light constructions, the internal temperature range ‘sould be improved by additional heavy layers (nest storage) Lunges the insulation. Untavourable internal temperature range temperature fluctuations almost the same as those ouitsice implies an inemnal climate amar to that of an unhwoted army but; this cannot be improved by thermal insulation alone. A {uick response heating systom andor ational thermal mass required. For the artifiia! vntlation of rooms under cold roots always maintain a negative pressure othermise, toom at will be forced inte the vot cavity aROOF GARDENS History The concept of roof gardens and roof cultivation had already been exploited by the Babylonians in biblical times by 6008c. In Berlin, in 1890, farm house roofs were covered with a layer of soil as a means of fire protection, in which vegetation seeded itself. Le Corbusier was the first in our century to rediscover the almost forgotten green root ‘The characteristics of roof cultivation Insulation by virtue ofthe layer of air between blades @ Rest gran nh tom ot fof grass and through the layer of soil, with its root DW olection of pent mass containing microbial life processes (process wer on taonies heat ‘Sound insulation and heat storage potential. Improvement of air quality in densely populates Improvements in microclimate Improves town drainage and the water balance of the countryside Advantageous effects for building structures: UV fadiation and strong temperature fluctuations are prevented due to the insulating grass and soi! layers Binds dust Part of building design and improves quality of life Reclamation of green areas ¢ @ Dmrnaon of @ @ Smindretecton on ard GG) Sam @® som lenea vurtace Ozaf ee @ Lye constrcton of = © tae come @ Pint container orming the © Mince ROOF GARDENS Roof slope ‘The slope of a double pitch roof should not be greater than 25°. Flat roofs should have a minimum siope of 2-3%. ‘Types of roof cultivation intensive cultivation: the root is fited out as a domestic ‘garden, with equipment such as pergolas and loggias continual attention and upkeep are necessary; planting grass, shrubs and ees. Extensive cultivation: the Cultivation requires. a thin layer of soil and requires a ‘minimum of attention; planting — moss, grass, herbs, herbaceous plants and shrubs. Mobile cultivation: plants in tubs, and othor plant containers serve for the cultivation of roof terraces, balustrades and balconies. Watering Natural watering by rain water: water is tapped in the Grainage layer and in the vegetation layer. Accumulated water; rain wator is trapped in the drainage layer and 1s mechanically replenished if natural watering is inadequate Drip watering: a water dip pipe is placed in the vegetation or drainage layer to water the plants during dry periods. Sprinting system: sprinkling system over the vegetation layer. Fertiliser Fertiliser can be spread on the vegetation layer or mixed with the water during artificial watering@® cot root +0) ® cota root wth eutivation Wht yd ovo fgliibntzes © tmvenaa vot © snvered rot with etivation 7 © Aerwosecie rot eaten ‘trecterty pon! € = aay 88 ROOF GARDENS Roof Construction For the vegetation layer, expanded clay and expanded slate fare used, these materials offering structural stability, soil aeration, water storage potential and lending themselves to landscaping. Problems tobe solved: storage of nutrients, soi reaction (pH value), through-ventilaton, water storage. The fiter layer, comprising fiter material, prevents clogging of the drainage layer. The drainage layer prevents excessive watering ofthe plants ane consists of mesh fbte mats, foam drainage courses, plastic panels and protective structural materials. The protective layer provides protection duting the construction phase and against point leading. The roo! protection layer of plants, etc, are retained by PVCIECE and POM shocting. The separating layer separates supporting structure from the roo! cultivation. Exampies ilustrate a range of customary flat roof struct Variations. incorporating roof cultivation. Bel Cuttvation is applied, the integrity of the roof and of the individual layers must be established. The technical Condition of the roof surface must bo carefully checked. ‘tention should be paid to: construction of the layers {condition’; correct roof slope: no unevenness: no roof sagging: 0 waterproofing membrane faults (bubbles, crackingl: expansion joints: edge attachments; penetrating laments (light shafts, roof lights, ventilating pipesl; and drainage. Double pitch roofs can also be cultivated, but much preparatory construction work is needed when inclined roots ‘are cultivated (danger of slippage, soll drying out)» 3 2 @ drainage iapeein shat (@) Wall connection with hingeDefinitions (1) Extensive roof cuttvation implies a protective covering that noeds upkeep, replacing the customary gravel covering (2) To. large extent, the planted level is seltreplenishing and the upkeep, ie., maintenance, is reduced to a Scope “These guidelines apply to areas of vegetation without natural connection to the ground, particularly on building roofs. and roots of underground garages, shelters, oF similar steuctures, Principles of constructive planning and execution (7) In extensive roof cultivation, the cultivated area acts as 4 protective covering ~ see the recommendations for fat roots, |2) Roof construction and structure: the relevant structural {and constructional principle ofthe building and is root must be carefully interrelated with the technical requirements imposed by the vegetation and its supporting elements. (9) The surface loading required to secure the waterproof ‘membrane is the minimum weight per unit area of the ‘operative layers in accordance with the table below, taken from the Roof Garden Association recommendations for planting an the flat roots. “ Height of he eaves Loadon the Inner region above ground level edge region () kgm?) (gim2h upto8 atleast SD 0 8-20 atleast 130 6 over 20 at least 160 60 (5) The type of construction employed in the roof and the degree of surface loading are dependent on the wind Yoading, the height of the building and the surface area of the root, (6) High suction loads can occur around the edges and ‘corners of the roof over @ width Me > Im = 2m, @ @ | See moe erage (9) Cultivated roofs should be designed to be easily ‘maintained, ie. areas which need regular attention {such as roof drainage inlets, structures which protrude from the cultivated area, expansion joints and wall junctions} should be easily accessible 10)In these areas, the protective layer should comprise of inorganic materials such as shingle or loose stoner (11 These areas should be linked with the roof drainage inlets, s0 that any overtiow from the planted areas can drain away, (2 )Large surface areas should be subdivided into separate drainage zones. Requirements, functions, constructive precautions [1 The waterproofing membrane should be designed in accordance with the recommended specifications for {lat roofs, (2) The development of the cultivated sfea should not Impair the function ofthe roof waterproofing membrane. ROOF CULTIVATION Extract from Guidelines of the Roof Garden Association (3) It should be possible to separate the waterprooting layers from the cukivation layers, et must be possible to inspect the waterproof membrane of the root The root protection layer must provide durable protection to the roof waterproofing layers, High polymer waterproofing membranes shoul, because of their physical and chemical makeup, be able 10 satisfy the demands of the root protection layer if 2 bituminous roof waterproofing system is applied then bitumen-compatible root protection layers should bbe employed, (7) The root protection layer should be protected from mechanical damage by @ covering: non-rotting fire ‘mats should be used since these can store nutrients and additional water. (81 The vegetation layer must have a high structural stability and must exhibit good cushioning capability and resistance to rotting, (9) ‘The pH value should not exceed 6.0 in the acide range. (0;The construction of the layers must be capable of accepting a daily precipitation level of at least 30/2 (4)There should be a volume of air of atleast 20% in the layer structure in the water saturated condition, ‘Maintenance at the plant level (1) Wild herbaceous plants and grasses from the éry ‘grassland, steppe and rock crevice species should be Used in the planted areas. All plants used should be peronni ‘The plants used should be young plants, sown as seed oF propagated by cuttings Maintenance: at least one routine per year, when the foot inlets, security strips, roof connections. and terminations are inspected and cleaned as necessary. (4) Plants, mosses and lichen which settle are not considered as weeds. (6) All undesirable weeds should be removed (6) Woody plants, in particular willow, birch, poplar, maple and the lke, are considerad to be weeds, (7) Regular mowing and fertlising should be carried out. (8) Changes at the plant level may occur through environmental effects, “a ‘5 ‘81 2) (3) prevention (1) All fire precaution recommendations should be observed, The requirements are fulfilled ifthe flammability of the Structure is classed as flame resistant (material classification 81) Characteristics of a satisfactory roof cultivation {An extensive planted area has planting out, sowing, setting of cuttings, pre-cultivatee plants (plant containers, mats and Danels). The vegetation layer provides stability for the plants, Contains water and nutrients and allows material and gas exchange and water retention. The vegetation layer must hhave a large pore volume for gas exchange and water retention. The filter layer prevents the flushing out of putrionts and small components of the vegetation layer and siting up of the drainage layer. it also ensures that water ‘rains away gradually. The drainage layer provides sate removal of overfiow water, aeration of the vegetation layer, the starage and, if necessary, a water supply, Root protection protects the roof waterproofing membrane fram chemical ‘and mechanical contact with the coots ofthe plants which, in searching for water and nutrients, can be destructive. ROO! construction must be durably waterproof, both on the ‘surface and in all connections with other components. The {formation of condensation water inthe roof structure must be effectively and permanently prevented, a 85© standard son sytem 86 TENSILE AND INFLATABLE STRUCTURES The construction of awnings and tensile roofs is becoming more widespread. These constructions vary from simple ‘awnings and 1001 to technically very complicated tensile Structures of the most diverse types. ‘Materiais: artificial fibre material (polyester) is used 08 the base fabrie, with corrosion resistant an weather proof protective layers of PVC on both sides. CCharacterstcs: high strength (ean resist snow and wind loads; non-rotting, resistant to aggressive. substances: ‘and dirt rapelien, and fire resistant. Weight: 600-1200 im? Permeability 20 ight: from “impermeable’ up to 80% permeability Life: 16-20 years: all popular colour shades; good colour fastness Workabilty: manufactured in rolls: widths 1-3m, usually 1.5m; length up to 2000 running metres: cut to shape to suit structure; can be joined by stitching, welding, with adhesives, combinations of these, or by clamp connectors Add-on standard systems () Standard units allow the structure to be extended indefinitely, often on all sides. They embrace most planforms: square, rectangular, triangular, circular, polyhedra. Application: connecting passageways, rest aro pavilions, shade awnings, etc. Framed structures A supporting frame is made from woos, steel or aluminium, over which the membrane is stretched 98 @ protective covering. Application: exhibition halls, storage and industria areas ‘Air supported structures -(@) “The structural membrane is supported by compressed air at low pressure, and air locks prevent the rapid release of the supporting ar. The system can be combined with heating, and adcitional insulation can be provided by an inner shell (air mattress). Maximum width is 45m, with length Unlimited. Application: exhibition, storage, Industral and sport halls; also as roofing over swimming pools and Tensioned structures. ‘The membrane is supported at selected points by means of cables and masts, and tensioned around the edges. To improve thermal insulation, the structure may be provided with adcitionat membranes. Span can be up to more than 100m. Application: exhibition, industrial and sports halls, meeting and sports areas, phantom roots. Ci © feed arate @ inCABLE NET STRUCTURES Cable net structures oer the possibity of covering large ‘unsupported spans with considerable ease. The German pavilion at the World Exhibition in Montreal in 1976 was onstructed in this fashion» () + 2 the Olympic Stadium in Munich, 1972 ~@)-(@)and the ice rink in the Olympic Park in Munich . {An interesting example is also provided by the design for the students club for the University and College of Technology in Dortmund ~ @. ‘As a rule, the constructional elements are steel pylons, steel cable networks, steel or wooden grids, and root coverings of acrylic glass oF translucent, plastic reinforced shesting, Cables are fastened into the edges of the stee! network, the eaves, etc, and are laid over pinjointed and usually obliquely positioned steel supports, and then anchored. “Aerial supports, eable supporting elements whieh are stayed trom beneath, divide up the load of the main supporting cable to reduce the cable cross-sections. The transter of load of the tension cables usually takes place via cast components ~ bolt fixings, housings, cable fixings, ete. The cable fixings can be secured by self locking puts or by the use of pressure clamps, ea @ woweat 087 @ chyna, Munich 1972 ‘tachment 2) otto the edge sab © Mia Seemmenvee 2 =0=0- G@ en. om © conepien able amp. showing root) & 8788 ‘SUSPENDED AND TENSIONED STRUCTURES The suspension or support of load-bearing structures provides a means of reducing the cross sections of the structural members, thus enabling delicate and filigree signs to be developed. AS a rule, this is only possible in steel and timber skeletal structures. The tensioning cables ate of steel and can usually be tensioned on campletion of the structure, The cables support tensile forces only Suspended structures have the purpose of reducing the span of supporting beams or eliminating cantilevered structures. Tensioned structures, ikewise, reduce the span ‘of beams and, hence, also the section modulus which has to be considered in determining their cross section = 42. In Similar fashion to cable network structures, aerial supports fate required on trussed structures. They have to accept buckling (compressive) stresses, Significant contributions to the architecture of Suspended structures have been made by Gunter Behnisch ‘@) Norman Foster. ()~@), Richard Rogers -@)- and ‘Michae! Hopkins @)-@. The Renault building in Swindon, bby Norman Foster, consists of arched steel supports, which are suspended from round, prestressed hollow steel masts com a point in the upper quarter of the gable ~ (1)=@). The design enabled the ground area to be extended by approximately 67%. The suspended construction offers Connection points which make it possible to execute the Construction work without interfering with other work The new Flee:guard factory n Quimper, for an automobile concern in the USA, had to be designed for changing Fequirements and operations. For this, Richard Rogers chose a suspended construction $0 to keep the inside free of any Supporting structure @)~() The same design ideas form the basis ofthe sports halls of Gunter Behnisch = 5 and the ‘Schlumbergar Research Contre in Cambridge, by Michael Hopkins = @-@. An airport administration building (proposed design for Paderborn/Linpstadt) » Band a concert hall (proposed design for the Dortmund Far) (2 may also be built in vis fashion, © omacises © ems © semen © Conte CamunaguceA ® ® @ © ve nnn bain SPACE FRAMES: PRINCIPLES Ideally, space frames should be constructed from equal sided andior isosceles rightangled tangles, so that regular polyhedrons are formed. In plane infinite networks, there are exactly three geometric structures; in spherical finite Structures, there are exactly five regular polyhedson retworks, which are comprised of only one type of joint, member, and hence also, surface. Ragular plane networks are triangular, square and hexagonal ‘Of the five platonic bodies used, the space frame formula decroes that only those theee-dimensional joint member space frames whose membors form a closed triangular network ate kinematically stable, 2. the tetrahedron, the ‘octahedron and the icosahedron. The cube requires an ‘additional 6, and the dodecahedron, an additional 24 members, to become stable. if a spherical. triangular network is not closed over the whole surface, the basic polygon must be prevented fram moving by an appropriate alternative methos, “The lengths of the members of a body for a space frame form a geometric series with the factor 2. One joint with a maximum of 18 connections at angles of 45°, 60° and 80" is sufficient for the construction of regular framework. As with plane structures, it must be accepted that the members fare connected with flexible joints. reer Bee @ sroce tama sete D Sone rama srt90 vccnean — @ Segre 29 ® oe nee SPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION The MERO space frame developed by Mengeringhausen consists of joints and members.» (2) @. The underlying principle is that joints and members are selected from the sms a8 are appropriate forthe loads which are to sd. In the MERO structural elements, the Jointimerber links do not act as ‘idea! pinjoints’, but are able to transmit flexural moments in addition to the natal forces in the members.» @) - @). This thrae-dimensional format permits a free selection of a basic grid ant, then, with the factors 2 and v3 to size the lengths of the jembers, to develop 3 structure to provide the required Tead:-bearing surfaces ~ © -@B The unlimited flenibity is expressed in the fact that curved space frames are also possible. The Globe Arona in Stockholm ~ 13 i, at present, the largest hemispherical building in the world, The assembly methods involve elements of prefabrication, sectional installation or the slabzlift method. All the ‘components are hot galvanised for corrosion protection. As 2 consequence of the high level of static redundancy of space frames, the failure ofa single member as a result of fire will not lead to the collapse of the structure. Starting from spherical joints, that allow 18 different points of attachment for tubular members, a large variety of other Joint systems between nodes and members have been developed so as to optimise the solution to load bea and spanning requitements » @)- £9 \ © Seva \ © we syeem cope) —@) Te Sytem at fi a © Seaham ° eaQ) = © wean ote ‘SPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION ‘The Krupp-Mantal® space frame was developed by E. Ruter, Dortmund-Horde. The members are bolted to the forged steel sphere with bolts inside the tubes. The bolts have hhexagonal recesses in their heads and ate inserted into @ {uide tube through @ hole in the tubing of the structural member, In general, all members are hot galvanised. A ‘coloured coating may siso be applied to them. On the Krupp-Montal® System, the bolts can be examined without being removed from the frame members: if required, itis possible o replace framework members without destroying the framework, The Krupp-Montal® System i illustrated 19 “DG with pointe of detail in @ ‘The KEBA tube and joint connection has been designed for the transmission of tensile and compressive forces. It does not require bolts and can be dismantled without problems» @- (@, The KEBA joint consists of the jaw fitting, the interlocking flange, the tapered wedge and the caging ring with locking pin. “The Seane space frame has been developed by Kaj Thomsen. Bolts provide the means of connection, wich are inserted in the ends of the members using a special method and are then screwed into the threaded bores of the spherical joint fittings 03-8. Inthe case ofall space frames, an unsupported span of at least €0- 100m is possible. D seven rome apt © sin ot poiMULTISTOREY STRUCTURES The main choices of in stu or prefabricated manufacture inthe form of slab o frame construction. The selocton of he materials 's according to type of construction and local conditions Asin all areas of bulling constuction, the numberof storeys 's limited by the losc-bearing capacity and weight of the building ‘materials. Construction consiste of # vertical, space enclosing Supporting stucture made from structural materials with. oF without tense strength Vertical and iatealstflening vs necessary {hough connected tansverse walls and celing stuxctures, Frome construction, 35 3 nanspace enciosing. supporting. stucure permits an open planform and choice of outer wall formation Icanilevered or suspended construction). large numberof oor levels is possible with various types of profabreation, ‘Structoral frame materials: voinforeod concrete — which ae = provides a choice of in situ and prefabieated, sae, aluminium fandember Types of structure: frames with main beams on hinged joints, for rigid frame units in longitudinal andor tansverse directions Construction systems: columns and main beams (uprights and Us! determine the treme structure with rigid or articulated joints (connecting points of columns and beams). Fully stifenod frames: colurms and beams wath rigid joints ate connected to Fig trame units. Ariculatad frame units one above tne other columns and beams aro rigidly connocted into rigid frame units ‘and arranged ane above the other with arieuated joints. Pure articulated frames: nodal points are designed to articulate, with iagona} bracing structures (erate and trusses) and sod saphragms lintermodiate walls, gable walls, ainwell walls mined systems are possible. Riga joints are easily achieved with ‘i situ and prefabricated reinforced concrete: however Prefabricated components ae usually designed with arculted Joints and braced by rigid building cores Construction Framed stroctures with continuous vertical supports.» ()- ties beams ost on visible brackets or conceal bearings. Skeleton structures with sectional vertical supports = @)~ (Sythe hesght ‘ofthe verticals can possibly extend over mare than two storeys; ‘the supporting brackets ean be staggered from frame to frame: hinged supports wth stifened building cores. Framed structures with frame units @)- @e Heshaped frame unds, if roquted with suspended t's a th contre connection larticulted strey height framesi: U'shaped frame units, with separate tes in the entre, oF with tes gialy connected to frames (articulated Storey height frames). Flat head mushroom unit frame Construction + @> columns with foursided cantilevered slabs [slabs and columns rigidly connected together, articulated Connection of the cantilevered slab edgesl. Floor support “structures ditectly acept the vertical loads and transmits them horizontally onto the points of support concrete floor slabs of sold, hollow, ribbed or cofered construction are very heavy i the spans large, ane prove cific inservice installation use of the liftslab method is possible, suitable principally” for rectangular planforass ~ 62. © Leshan tote tame © fomrngtetmanoom san tte onaetng 3) oor pmo rctre 92SUSPENDED FLOORS Wooden beam floors with solid timber joist or laminated beam supports» (2) @) in open ar closed construction Sound insulation is increased by laying adeitional 60mm thick conerete paving slabs » (2. Part or full assembled floors are laid dry, for immediate use» G)~ @. Ribbed floors: space the axes af the beams as follows: 250-375-800-625-750-1000-1250mm. Heavy floors use in situ concrete on shuttering.» €9. They can support only When cured and add moisture to the construction. Reinforced concrete slab floors span both ways: the span ratio 1:15 should not be exceeded. Thickness > 70mm feconomic to approx. 150mm. Pre-cast concrete reinfo:cing shuttering, of large format nished concrete slabs of a least @ Feber iiataminated beam Gorm thickness which have integrated exposed steel oe tee wis, reinforcing mesh, are completed with in situ concrete to form the structural slab.» €2. The floor thickness is from 100-260mm. This method combines the special features of prefinished with those of conventional construction ‘Maximum slab width is 2.20m. When the joints have been ‘smoothed, the ceiling is ready for painting finishing plaster is unnecessary, Hollow pot floors) also as prefabricated floor panels. Floor thickness ig 190-215mm max, with supported spans of 6.48m, Profabricated floor panels are 1.00m wide; concrete covering layer is not required. re. stressed concrete ~ hollow slab floor ~ , consists of sel Supporting pre-stressed units with longitudinal cavities, so thay have a low unit weight. They are joined together using jointing mastic. Slab width: 150 and 180mm, 1.20: wide. ‘The elements can be max. 7.35m long. Composite stee! floors » &. Trapezoidal and compasite floor profiles, made of galvanised stee! strip sheet, form the basic element for shuttering and ceilings. © samc a © ieTeoum noor” © terete bea Moor SS a © Mt rtrd once @ enter corte) Prgms coaae@ Ne enya stone) Natron in Rae D Sh mowic saree 2020, G) Sno: brent HE Ee ees © Spon: eins LTH] FL nVaataave © Faris © Sei tececen aca @ Fd pr sleet on © sonra ts 94 FLOORING Flooring has a decisive offect on the overall impression created by rooms, the quality of accommodation and ‘Natural stone floors: Limestone, slate or sandstone slabs ‘can be laid rough hewn, in natural state, or with some oral ledges cut smooth or polished ~@)-@), The surfaces of sawn tiles, limestone (marble, sandstone and all igneous rocks can be finished in any manner desired, They can be laid in a bed of mortar or glued with adhesive tothe floor subayer ‘Mosaic floors: Various coloured stones: (glass, ceramics or natural stone) are laid in cement mortar or applied with adhesives ~~ G. Ceramic floor tiles: Stoneware, floor, mosaic and sintered tiles are shapes of coloured clay which are sintered in the burning process, s0 that they absaro hardly any water. They are, therefore, rasistant to frost, have some fesistance to acids and high resistance to mechanical wear, though they are not always ol resistant, Parquet flooring is made from wood in the farm of parquet strps, tiles, blocks or boards.» 4-2 The upper layer of the finished parquet elements consists of oak or other parquet wood, in three different styles.» Pine or spruce are used for floor boarding, Tongue and groove planks are made fram Scandinavian pine/spruce, American red pine, pitch pine. Wood block paving end grained wood! is rectangular or round, and laid on concrete .. 23) ¢ Oeown sn zrcont | a A tenon) cae © Saninar tana seome eee Q GR JF J min hm) noe for beat output = SOK Ta tow ED it « 3 a = oe ed x ni Ope ease oe HEATING Heating systems are distinguished by the type of eneray source and type of heating surface. il firing: nowadays, light. Advantages: low fuel costs (relative to gas, approx. 10-25% not dependent on public ‘supply networks fuel oll isthe most widespread source of heating energy: easy to regulate. Disadvantages: high costs of storage and tank facilities; in rented housing, space requited for oll storage reduces rent revenue; where water protection measures apply or there is a danger offloading this form of heating is only possible ifstict regulstions art ‘observed, fuel paid for prior to use; high environmental cost. Gas firing: natural gas s increasingly being used for heating purposes. Advantages: no storage costs; minimal maintenance costs; payment made after usage: ean be used in areas where water protection regulations apply; easy to regulate: high annual efficiency; may be used for individual flats or rooms; minimal environmental effects. Disadvantages: dependent on supply networks; higher eneray costs; concern about gas explosions; when converting from cil to gas: chimney modifications are required, Solid fuels such as coal {anthracite lignite or wood, are rarely used to heat buildings. District heating stations are ‘the exception, since this type of heating is only economical above 2 certain level of power output. Also, depending on the type of fuel used, large quantities of environmentally damaging substances are emitted, so that stringent requirements are laid down for the use of these fuels {protection of the environment). Advantages: not dependent on energy imports; low fuel costs Disadvantages: high operating costs; large storage space necessary; high emission of environmentally unfriendly substances; poor controllability Regenerative forms of energy include solar radiation, wind power, water power, biomass (plants) and refuse (biogas). Since amortisation of the installation costs is not achieved ‘within the lifetime of the plant required, the demand for ths type of energy is correspandinaly low. Flemote heating systems ae indirect forms of eneray supply as opposed to the primary forms of energy discussed above. Heat is generated in district heating stations or power Stations by @ combined heatipower system, Advantages: consumption; can be used where water protection of powerleneray coupling, i Disadvantages: high eneray Sa, source is changed, a chimney must be fied. boiler room and chimney not requited: no storage costs; regulations apply; environ costs; dependency on supply energy is. paid for after mentally friendly association etwork: if the heating =>. Sa LL © meceeren ty © mromoyen a, © saarmares™ © (oon deeibeion 95ill ap acs © smn nae 9 enapee forthe HEATING Electrical heating: Apart from night storage heating, the continuous heating of rooms by electrical current is only Dossible in special cases, due to the high costs of electricity. Electrical heating of rooms in temporary use may be advantageous, e.g. garages, gate Keepers’ lodges. and ‘churches. Main advantages: short heating-up period; clean ‘operation; no fuel storage; constant availabilty; low initial Night storage heating is used for electrical floor heating. electrical storage heaters or for electrically heated boilers. Off-peak electricity is used to run the heaters. For electrical floor heating, the floor screed is heated overnight 0 provide heat during the day to the room ait Correspondingly, for electrical storage heaters and tically heated boilers, the energy storage elements are heated during the off-peak period. However, by contrast to the floor heating system, the latter two devices can be regulated. Advantages: neither a bole: room nor chimney is required; no gases are generated: minimal space requirement; low servicing costs; no need to store fuel Convectors: Heat is not Wansferzed by radiation, but by direct transmission to the air molecules. For this reason, convectors can be covered or built n, without reducing the heat output. Disadvantages: strong movement of air and the dust swieing effect: performance of convector depends ‘on the height of the duct above the heated body; cross sections of air flowing into. and away from the convector must be of sufficient size. »() For under floor convectors OF-Dh, the same prerequisites apply as for sbove-fioor convectors. The disposition of the underfloor convectors depends on the proportion of heating requirement far the windows as a fraction of the total heating requirement of the room. Arrangement » @f should be adopted if this proportion i greater than 70% arrangement.» h for 20-70%; if the proportion is less. than 20%, then arrangement ~ (bg is favoured. Convectors without fans are not suitable for low-temperature heating, since their output depends on the throughput of air and, hence, fon the temperature difference between tho hoated body {and the room. The performance of convectors with too low ‘2 duct height (e.g, floor convectors) can be increased by the incorporation of a blower. Blower convectors are of limited use in living-room areas, due to the build-up of noise. Heaters can be covered in various ways. Losses inefficiency can be considerable, and attention should be paid 10 ‘adequate clearing. For metal cladding, the radiative heat Contribution is almost entirely given to the room aie. For material coverings with a tower thermal conductivity, the radiative Neat is damped considerably. )) 9.88 A representation is shown of the movement of air within a heated coom. The air is heated by the heater, flows to the window and then to the ceiling and is cooled on the external ‘and internal walls. The cooled air flows over the floor and back to the heater. @ p98 A aifferent situation arises if the heater is on a wall which ie away from the window: ar {cools on the window, then flows cold over the floor to the heater, where itis heated up. Pye a |e i Lh I g Sectenroum ate G) Summary ten pnt(eae water nant in internal bathroom with “Cologne verti —— nin : rin é Hh HEATING Gas heating systems Regulations and legislation |UKI: the provision of gas supply into a building in England, Wales and Scotland is contrallad by the Gas Safety lnstallation and Use) Regulations, 1998, which revoke and replace the 1984 and 1996 amendment) regulations. They make provision for the Installation and use of gas fittings for the purpose of protecting the public from the dangers arising from the Gisteibution, supply or use of gas. ‘One of the major tasks of the architect is to make sure thatthe design provisions, such as locations of meters and pipe routes, do as much as possible to make it easy for the Installer to comply with the reguiations. ‘Gas fired appliances must be of an approved type and can only be installed in thase spaces wihere no danger can arise from position, size, or construction quality of the surrounding building. Distences between components ‘made of combustible materials and external heated parts of 12 gas appliance, or from any radiation protection fitted in between, must be sufficient to exclude any possibilty of fire lie. =Bem. In addition, spaces between components made fof combustible materials and other external heated parts, fs well as between radiation protection and gas appliances fr radiation protection, must not be enclosed in such a way that a dangerous build‘up of heat can ocour. Heaters with an tenclosed combustion chamber fitted against external walls land housed in a box-like enclosure must be vented to the oom, with bottom and top vents each having 2600cm? free ‘193s section. Air vente must be arranged in accordance with details and drawings of the appliance manufacturer ‘The casing must have a clear space of 2 10cm in front and at the side of the heater cladding. Heaters not mounted on ‘external walls must be fitted as close 8 possible to the chimney stack The minimum size and ventilation of rooms containing heating appliances is determined by the output or sum of outputs of the heating appliances, For ventilated enclosed internal areas, the volume must be calculated from the internal finisned measurements (ie, measured to finished surfaces and apertures) ‘All gas appliances, apart from portable units and small water heaters, must be fted with 2 flue. Flues promote air circulation and help remove the bulk of gas in case the appliance islet with the gas Unit. Cookers should be fied with cowls and vents $ whieh should considerably help to remove fumes and reduce condensation on cieien yee walls. Bathrooms equipped eowidi with gas heaters must be EEINLIEY" tees with adequate ventila ton and ® flue for the heater. Flues for water heaters must include a baffle or draught diverter to prevent down-draughts. oes anauat gue stack 97YfELALLELIEG IA © tie 98 aig Sf Ogazietioees ne @ Foor heting tad ary HEATING For uniform heating of the room ait, convectar heaters can bbe replaced by a floor heating system. Problems arise only where large window areas are involved, but this can be ‘overcome by the installation of addtional heating - such 3s floor convectors. Ingeneral, surface heating includes large areas of surface surrounding a room and involves. relatively low temperatures. Types of surface heating include floor heating, ceiling heating and wall heating. With floor heating, the heat from the floor surface is not only imparted to the 00m ait, but also to the walls and ceiling. Heat transfer to the air occurs by convection, 1 e. by air movement over the floor surface. The heat given to the walls and ceiling takes place due to radiation. The heat output can vary botween 70 fang 110Wims?, depending on the floor finish and system ‘empioyed. Almost any usual type of floor finish can be used = ceramics, wood or textiles. However, tne diathermic resistance should not exceed 0.15m2\/W. House dust allergies can be a problem in heated rooms. Previously, precautions against house dust or dust mite allergy paid no attention to the effects of heating units Heaters cause swirling of house dust containing allergens, which can then rapidly come into contact with the mucous ‘membranes. In addition to this, there are insoluble dificulties incleaning heaters which have convection fins. is therefore advantageous if heaters are designed to embody. the Smallest possible number of convection elements and to have straightforward cleaning procedures. These requirements are fulflad by single-layer panels without convection fins and by radiators of unit construction. Storage of heating ci: The quantity of heating ail stored should be sufficient for a minimum of 3 months arid 3 ‘maximum of one heating period. A rough estimate of he annual requirement for heating fuel is 6-T0\m! of room volume 20 be heated. A maximum volume of Sin may be stored in a boiler house. The container must be within 3 storage tank capable of accepting the total quantity. Storage containers inthe ground must be protected from leakage. 6 through the use of double-walled tanks or plastic inner shels, Maximum capacities and additional safety measures a prescribed for areas where water protection 100m? capacity, clearance to the ramparts, walls or tinged ‘enclosures must be a least 1.5m, For vertical cylindrical tanks ‘of capacity <2000%m? in squere or rectangular catchment areas, clearance may be reduced 0 1m. Arrangements rust be made forthe removal of water and these must be eapabie of closure ovate ean discharge by itself, then separators must be builtin Above ground facilities roquire protected access. A distance of 2 least 3m from neighbouring facilities is required if there 3 ‘storage capacity »500°m° and eorrespancingly more as capacty increases, to a clearance of 8m for 2 storage capacity of 2000m3. Access routes are quired for firefighting appliances and equipment » @)-@ Underground tanks: »0.4m clearance of tanks fom boundaries 51m from buildings. Underground anchorage of the tanks is Fequires 0 prevent movement of empty tanks in the presence of ground water offloading. Backiling required to a depth of 03-1m above the tonks. Also, 600mm diameter access ‘openings into tho tanks ate needed, serviced by 2 watertight shaft with a clear width of at least 1m, and @ 2m wider than the tank access opening lid. The shaft cover must be able to withstand a test proot loading of 100KN whore vehicular cess is to take place. Filing points are subject to approval for ‘combustible uids in hazard classes Al, Alor B. They must be immedistely accessible, with protected access, The ground surface must be Impermesbie and constructed of bitumen, onerete oF paving with sealed joints. Drainage outlets with separators, overiling protection, and emptying and washing facilities for tanker vehicies are required Tankage facilities for the fuelling of all vehicles with ‘combustible fluids in hazard classes Allie. heating oi and ‘diesel fuel) must not be stored together with those ih hazerd classes Al All_or 8. Neher must the ellective regions. of separators and operating surfaces of such storage areas overlap, Requirements for all tanks: Ventiistion and venting tailties must be sited atleast 800mm above the access cap. or above round level in the ease of underground tanks, and be protected from the ingress of rain water. Davices must be provided to {determine the fling fvels inthe tanks, Access openings must hhave a clearance diameter of at least 600mm and. visual Inspection openings. 12mm clameter Protection must be provided against lightning and electrostatic uischerge Additional provisions cover fame spread resistance, intel and external corrosion, and fre extinguishers of the appropri type. Tanks for diocel fuel or heating ol EL witha espmcity over 10001, must have fil meters and overil protectionENS @ vera day sta of lar edson in’ sarees r sation angle sight of sun 9 SOLAR ARCHITECTURE Components Essentially, economie considerations led architects and ‘building developers to seek alternatives to the conventional fossil fuel sources of energy. Today, equal emphasis is placed on the ecological necessity for change. By means of ‘energy conscious construction, the energy requirements of living accommodation can be reduced by around 50% in comparison to older buildings, Energy balance of buildings Solar energy is availabe Tree of charge to every building Unfortunately, in many climatic areas, solar radiation is very low, 20 that other forms of energy must be used for oom heating, hot water, lighting and for the operation af electrical appliances, The greatest energy losses from 2 buildin arise due to the ‘conduction of heat through windows, walls, colings and roots. Considerations of energy conscious construction There are three fundamental points which lead to 3 ‘considerable reduction in the energy requirement of 3 domestic building: (]) Reduction of heat losses (2)inerease in energy saving through the use of solar radiation (Conscious efforts by users to Improve the energy balance The choice of building location itse!t can reduce the heat losses from a building. Within a small area in a region, conditions will vary; eg. wind and lemperature conditions vary with the altitude of a building site Relatively favourable microclimatic conditions result on south-facing slopes when the atea of ground is situated on the upper thd ofthe slope but away from the crest of the hil ‘The shape of the building plays an important role in torms of enoray conscious construction. The outer surface fof the building is in direct contact with the external climate and gives up valuable energy tothe outside air. The design ff the building should ensure that the smallest possible ‘external surface is presented to the outside air in reition to the volume of the building. The shape to be aimed for is a cube, although @ hemisphere in the ideal case. However, this ideal assumption applies only to a detached house ‘The dependency ofthe © See sac et sims nt menos igh an_ - EN ‘Sree nl te fr the of =o = a a, eof xn. se 102 ‘SOLAR ARCHITECTURE Organisation of the ground plan Inthe passive utilisation of solar energy, the heat is utilised through direct incident radiation and heat storage in specific structural components such as walls and floors Because of the conditions under which solar energy is used passively, the arrangement of the ground plan necessarily follows a particular logical layout. The ‘continuously used ving and slevping accommodation should be south-facing and provided with lacge window areas, I is useful to provide glazed structures in these living ‘and sleeping areas. There are three important reasons for this (1) Extension of the living area (2) Gain in solar eneray {3} Provision of a thermal buffer zone The litle-used low-temperature unheated roams, with low natural ight requirements should be north acing. They act {88 a butfor zone between the warm living area and the void outside climate Use of solar energy In the use of solar energy, a distinction is drawn between the active and passive use of solar energy, The active use of solar energy necessitates the application of equipment such as solar collectors, pipework, collector vessols circulation pumps for the transfer of the solar energy. This system entails large investment and maintenance costs which must be recovered solely by saving in the ost of enorgy. As a result, such systems {cannot be operated economically in single farily houses. The passive use of solar energy necessitates the use of specific structural components as heat stores, such as walls, ceilings and glazed units. The efficiency of this system depends on specific factors: (1)Climatic coneitions - mean monthiy temperature, solar ‘geometry and incident solar radiation, hows of sunshine {and level of incident energy radiation (2) Method of using the solar energy - indiect usage, direct usage (3) Choice of materials - absorption capability of the surface and heat storage capability of the materials © Sayamsan © maitre Socrates eens reat thcughSOLAR ARCHITECTURESOLAR ENERGY About 1.5m? of collector ‘area and about 1001 vol fof water inthe storage ta is needed per person in the household.» {) A 30-pipe ‘lar collector with an absorption surface of 3m? is neoded to produce hot water for a &-person household. The collector will produce about 85-1404Wh solar heat per day, depending on the © fewer amen anomret ®t ann nt amount of sunshine, Le Se : ough to heat 20°36 ot winter whim. the foreseeable future, the sun cannot provide enough power for heating, s0 solar heating installations still Fequire 3 conventional heating system. There are two different technologies. Solar heat thermal collection of solar energy using collectors (equipment which catches and accumulates solar thermal energy). Thermal energy is used to heat water, Solar electricity Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of the sun's rays into electrical energy (direct current) with the help of solar cells‘Ar movements eaused by pressure differences i, disturbances to the state of equim, reculing tom (ihtemperatue afferences ) natural ventiltion’— windows, (2) natural wind oor, ventiaion shafts (Gi ventitators ‘mochanical ventiation’ — agimission and aischarge of at r [EES] brought abeut by nesting and | vetiation systems VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Humidity of room air Fer comfort the upper limit for the moisture content ofthe air is 11.5kg of water er kg of cry air. A relative hurmidity of 65% should not be exceeded. Tho minimum flow of fresh air per Berson for cinemas, bengueting halls, reading rooms, exhibition has, sale rooms, museums and sports hells is 20mih, The value for individual offices, canteens, conference ‘rooms, rest rooms, lecture has and hotel roams is 20m2M, fis 40miih for restaurants, and 50%" for open plan offices. oom ventilation systems ara used to guorant Foo climate. In fultiling this objective, the following requirements must be satisfied, depending on the application: {al Removal from rooms of impurties in the it including smoke and other harmful substances, and suspended articles (byRemoval of perceptible heat from rooms: unwanted quantities of bots hot and cold air (cl Removal of latent heat from rooms: enthalpy flows of humitving air and denarniitying air {q) Protoctve pressure maintenance: prassure maintenance in bilings for protection against unwanted ar exchange, Most of the requirements under (3) are solved though continuous replacement of ai (ventilation! andor suitable sit tweatment tering). Requirements of type Ib) and {el are usually met by appropriate thermadynamic treatment ofthe a and, toa limited degre, by air replacement. Requirements of type (d) ace solved by various types of mechanical contra of ‘supply and extraction ae 2 specie Natural ventilation Uncontrolled aris admitted trough joints and gape in window frames, doors and shutters (2s 2 result of the effects of wind) rather than through the mall, However, the increased vse of thermal insulation mesures in buildings maar thatthe natural sources of ventiacin through gaps in windows and doors may no longer be adequate. may therefore be necessary fo provide “contoleg ventiation in iving accommodation, using mechanical entiation systoms and, it necessery, to replace the heat ost os consequence ‘Window ventilation )-@) p.179 generally adequate for living rooms. Sesh windows are favourable, where the outside air is admitted atthe bottom and internal ar flows out above. tensive ventilation is brought about by mechanical ventilation systems. In accordance with the building Fegulations, this is a requirement for windowless bathrooms and WCs, with the removal of ait ta the outside via ducting Allowance should be made for the requirement of flow oF replenishment air theough ventiator gril, windows andlor ‘gaps in tho fabric of the building, Furthermore, as far as is possible, draugnettee admission of the outside air must be provided, ‘The instalation of simple ventilator grils in outside walls for Inflow and outfow of air lads tothe eanger of craughts in the Winter Mechanical ventilation eyetams are bet ‘rocees a | “om ait =] = }-—, vain ia] — aa | ee os Es Ar OG thee SSS itt f Le \(eelfetl fedlfe lei = He) ETD APT roe? : SUH LRNE(S) JSS] ee BS) Sih CE then [3 a @ semee oronintlation ncrporting wn mgs sen 105106 Several handling stages are usually involved in ventiation and airconditioning. Filtering ar heating, ai cooling: and washing, hhumidfying and evaporative cooling ate discussed on this page. For ventilation and damping +p. 107 Filtering Air cleaning to eliminate coarse dust particles (a) Oiled metal fiter plates in air filter chambers or ‘automatic ercuation titers; used particularly for the Yentiation of industrial premises. Disadvantage: fentrainment ofa mist {1 Dey lay iter mets made of textile or glass fore in ms frames; not recoverable; also as roll tape iter with automatic elesning. Fine cleaning and separation of fine soot {e) Electrostatic ai fier; the dust is fonised and deposited fon negatively charged metal pistes, Very low air fesistance. Disadvantages: large iter chambers: leaning with warm water (4) Fine fering through titer media of paper or glass fibre. ‘Advantages: cheap to manulactore; no corrosion from ait ontsining harmful substances; high operating safety Disadvantage: greater air resistance than electro fiers, Which increases as the filter is soiled, leading to isruption ofthe ai flow. (6) Air washing: temoves dust oF aerosols and acid fumes, but not soo, and therefore should not be used in areas ‘with many oll fred heating installations = © Arrive cone Air heating {a} Contolabiity is limited with simple gcevity-iculation sold ful heating installations (©) Contolabiity #8 goad with natural gas and heating i And with electrically heated equipment (o) Heating with lowworessure steam, warm and hot water, Using finned tube radiators made from galvanised ste! fF copper tube with copper or aluminiam fins Good, Simple contralebilty. No-nged for local chimneys and fives. ‘Air cooling Used principally for industry when constant temperature anc humidity must be maintained over the whale year also for commercial buildings and office blocks, theatres and cinemas in (a) Cooling of the ar with mains water or spring water At a temperature of 18°, spring water should be allowed to train back again as much as possible on account ofthe Sround wate able level. a most towns, the use of maine water for cooling isnot permitted and is uneconomical anyway, due to the high price of water Spring water ‘ystems requite the approval ofthe water authori. VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING () Compression cooting systems for room si conditioning must accord with strict regulations anc must use non poisonous refrigerants sich as Freon 12.01 Freon 2212, 22), tc the cooling plant is inthe direct vicinity ofthe centtal air condtioning area, direct evaporation of the refrigerant should take place in the cooling radiators of the air conditioning plant. Since 1996, substances containing CFCs are profibited [c}In lage installations, cooling of the water takes place within a closed circuit, with distibuton by pumps. Advantages: the central cooling plant can be in an area where noige and vibration are not troublesome, very safe In operation. Today. compact cold wator systems and prefabricated air conditioninglcooling units are avaiable For large cooling installations Id} Compression of the teligerant in 9 sealed unit turbo compressor (complete machine installation with ‘compressor, water-cooler and condense, low vibration and very low nose levels |e) Absorption cooling facility with Inhium bromide and ‘wator. Due to the vaporisation of the water, heat is ‘2aracted ftom the water to be cooled: water vapour is absorbed by the lthiom bromide and continuously ‘evaporated in the cycle process, then condensed again ‘and passed to the fist veporistion process. Vary low noise levels: vibration tree system requiring ite space. Steam jet cooling: A high valocty steam jet induces & negative pressure in ¢ vest, Circulating coating water hhecomes atomised and vaporised, with simultaneous cooling. The cold waters vanstorred tothe air coolers of the air conditioning plant. This method of cooling is ‘employed in industrial applications ‘Tho condanser haat must be disposed of in all mechanical cooling systems. Various means are employed for this purpose, fg, water cooled condensers, which are codled by spring water Or circulating water, and ait cooled condensers. On water cooled condensers, the spring water installation requires approval by the local water authorities. Also, careful checks should be made a6 10 whether the spring water cantaine any Aggressive substances which would damage the condensers i the cooling instalion. appropriate, sea water resistant condensers must be used (cos factors 2 return cooling systom is necessary on circulating water installations (eaoling tower). in the cooling tower, cirulating water is sprayed by jets. The water then floss over layers of {ranular material and is blown through with air [evaporative fooling), The cooling towers should be sited away from buildings or, better stil, be sited onthe roots of buildings, due 1a the level of noise generated. The same applies to air cooled condensers. o Washing. humiditying, evaporative cooling Air washers provide humisfication for dry air (when cortectly set) and, toa certain degree, they can also provide ai cleaning, By means of seturation, Le. ineveasing the absolute water content ofthe air in tho washer, ‘evaporative cooling’ can tke place atthe same time: this provides the possibilty of cheap coating for industia! or conditioning faites in areas were the outside air i of low humidity. The water is very tnoly atomised in the air washer, through the use of pumps and et Sprays. The sprays are housed in galvanised stee! sheeting or watertight masonry or concrete. An air tection oF water control sheeting prevents the escape of water into the conditioning chamber. Other humidiying devices {a} Evaporation vessels on heating elements or atomisers. (@) Centralised device with steam or electrically heated evaporation vesses (disadvantage s scaling) (6 Rotating atomsers (aerosol apparatus) — only usable where low volumes of air are involved‘The efficiency of 8 good ventilation design can be 80-80% depending on the application. Both radial and axial fans produce the same noise levels up 10 a total delivery pressure of approx. 40mm head of water. Above this level, axial fans are louder and they are used particulary in industrial construction. ‘Special foundations are provided with damping elements 10 Ald “uy Ae @) Ventilation openings «= sat opening hese « nonmaving: d= ~ Apaei @D Avner ana outa gritos Sound damping Sound dampers are provided in ae ducts to reduce noise from installed machinery into the airconditioned rooms. The length fof these in the direction of sit flow is .5-3m, depending onthe {damping tobe achieved. The design may embody bales made from non-combustible material, ©. moulded flore boards or from sheeting wth a rockwoo! filing. The requirements for sound insulation in building constuction should be observed. Ducts and air outlets and ints are in galvanised soe shee high-grade stoet or tire resistant fibre board ar similar Wealy, the ctoss-section should be square of ound, oF rectangular with an aspect ratio of 13. Regular servicing is necessary, and the requirements for fre protection of ventilation systems must be observed Masonry or concrete built ducts ate more economical than sheet consiretion for large lor o rising duets. Masonry ducts dampen noise better than concrete. The insides should be monthly plastered and have a washable surface coating, Air fntry duets should be provided with lightweight insulation only 0 that heat retention is avoided, The duct cross-sections Should be large enough for cleaning tsoiling impairs the Eonaltion ofthe aif. So, the floor aireshaust ducts should be ‘equipped with drainage pipes or channels with sealed sewed onnections and the air ducting should have adequate access ‘Openings fr cleaning purposes. ‘Cement fibre ducts (asbestos ree} are suitable for mois, on-acid containing air and plastic ducts for aggressive, ‘gateous modia Inlet and outlet gratings should not be sted in fsceessible floor areas lexcept in industrial construction and lectronic data processing rooms). Air oullels are crucial fr the Gistribution of air in rooms: the flow should be directed honontally and vertically. Gilles for air inlets and outlets should be designed from an air conditioning standpoint, but should also be easy to clean ~ ideally made from stove fenamelled eet. ‘The iniroduction of ir into offices should, when possible, be at a window (point of most pronounced passage of cold and heat Air removal should be on the cortdor side. For theattes cinemas and lecture rooms, admit air under the seats, and Femave tough the ceili. Th's method depends on the shape and usage ofthe room, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Plant rooms Ar conditioning and ventilation systems should be considered ‘during preliminary planning, as they have a major influence on building design and construction. Plant rooms should be as near as possible 0 the rooms to be air-conditioned, provided ‘his is acoustically acceptable, and have good accessibility. The walls should be of masonry, plastered, with a washable coating, preferably tied, Floor drainage should be provided in all compartments, and have trans and aight removable covers, Where plant rooms are above other rooms, watertight floors should be proviced External walls need insulation and vapour barriers, to avovd ddamage by condensation. The esta flor loading for machinery inva plant room can bo 750 1500kg/, plus tho weight of the walling of the air ducting. In situations where there are extremely high requirements for noise and vibration reduction. ‘consideration should be given to flexible mounting and Isolating a plant room asa room within 3 room ‘Space requirements fo ar conditioning equipment ate very ‘much dependent on the demand for air fitering and sound damping, In narrow, lang floor shapes, the compartments can be arranged in sequance, one attr the other 1 Simple industrial conditioning systems approx. 2emong ‘+ Foul airconditioning systems: approx. 16-22m long 1 For air oxtactsysioms: approx. 48m tong. Width end neight {etear space) for industial ond full aie conditioning system plant rooms: air supply min width em) og tm "= 20000 30 30 20-4000 40 35. } roomconwe 40-7000 3 = i [An additional 15-2m should be allowed for assembly and ‘maintenance access. In the case of large installations, for heating and air conditioning cistibution systems, allowance should be made far common maintenance access ang space for Air conditioning systems for large offi Ivis useful to use several conditioning systems for large and ‘open planned rooms. isolated conditioning zone ean be Inataled in the fagade area thighvelocty systems) and 2 separate area forthe internal zone, with low pressure oF high Velocity systems. @) @ emma oto rear condoning asta stm 1) 107High-pressure air conditioning systems To mest the demand for heat in winter end cooling in summer, large cross-sections of low-pressure ait Conditioning systems are needed ~ itis aot for ventilation High-pressure air conditioning systems require only ‘99pr0x. 1p of the usual air quantities; hey use external ait for ventilation while transporting heat and cold through water pipes (1? of water can transport approx. 3450 times ‘more heat than 1% of air. An air conditioning convector Lunt (with special air outlet jets and a heat exchanger) installed under every window is supplied with conditioned air and covied or heated water. Regulation takes place only 1 the heat exchanger. Smaller quantities of air enable smaller control rooms to be used and with acceptable ait conditioning. The external at is cleaned using @ pre-fiter and a fine fier. The whole building is ata slight positive pressure with respect to the outside, s0 that any air gaps In the building fabric have virtually no effect. Air conditioning convectors General requirements: noise intensity = 0-33phon: ar fiter for cleaning the secondary air; heat exchanger must be able to ensure full hating to room temperature in any weather, even without the ventilation alr system; cola. water temperature in summer must be 18-16°C, of the cooling eperation willbe uneconomical and condensation will form ‘on window systems (soiling of cooling surfaces). For ideal flow conditions without vibration, high-pressure. ait {ductwork shoul be of round section where possible. With 8 vertical arrangement of supply lines and window spacings of 15-2m, alternate the structural colurnns with vertical service ducts containing the air ductwork and water pipes. Rising air ductwork for buildings with 7 storeys. are 178-255mm diameter. For taller buildings, separate VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Supplies lines are needed for each 7-10 storeys and a storey devoted to the instalation of heating and ventilation plant A more expensive arrangement invalves a main air shat with horizontal distribution along the corridors. and branching ductwork directed outwards into the celing voids above rooms, to terminate drecty behind the facade above the windows, or, at floor level, in the rooms above through holes in the floor structure. Max. office depth for high pressure installations: 6m, beyond which air cooling Tequires an additional central conditioning system. Max building depth without a central system: (2 x 6=) 12m plus the corridor. Air can be removed through ducts over corridor wall storage cupboards or in ducting above the corridors and through WCs, In high-pressure systems, at is ot recirculated (the air mass has already been reduced to that required for acceptable ventilation. For limited aperation, the primary airflow can be reduced in the plant Ventilation systems for kitchens For large kitchens (height 3-5), render the upper sections (walls and ceilings) in porous plaster ino oi! painting Provide 15-30 air changes, pressure below atmospheric, reating airflow from adjacent rooms inta the kitchen; use larger radiators as appropriate: group boilers, cookers and fryers together: provide air extraction with a fat fier. clean ducting annually; fiter and heat the air inlet flow in winter [No air circulation system is needed: local hesting and insulating glazing are needed. ssc oo0g High oresur ar coditioning system (System LT) E‘ ® ‘asimum storage duration ot vrious temperetares and degrees © secon emperor of sora COLD STORAGE ROOMS To determine the cooling requirements for cold rooms. tention must be pai to tho roqurerments of the commodities stored; humidity content. air changes, cooling or freezing duration, typeof storage, etc. Algo, consider the specific heat of the goods, internal environment, method of manufactur position, heat from lighting and movements within the cold Store. Calculation of the cooling requirement takes the {allowing form { pp. 11-16): 11 Coolingietrigeration of the goods (cooling to the treeting point freezing -supercooling! {0 =m cp af goods are tarbe raven soli, the necessary heat must be remaved atthe {teezing point, and, subsequently, the specific neat of the frozen” goods is lower: the hum s approximately te {21 Cooling and drying ofthe extracted air (3) Heating facts through walls. ceiling, floor (4) Losses! mavemants in and ut of storage (coor opening). ‘natural and electric ighting, pump and ventilator operation (5) Condensation af water vapour on walls The cold storage of freshly slaughtored mest ia cooled trom 303.18K to # temperature of 288.15K. Ths achioved by placing itin a temperature of 280.15-281.15K at 2 rlatve humility of 85-90% inthe pe-cooling roam for B-10 hovrs, and then storing 't.9¢275.18K-281-15K at a relative humidity of 75% for upto 28-20 hours in the cool room. Cooling and storage takes. place separately Weight loss over 7 days is 45%. Today, rep cooling IS used increasingly, no re-cooling stage, meat = coated fromm a Slaughter temp. of 309.15K to a storage temp. of 274.15K. with 50-80 cireulations ofthe ai per hour anc ata relative humidity of 90-95%. Meat cooling and refrigeration “The freezing process changes the condition and distribution of| the water in meat, while the meat composition remains unchanged. ‘Bee! i frozen to 261,15K and pork to 258.15K, a «relative humidity of 8%. Duration of fraesing: mutton, veal, pork, 2 days; beef, hindquarters & days, forequarters, 3 days. Correct thawing period: 35 days to 278 15-281, 15K, restores the mes to- fresh condition Recently, mainly inthe USA, rapid freezing methods have boon employed, at temperatures of 248, 15-243.15K, involving 120-180 air eiculations per hour. The eevantages are: lower ‘weight loss, increase in tenderness, replacement ofthe curing process, lower liquid lass, good consistancy and preservablity ater thawing. ‘Storage duration is dependent on the storage temperature for example, for bee! the storage duration ie 18 monthe at 255.15K, 4 months a 261.15K and 3 months at 263 65%. Cold room volume: Im! ie suitable for the storage of 400-500kg of mutton, 350-5004 of pork, 400-500Kg of bee wth a standard stacking height of 2 5m. Refrigeration of fish Fresh fish can be maintained in this condition on ice t 272.15K and at relative humidity of 90-100% for a period of 7 days. Longer storage times can be achioved through the use of bactericidal ice {calcium hypochlorite or caporite). For even Tonger storage, raps freezing Yo 248.15 -293.15K i required, necessary use glazing with fresh water 1 eup ait out and prevent drying up. Fish crates are 90 50 x24, giving a weight of approx. 150k Refrigeration of butt Bunter refrigerated to 265.19K has a storage duration of 3-4 ‘months and a duration of 6-8 months at a temperature of 258.16. 252.15K. Lower temperatures can provide a period of up to 12 months. The rolaive humidity should be 85-90% Butter drums are 600mm high with a aiameter of 360-<50mm, Fesuting in a weight of 80-60kg, Refrigeration of fruit and vegetab Immediate cooling is required, ance a reduction of temperature to 281.15K delays ripening by 50%. Storage duration depends fn air quality temperature, relative humidity, movement ‘onety, matuety, soi quality fering, climate, transportation, pre-cooling, ete 109110 Cooling of eggs Cold storage eggs are those stored in rooms whose temperature has been artificially controlled toa value lower than 8°C. Such eggs must be kdentiied as ‘cold storage eggs’. To avoid swoating, f the temperature outside the cold storage room is more than 5°C greater than inside, the feags must be warmed in @ defrosting room with controlled air conditioning on removal from cold storage. The area of the detrasting room is approx.12% of that of the cold storage room. The warming-up time for quarter crates is approx. 10 hours; 18-24 hours for complete an half crates, Stacking of the quarter crates in the defrosting 100m: ‘round 5000-6000 eggs (approx. 400kg gross) perm Crates of 500 eggs are 920mm long, 80mm wide and 180mm high; for 122 dozen (= 1440) eggs, 1750 x 590 x 250mm. A basis for caleultion is 10-13 erates for 30 dozen, ‘occupying 1m? inthe storage room: sines one egg weighs 50-60 grams, thera is a weight of between 180-220K9 of {2998 inthe 1/19. A net volume of 2.8m? cold room capacity 's required for 10,000 eggs. Two million eggs fil 5 feight wacions, For export, the eggs are packed in crates of 1440 ‘tems; wood shavings are used as packing between the e995, giving 2 gross weight of 80-105kg, For Egyptian eogs, this weight is 70-87kg, tare, ie. the empty crate and shavings weigh 16-18kg. One wagon contains 100 half export crates holding 148,000 eggs or 400 ‘ost’ crates with 360 items each. Standard crates for 360 eggs are 660mm long, 316mm wide and 361mm high (the so-called ‘ost’ crates). They can be divided into two by a central partition. Cardboard inserts are used. The crates are made from dry Spruce; pine is unsuitable. Stacked. 7 crates high, 10,000-11,000 eggs can be stored on a net area of Im?. Dry air, at 75% humidity and airtight packaging is used. with cube-shaped erates with 360 eggs in each, in protective cardboard pockets. i the eggs are exposed to the ingress of air, the air humidity can be 83-85%, The air humicty in the store is controlled by first supercooling then heating it within the ventilation system. The weight loss during the first months in cold storage is severer than later months: 8 weight loss of 3-4.5% occurs after 7 months. Eggs can also be conserved ina gaseous atmosphere of 88% CO, and 12% N, after Lescarde-Everaert, in gas-filed autoclaves at around 0°C. This preserves the eggs in their natural state, Uniformity of temperature and air humidity are important factors. Ozone is frequently introduced ‘into egg cold storage rooms. The cooling requirement during storage is '3300-5000k:J/day per m? of log surface ~ higher during the ‘period when eggs are introduced, The storage periods run from ApriMay to OctNov. Cooling and refrigeration of poultry and game {Large game (red deer, roe deer, wild boar) must be drawn before freezing, but this is not necessary for small game (hare, rabbit, game birds). Freezing takes place before plucking, with the game tree-hanging: storage being in Stacks on gridded floor panels. There should be plenty of air movement during freezing, but litle during storage. These hhumbers of game can be stored per square metre of floor ‘rea (tIm highl: approx. 100 hares, or 20 roe deer, oF 7-10 fed deer. The air humidity should be approx. 85% at 12°C: Domestic poultry should not be frozen and stored with game, a8 the fat contont of the former requires a lower temp. and is sensitive to the smell of game. The coating of poulty takes place at 0°C and at 80-85% relative humvity, th the birds suspended on frames, or alternatively, in iced water; storage at 0°C and 85% relative humidity, with @ storage duration of approx. 7 days. Freezing at approx. -20--35°C, storage at around -25"C and 85-20% relative humidity The freezing time fora chicken is apprax. 4 hours at an alr velocity of 2-3misec. Deep freezing, using the ‘ryovac method. takes place in vacuum latex bags. Young chickens will freeze through in 2-2 hours. Storage duration 'S approx. 8 months at ~18°C. To prevent rencidity, the poultry is protected by wrapping in water vapour tight polyethylene film, COLD STORAGE ROOMS Brewery products Malt floors: 8-0°C Cooling requirement por m? of floor area: 8000-6200%/day Fermentation cellars: duration is 8-10 days at 35-6°C Cooling requirement 4200-5000.s/day per m? of floor area Cooling requirement for the fermentation vat cooling 500-830kd per hi fermented wort per day Storage cellar: -1.0°C to +18°C; cooling requirement approx. 20-25Wm, related to the empty room, oF 2.5-2kcalhh por hl of storage capacity installed cooling power: approx. 2.1-2:3Whi yearly output Room cooling, gen From the viewpoint of reserves and safety, the cooling ‘system is designed to have a higher performance than the calculated cooling requirement. It is assumed that the cooling system will operate for 16-20 hours per day in Cooling and freezing roams; in individual cases, eg. for efficient utilisation of electrical tarifs, the period may be even shorter. In meat cold storage roams, the coaling power should not be too high, #0 that during periods of reduced cooling requirements, adequate operating durations and the required throughput of ait in the room will still be guaranteed In small commercial cold storage rooms with 2 temperature of approx. 2-4°C and a product throughput of 50kqin? per day, the following table serves as 2 velerence to determine the cooling requirement and the requ power of the cooling system. cold storage room cooling cooling floor area power system requirement im (uiday) aw 5 50000 370 10 2000, 1400 5 111300, 1900 20 138600 2400 25 163800 2350 30 187000 3250 ‘The following figures can be used for further calculations: Cold storage rooms with multi-storey construction: 5000-8400ksidayim= Cold stores. of 1050-1700;dayim? Storage capacity per mi? of floor area — hanging storage - after eduction of approx. 15-20% for gangways: mutton 150-200k9 {5-6 toms), pork 250-300kg (3-3. whole, 67 sides), beet 360Kq (4-5 quarters of beet), Per running metre ~ low hanging rail: § halves of pork or 3 quarters of beot or 2-3 calves Distance from centre to contre of rails (low rail: approx. 0.65m, height to centre of ra 2.3-2.5m Distance from ral to rail (high ral: 120-1.50m with free passage way; height with tubular track: 3.3-35m Per running metre of high rail: T-1 8m (2-2 sides of beet, ‘depending on size Estimate of cooling requirements for meat: rapid cold storage room, 21000-31500ki/méidey; most rapid cold Storage room, 4200%u/m"/hour ‘Storage room for frozen meat ~ storage capacity per m? fof room volume: frozen mutton, 400-S00kg; frozer pork, '350-500k9; frozen beet, 400-500k) ‘Standard stacking height: 25m Fats become rancid with the passage of time under the erfecs of light and oxygen, so that the storage duration is Timited ‘Meat curing room: temperature 6-6°C Cooling requirement perm? of floor area 4200-5000kuiday Brine in curing vats absorbs moisture from the alt. One railway goods wagon of 15000kq loaded weight can accept anprox. 170 hanging sides of pork over floor area ofaiame single-storey construction:= ee {hough = component © dinteayer component ® Cateatation ofthe U vue of « mutlayer component Uae Aue Bee hea, Us = Baws Boas Tepprane traon na) Au at wih dite rer sompone {emperturevariton os 2 srtan ine © rom eetare THERMAL INSULATION Terminology and Mecha ms Thermal insulation should minimise heat loss for gain allowing ‘energy savings to be made, provide #comfatableomstonmet ot ‘ecupans and protect a bullaing team damage that might be caused by” sharp temperature. fivetuatons lin particular, condensation! Heal exchange ~ by thermal convection, condueton Faclation and water vapour aifuson cannot be prevent, but is Fate can be reduced by efficient the:mal insulation ‘Terms used in calculating thermal insulation value Alinough temperature ia often given in degrees Celsius kelvin (0's also wand OK --272 15°, uonity of heats expressed in watt hours (Wh) 1Wh = 38431 “Thermal eapaity, the eat necessary to raise th tempore of ‘hg of mater by 1K. Ip a measure of the readiness respond to internal heat oo changing extemal condoms. Theol (= 1 160s the heat required o increase the temparare of Th of water by 1K ‘Thermal conductance IC-alue,n WX, mesbutes the rate at which given thickness of moter! allows hat canecton, based ‘on temporatrouifercrees betwoen not wr eld aces no secant is taken of surface vasistanen. Thermal conductivity tkvelue or b spect to a given material in Wi (or Keak esau the ‘ate al which nomogenous material condts est the sma! the value the lower the thermal conductivity. Thermal rsistanes IM value = thickness he reciprocal af thermal conductance {Cl ‘agsures the resistonca of mater! or sruture wih» paca thickness to heat vansfer by condueton. Thermal ress. elf the reiproal of condition ‘Uk thermal insulation standards have risen since 190, under the ‘ov Bulking Regulations, in which the thermal insulation value Is Used to evaluate temperature variation i, ang pass of damage The thermal boundary layer resistance, io. ie the thermal tesistanceof se air boundary layer ana structural component. ie fn the outside ana the on the msde of the component. The lowe the velo ofthe air the higher e the value af Me Total to heat Mow 2R isthe sum ofthe esstances a componet het conductances 3A a, Ct Mee ‘Ihe eoeticent of thetmeltanamitance U-value) - ihe thormal thickness allows heat conduction, ia, the ht loss and thus provides 42 bass or heating calculations, but the calculation i based on temperature ciferonee between ambiont temperatures on ether side Important costfient in eaulatng the level of thermal insult te ‘alu is specified in the Building Regolstions, ands used by the heating systems manutacturer axa bass of measurement ‘The mean U-value of window fa) and wal (is caulated as sn = UgFu * Un Fy Em + Fle bing the srlace aren ‘Simla, Un, the coefiant ts bing cl auto rom he F and U values of the components making up thecal - window ‘wal W,ceng (coor surace (and root area cantar wth ai {c)= taking eccount of minimum factors for 09 and ground teas! Un = UsrFa + UuxFa + Desf, © O80, Fe + DSUAF; Fa sues Fy oFee F, Heat transfer through a component» quant of heat conducted tvough the internal air boundary layer and thas the nner surface of valve of the component to reBch the outer surfacn, ovarcomes tho ‘ute sir boundary layer and reaches tha outside ait - 1) Changes in temperatur though the indivi layers aren proportion tothe percentage each continues tothe resistance to heat flow 2A ‘Example If iy,» UC atin, O13 + 82 + 004 = 100, then Mec HE he, ~ 138K, Far a temporatre diference wf AOR between inside and outside, then: temperature iflerence across inner Boundary Ieyer = 13% of 4OK 82K: temperature across materia! = 83% of 40K = 302K; and temperature acioss ute houndery layer = 4% of OK = 16K. “Te lower the thermal insulation ofthe component the lower is te tomperatue of the ner surace othe component =P andthe ses for condensation to sear Since the tmeratre varies ry through each inavidual yer, hc appears ae 8 srg ne the component is represented to alsin proportion tothe thermal inaulation of hed! inyers =) (the nerlatonships are thon more easy sen. The varaion of temporture 1 paralary important in considering the expansion ofthe component de to Meat In action to the question of condensation p32,D ghee SE Ue eA Ue Mowe gore Bada ardolr Bows Boas @ Heston ofthe mean thermal ination value fr combined eh bat ih dire THERMAL INSULATION ‘Terminology and Mechanisms ‘Thermal insulation should minimise heat loss (or gin slowing lenergy savings o be made, provide 9 comfortable environmen or ‘ecuparis, and preter 9 building trom dainage that ght be ‘condensation, Heat exchange -by thermal convection, conduction radistion and water vapour fusion cannot be prevented, buts fate can be reduced by efficent thermal sulation ‘Terms used in calculating thermal insulation values Although temperature is often given in degrees Celsius 0), kevin (9) also used OK 273 18°), unity of heats expressed in wat hours Wh) (1Wh = 3.642) ‘Thermal capacity the eat necessary to raise the tempore oF ‘hg of materia by 1K, i 4 moasure af the reatines to respon 10 internal heat oo changing external condone, hel |- 1.16 5 the heat quired 0 intaase the temperatura of Th of water by 1K ‘Thermal conductance (Cvslun,m WX. rhesturee the rote et which a given thickness of matona lows heat conduction, based ‘on temperature cifrenoes between Mot and eld aces na secu! is taken of surface resistance. Thermal conductivity tkvalue oF b specie to a glen mater m Wim (or kealmiKl, measures the fae at which nomogenaus material condsete heat the smal the ‘alu, the lower the thermel conductivity Thermal resistance If Value = thickness he reciprocal of thermal conductance 1), thieanese to heat transfer by conduction. Thermal Yessy. ‘all 12th eeiproal of consi (1 ‘UK erm ingulaion standards haverisan since 1990, under the new Building Regulations, im which tha thermal insulation velue Is Used to evaluate temperature variation i. ang posit of damage {0,9 structural component due to condensation, “The thermal Boundary lover resistance, th, 8 the thermal |Lpe wystum ponugach eke cenerauee We We WSLS] ‘The thermal boundary layer resistance, tht 1 the thermal resistance ofthe ait "Boundary’ layer ona structural component. Ve, fon the outside an tion the inside of the component, The lower the velocty ofthe ai the higher the value of He. Taal resistance to heat Now 3 the sum of the resistances of omponent ayant heat eoncuctance:28= T+ UC ty “The cooticent of thermal tanemitance (vale) ~ tke thrmel ‘conductance = measures the fete at which materal of @ parts thickness allows hoot conduction ve. the heat oss ants provicns {bass for heating calelavons, but tho calculation ss based on temperature aierencebetwoan ambit tsnpeatures onthe side {account is taken of surace resistances ofthe stuture, Ae the most ‘aloe is specified in the Bung Ragulations, ands used by the heating systems manufacturer au bas of movsurement The mean U-value of window bw) and wall (Wh is caeusted as nya = Fy 1 Un Fy) ys Fl being the surlace ae Simialy, Up the oaths’ of a bulding cll is eaculted from the F and U vals of the components making up thecal = undo ‘wal, cating (el Noor surace and rot area in cata th i tn) taking aecount of minimum factors for root end ground areas Un = Unita + UF + Usa, © OU + 80) F, Fas BaF, Fe Fr Heat ranster trough a component» quantity of heat is conducted {hough the itera! ar boundky layer and then the nes surface of the component: some ofthis heat overcomes the then insulation value ofthe component to reach the ater surface, overcomes the ‘outer sir boundary layer and reaches the outside at =P. Changes intemperature througn the lnaivadua layers aren proportion tothe Percentage wath contibutes to te resets to Mea flow 150kg/m? (200kg/m? in multi-storey residences) IF the dividing wall commences at the foundations, no additional precautions are necessary; tit commences a the Ground level (as for dividing walle between separate residential accommodation) the floor above the cellar must have a suspended floor or a soft springy covering, The cavity should be provided with filing material foam panels, 2%c, preferably with staggered joints; emall jointing areas ‘an reduce the sound insulation, because the structure is resistant to bending Composite walls |n this case (including any walls with areas of differant sound insulation properties, eg. with a door), the total Insulation value , is obtained after deducting the insulation reduction R from the overall insulation value ¢ @ emwmineon of fuctonnimteon Impact sound insulation In the case of impact sound (e.g. noise due to footsteps), the calling is directly excited into vibration ~ @. The standard curve + @ gives a standardised impact sound level, i. the maximum that should be heard in the room below when 3 standard ‘tramper’ isin action above. To allow for ageing ‘the values achieved immediately alter construction must be 348 better than the values shown, The usual form of impact sound insulation is provides by floating’ screed, i.e. a joimiess, soft, springy insulating layer covered with a protective layer and, then, a screed of cement concrete, anhydrous gypsum of poured asphalt This simultaneously provides protection against airborne ‘sound and is therefore suitable forall types of floors (floor ‘groups | and i). The edge should be free to move, and ‘mastic joint filler with enduring elasticity should always be used, particuariy with tiled floors.» since the screed is thin and sti, and is therefore extremely sensitive to sound bridges. With floors whose airborne sound insulation is already adequate (floor group I), impact insviation can also be provided by using @ sot, springy floor finish = @. Floors in floor group !can be upgraded to group Ilby the provision ‘of a soft, springy suspended floor »(@. The degree to which this floor finish improves the impact sound insulation is Judged from the improvernent in 3B attenuation Orr i F rd | ug120 estes Serer ge — Sate, ator oo Seats le Sbeorng mater in =e mca by e sou ‘apa ots Sound proofing due 2 @® ara + D SOUND INSULATION Noise trom services Noise fom services can occur as plumbing fixture le, pipework aise andi ilingompeving neiss: + For plumbing fixture nose, he remedy is proved by sound Insulated valves with inspection symbols ost group with st ‘est 081A) overall noe lave ext grup lt with a most {3048(A) only permissible for internal house walls and asjoining service rooms) All insaliations are improved lamang ather measures, by sound dampers, Dizework, the femedy io use radiuced fitings instead of Sharp angles, edequate dimensioning, and sound damping suspensions» '+ For iing noo ceused by wator on the walls of baths, ‘he remedy isto muffle the objet, Kt aerator spouts on the taps. ana tot baths on sound damping fest and ure waste faints sround the edesh ‘+ For emptying nage (gurgling lees, the remedy is correct ‘imonsioning and vention of drain pipes The maximum permiasbie sound level due to ervces in acjoining sccommodation Is. 350B1A). Sound generating components of Alomostic crvices and machinery leg. wate pipes drain pipes. 998 Supply pipes, was dscharge pipes is! most not bo installed in fooms intended for quiet everyday activites (29. living fooms, bedrooms. ‘Sound insulation for bolo can be effected by sound damped instalation (slated foundation ~ @, sound absorbing sub onstrcton), soune-damping hood for the burnt. connection 10 chimney with soure-dariping airy, ana connection to Nat pipework bby mens of rubber compensators. In vertlation ducts of sit conditioning systems, noise from sound transmission is reduced by means of so-called telephone sound dampers; these comprise sound-absorbing packings Detwmen which the ar ows, The thicker the packing, the lower the ‘requencies which ore covered. The ventlation ducts themelves ‘Sound absorption Invcontast to sound insulation, sound absorption dows not vsualy| recieo he pacsago of sound hough a component Iehas no eet fn the sound which reaches the ear rectly from the sou", I ‘merely resuces the reflected sound, ‘Atmough the direct sound diminishes wh distance trom the source, he reflected sound Is us as loud or louder than the diet Sound ta distance greater than the ‘su! rads about the sound Source (fhe raietion of sound e reduced, then the leval of the felted ound i resicad outlge the orignal soun adh, while the sound racus itself increases. Noting changes wahin the ‘ginal sound rads. “The sound absorption eapabilty of 9 room is expressed in ot equivalent sound absorption, tthe Ideal sound absorbing aurtece that has the same absorstion capability 3b the room isa. For 2 reverberation tne of 8 see ~ ide lov private swimming bathe fc. the equivalant sound absorption surtace A must be Om? for very m? of roam volume v the sound radve would then be only ‘tm ins room 8 1032.5m) and twice as arge to achive hal the reverberation ime. Example: Swimming bath darn? water 0.05, 200m? oom? wall andtloor<0.08 = 300m? om? acoustic eeling 04 — ~ 2400m? A= 2 o2v-eevorberation time sts 078 seconds Protection againet external noize Procetions can be taken against exteral noise afi, pope pao on lang. @.hvngrereaton + Sound inslation of outer wale, partculsly window and Outer door insulation; Fixed glazed installations. with ‘entiation ystome + Installation of sound insulation shields i facades * Sound protection though landscaping, eg, embankments also pantes arene In the cas of ombankmant, walls and other screens he siting of the protective device can be obtained () for the venous \aavelongtne wavelengths aoron,24Drvtrequency) keane sen how important dimension hi, o8 gen by ange© Lah wath xceion —(G) Cavs of smvetar rns © Wigton ® sis basing VIBRATION DAMPING Sound Conduction Through Structures Vibrations in solid bodies, ‘sructure-borne sounds’, are created either by sound in ait, or directly, by mechanica! excitation +2. Since the alternating mechanical forces are usually higher than any produced by fluctuating air pressure, the ‘audible radiation is usually greater in the case of direct ‘excitation. Frequently, resonance phenomena occur, whieh lead to higher audible radiation in narrow frequency ranges. If the radiated sound remains monotonic, the cause is usually the result of dicect excitation of the structure, Ant ‘suctute-borne sound’ measures must therefore seek to reduce this direct excitation and is further propagation Precautions to combat structure-borne sound transmission In the case of water installations, only valves carrying ingpeetion symbols in accordance with group |or li should be used. The water pressure should be as low as possible. The water velocity plays a subordinate role. Pipework should be attached to walls n accordance with ‘900d practice, with surface loading rm” > 250kgim:, Baths and tanks should be installed on floating screed and separated from walls. Walled enclosures should be flexibly jointed to the primary walls. Wall-susponded WC finings cause direct excitation of the structure: however rigid fixing is unavoidable, so if necessaty, elastic layers should be introduced ‘Water and drainage pipes must be fixed using elastic materiais and should not be in direct contact with the structural wal Lifts should be instal in separate shats (and joints filed with at least 30mm mineral fibre, or the top of the shaft provided with Neoprene bearing strips.» @. Pumps and equipment must be installed on structure borne sound insulated foundations and elastically Compensators are subject to tensile stresses, since the internal pressure also acts on the longitudinal axis of the assembly + @ Fubber granulate panels are particularly suitable as insulating material for foundations, due ta their high compressive strength. f required, impact sound insulating materials of mineral fibre and plastic foam can be built in Cork and solid rubber are unsuitable, since these materials are 100 stiff. The more the insulating materials are compressed together under load, without being ‘overloaded, the better is the insulating effect, With flat insulating materials, the loading must usually be greater than O.SNimm If this cannot be guaranteed hen individual slements are required, elfetively 10 add to he weight af the equipment. ‘The insulating effect is also greatest here if the elements are loaded to a maximum, without becoming overloaded. The individual elements can be of Neoprene a sive! = Steel springs provide the best structural sound insulation, due to their low stiffness. In special cases, air springs can be used. In the case of individual springs, attention must be paid tothe centre of gravty, to ensure the flemants are uniformly loaded.» In the case of periodic excitation (e.g. due to oscillating or rotating masses), the frequency of excitation must not coincide with the natural frequency of the elastically Suspended system. Large motions result from the Feverberation which, in the case of elements with low damping, can lead fo structural failure» (@. Particularly high insulating properties may be obtained by using doubled elastic suspensions.» Unfavourable interaction between foundations on floating layers can lead 10 reduction in insulation le Hy H is ty le H ES ls Fy Hy i 121=== 3) Revarneratian nee ple iret | ase| © ettaction sequence inthe room 122 ROOM ACOUSTICS Room acoustic planning should ensure that optimum audible conditions are created for listeners in rooms where speech and music are to be carried out. Various factors should be considered, of which the two most important art eration time, and reflections (as a consequence of the primary and secondary structure of the room), (1) Reverberation time This is the time taken for the decay of a noise level of 60dB after the sound source has bean switened off. Evaluation is carriad out ever the range -5 10 3548, (2) Absorption surface “The absorption surface is determined by the amount of absorbing material, expressed as an area. having ‘complete absorption (open window AnagxS where a, is the dagree of sound absorption fram echo chamber measuremonts, and § is the area af surtace portion, ‘The reverberation time is calculated from the absorption surface from: t=0.163xV +a, «5 (after Sabine) (3) Echoes When individual, subjectively recognisable peaks are superimposed on a smooth falling reverberation time ‘curve +0, these are described as echoes ~ @) Various values of time and intensity apply as the echo eriterion for speech and music. Rooms devoted to music should have @ longer reverberation time, but are usually regarded as less ertcal from the point of view of echoes, Requirements for rooms (1) Reverberation time The optimum value for reverberation time is dependent (on the particular use and room volume » (In general, reverberation time is frequency-dependent (longer at low frequencies, shorter at high frequencies.) For 500H2, surveys have shown that approximations may provide optimum values » @. (2) Speech intetigibility This is used to judge the degree of aucibilty of the ‘spoken word - It ig not standardised, 80. various terms = sentence intelligibility, syllable intelligibility, evaluation with logatomes ~ are usual. In determining the intelligibility of speech, # number of collectively heard individual syllables of ro significance (logetomes such 9s lin and ter} are noted; the coztectness is used to ‘make an assessment -# score of more than 70% implies excellent speech intelligibility. Newer, objective, methods make use of modulated noise signals (RAST ‘method) and lead to reproducible results at low expense, (3) Impression of space ‘This is datormined by the reception of reflections with respect to time and direction. For music, diffuse reflections are favourable for sound volume, wile early reflections with delays of up to 80ms (corresponding to 27m path difference) with respect to the ditect sound promote clarity » @. Speech requires shorter delays (up {0 50ms) g0 as not to degrade the intelligibility.@ Pegantan of ecitating © es wth sal chamber mass hll- Beethoven Aching, Bans Oe ROOM ACOUSTICS For the music listener, early sideways reflections are better than ceiling reflections, even at very low delay times lasymmetry of the acoustic impression), since each ear receives a different signal. Narrow, high rooms with geometrically reflecting walls with multiple angles and diffusely roflcting ceilings are the simpiest from the point of view af room acoustics. Primary structure of rooms Volume is application dependent + © p. 122: 4rmPiperson for speech, 1limi/persan for concerts: too small a volume results in insufficient reverberation time. Narrow, high rooms with walls with multiple angles (early sideways Feflections) are particularly suitable for music. For early initial reflections and balance of the orchesta, reflection surfaces are needed in the vicinity of the podium. The rear wall of the room should not cause any reflections in the direction of the podium, since these can have the effect of echoes. Parallel, planar surfaces should be avoided, to prevent directionally oscillating echoes due to multiple reflections »(D. Providing projections inthe walls, at angles ‘eater than §°, avoids parallel surfaces and allows diffuse reflection to occur. Tho coiling serves to conduct the sound into the back part of the room and must be shaped accordingly »@. I the ceting shape is unfavourable, large differences in sound intensity occur due to sound concentrations, Rooms where the walls are further apart at the back than atthe front of the room produce unfavourable affects, singe the reflections from the sides can be too weak "Gi this disadvantage can be compensated by the using additional reflection surfaces (Weinberg steps! ~ sin the Berlin and Cologne Philharmonics ~ @)~ or the walls may be provided with pronounced folding to quide the sound Wherever possible, he pogium should be on the narrow side ofthe room; in the cage of the spoken word or in small rooms (chamber musio) t may even be arranged on a long wall (Beethoven Archive + @). Multipurpose rooms with variably arranged podia and plain parquet floors are frequently problematic for music, The podium must be ‘ised in relation to the parquet, so as to support the direct propagation of the sound: otherwise, the level of the sound propagation would fall too quickly @). Providing an upward inclination of the seating levels, to abtain a uniform level of direct sound at all seats gives bettr visibility and ‘acoustics ~ the slope of the seating levels should follow 2 logarithmic curve, ‘Secondary structure Reflection surfaces can compensate for an unfevourable primary structure: projections on the surface of walls which diverge, ceiling shapes produced by hanging sails or the Use of individual elements ~ p. 124ROOM ACOUSTICS For the music listener, ealy sideways reflections are better than calling reflections, even at very low delay times: (asymmetry of the acoustic impression), since each eat receives a different signal. Narrow, high tooms with ‘geometrically reflecting walls with multiple angies and aifusely retlecting ceilings are the simplast from the point of view of room acoustics. Primary structure of rooms Volume is application dependent» p. 122: Amiiperson for speech, 18m%person for concerts; too small 8 volume results in insufficient reverberation time. Narrow. high Toms with walls with multiple angles (early sideways rellections) are particularly suitable for music. For early intial reflections and balance of the orchestra, reflection ‘surfaces are needed in the vicinity of the podium. The rear wall of the oom should not cause any reflections in the diteetion of the podium, since these can have the effect of echoes. Parallel, planar surfaces should be avoided, 10 prevent directionally oscillating echoes due to multiple fetlections (1). Providing projections inthe walls, at angles ‘greater than 5°, avoids parallel surfaces and allows difuss tetlection to occur The ceiling serves to conduct the sound into the back part of the room and must be shaped accordingly «Ifthe coiling shape is unfavourable, large: tn on pone for mane: differences in sound intensity occur due to sound © RI re ads Obese tavouraie patton concentrations. Rooms where the walls are further apart at ‘he back tor speech the back than atthe front ofthe room produce unfavourable effects, since the reflections fram the sides can be 100 weak + @ this disadvantage can be compensated by the using additional reflection surfaces (Weinberg steps! ~ as in the Borin ang Cologne Philharmonies.» (5) - or the walls may be provided with pronounced folding to guide the sound Wherever possinie, the podium should be on the narrow side ofthe room: in the case of the spoken word or in small rooms (chamber music), it may even be arranged on 2 long wall (Beethoven Archive @). Multipurpose rooms with variably arranged podia and plain parguet floors are frequently problematic for musi. The podium must be raised in relation to the parquet, so a8 to support the direct propagation of the sound: otherwise, the level of the sound Propagation would fall too quickly. @) Providing an "upward inclination of the seating levels, 10 obtain a uniform level of direct sound at all seats gives better visibility and ‘acoustics «7 the slope ofthe seating levels should follow 2 logarithmic curve. Secondary structure Reflection surfaces can compensate for an unfavourable primary structure: projections on the surface of walls which diverge, ceiling shapes produced by hanging sails or the use of individual elements.» p. 126 @ Seatponameanin © Cronin ean ea ovrsnhng stece 123Building regulations require that due consideration must be ‘ivan in buildings to the flammability of building materials = the duration of fire resistance of the components expressed in terms of fire resistance classifications ~ the integrity ofthe sealing of openings the arrangement of escape routes. The aim isto prevent the start and spread ofa fire, ster the spread of smoke and facilitate the escape or rescue of persons and animals. In addition consideration must be siven 0 effective extinguishing of a fre. Actve and passive precautions must be taken 10 satisfy these requirements. ‘Active precautions are those systems that are automatically ployed in the evant of fire: passive precautions are the construction solutions in the building and its components ‘Active precautions include smoke and fre alarm systems, sprinkier systems, water spray extinguisher plant, CO; extinguishing installations, powder and foam extinguisher plant, and automatic smoke and heat venting systems. Passive precautions relate mainly to minimum structural sections, casings and coatings. In addition to these, other important measures are the layout of rising mains, installation offre doors and fire windows, construction of Supporting floors, water cooling of hollow stee! profiles and the dimensioning of casings and coatings for steel profiles. Fire detectors AA fire detector is a part of the fire alarm system and con twigger @ transmitting device that raises the alarm in a remote contre! centre. There are automatic and non ‘automatic fre detectors. The latter are those which can be activated manually. Automatic fire detectors are parts of the ‘overall fre alaem system that sense changes in specific physical andlor chemical parameters (either continuously fF Seaventially in set time intervals) to detect a fire within the monitored area, They must be: "installed in sufficient numbers and be suited to the general arrangement of the area to be monitored selected according to the fire risk mounted in such a way that whatever parameter change triggers the alarm can be easily sensed by the detector. ‘Typical applications for different types of fire detectors (1) Smoke detectors These are used in rooms containing materials that would sive off large volumes of smoke in the event of a fire. ~ Optical smoke detectors: triggered by visible smoke, lonisation smoke detectors: triggered by smal amounts of smoke which have not been detected by optical means. These detectors provide earlier ‘warning than optical smoke detectors and are Suitable for houses, offices, storage and sales rooms. (2) Flame detectors These are activated by radiation emanating from flames and are used in rooms containing materials that burn without smoke, oF produce very littl, (2) Heat detectors These are useful for rooms in which smoke that could wrongly set off other early warning systems is generated Under normal working conditions (e.g. in workshops where welding work i carried out ~ Maximum detectors: triggered when @ maximum temperature is exceeded (e.. 70°C) Differentia! detectors triggered by @ specified rise in temperature within a fixed period of time (e.g. a rise of S°C in 1 minute) The planning and installation of fire detection systems must be designed to suit the area to be monitored, room height and the type of ceiling and roofing. FIRE DETECTION Typical extracts from building regulations and guidelines produced by fire and insurance specialists Fire development tthe initial phase of a fire is likely to be of a type characterised by smouldering (ie. considerable smoke generation, very litle heat and little or no flame propagation), then smoke detectors. should be used. If Fapid development of fire is anticipated in the intial phase (severe heat generation, strong flame propagation and smoke development, then smoke, heat and flame otectors can be used, or combinations of the various types. Fire detection areas The total atea to be monitored must be ivided into detection areas. The establishment of these tection areas should be carried out in such @ way that rapid and decisive pinpointing of the source of the fire is possible. A detection area must only extend over one floor Teve the exceptions to this being stairwells, ventilation and elevator shafts and tower type structures, which must have their own detection areas}. A detection area must not overlap into another fre compartment and typically should rot be larger than 1600. Fire detection systems for data processing facilties The monitoring of electronic data processing facilities places special adcitional requirements on the planning and execution of fire alarm systems Factors influencing detector positions and numbers (3) Room neigh The greater the distance between the fire source and the ceiling, the greater the zone of evenly distributed smoke concentration will be. The ceiling height effects the suitability ofthe various types of smoke and fre detectors. Generally, higher coiling sections whose area is less than 10% of the total caling area are not considered, so long a these sections of csling are not greater in area than the ‘maximum monitoring area of a detector. [2) Monitoring areas and distribution of the detectors The number of fire detectors should be selected such that the recommended maximum monitoring areas for each detector are not exceeded. Some standards specify the ‘maximum distance between detectors and the maximum stance allowed between any point on the ceiling and the nearest detector. Within certain limits there may be 2 Geparture from the ideal square grid pattern of the detectors (3) Arcangement of detectors on ceilings with downstanding ‘beams Depending on the room size, beams above 2 specified depth must be taken into account in the arrangement of the fire detectors. Typically ifthe area of ceiling between the downstanding beams is equal to or greater than 0.6 of the permissible monitoring area of the detector, then each of ‘these soffit areas must be fitted with detectors. Hf the portions of soffit area are larger than the permissible ‘monitoring area, then the individual portions of soffit must be considered as individual rooms. If the depth of the downstanding beam is greater than 800mm, then 3 fire detector must be provided for each soffit area [4) For spaces with mult:-bay type roots. Generally in this case, each bay must be provided with 2 row of detectors, Heat detectors are always to be fited directly to the ceiling. In the case of smoke detectors, the distances required between the detector and the ceiling, oF the roof, depend on the structure of the ceiling or root and on the height of the rooms to be monitored. In the case of flame detectors, the cistances should be determined for ‘each individual case. 128126 Internal fire spread (surface) The linings of walls and ceilings can be an important factor in the spread of a fire and its gaining hold. This can be particularly dangerous in circulation areas, where it might Prevent people escaping. Two factors relating to the property of materials nead to be taken into account: the resistance to flame spread over the surface and the rate of heat release once ignited. Various testing methods are used to establish these qualities. In the UK, a numbered system categorises the levels of surface flame spread and combustibilty: 0, with the highest performance (non: combustible throughout), fallowed by classes 1, 2.3 and 4 There are a series of standards that must be complied with relating to allowable class of linings in various locations. For example, for small rooms im residential buildings (4m?) and non residential buildings (302), class 3 materials are accoptable; for other rooms and circulation spaces within dwellings, use class 1 materils, and for busy public circulation spaces, class 0 materials should be used Rooflights and lighting difusers that form an integral part of the ceiling should be considered 2 part of the linings ‘There are limitations on the use of class 3 plastic root lights and diffusers Internal fire spread (structure) There are three factors to be considered under this heading: (1 Fite resistance and structural stability Itis necessary to protect the structure ofa building from the effects offre in order to allow people to escape, to make t safe for frafighters to enter the building to rescue vitims and tackle the fire, and also to protect nearby people and adjacent buildings trom the effects of a collapse. The lovel of fire resistance required depends on a range of factors: an estimation of the potential fire severity idepending on the use and content of the building); the height of the Building: type of building occupancy; the number of floors and the presence of basements. Fire resistance has three aspects Fesistance to collapse, resistance to fire penetration anc resistance to heat penetration. Building regulations provide tables that set out specific provisions and minimum requirements of these aspects for different structural elements in diferent classes of Buldings (2) Compartmentation within buildings Itis often necessary to divide a large complicated building into separate fire-resisting compartments in order to Drevent the rapid spread of fire throughout the building ‘The factors to be considered are the same as those for fire resistence. Regulations stipulate maximum sizes of compartments for different building types. In general, floors in multistorey buildings form a compartment division, #8 do walls that divide different parts of multi-use buildings. The se of sprinkler can allow an increase in the campariment size in non-residential buildings. Careful attention should be paid to construction details ‘of compartment walls and floors, particularly the junction details between walls, loors and roofs, such that the imegnity offre resistance is maintained, Strict rules apply 10 openings permitted in compartment walls and floors, these being restricted to automatic se closing doors with the appropriate fire resistance, shafts and chutes with the requisite non-combustible properties and openings for pipes and services, carefully sealed to prevent fre spread. There is a wide range of constructions, each of which otfers a specific duration of resistance. For example, a floor of 21mm of tongue and groove timber boards (or sheets) ‘on 37mm wide jo'sts witha ceiling of 125mm plasterboard with joints taped and filled, wll provide 30 minutes of fire resistance. For 60 minutes’ resistance the jolste noed to be ‘50mm wide and the eailing plasterboard 30mm with joints FIRE SPREAD staggered. This period's also achieved with 9 95mm thick reinforced concrete floor, a long as the lowest reinforcement has atleast 20mm cover. ‘An Internal load-beating wall fire resistance of 30 minutes can be achieved by a timber stud wall with 44mm wide studs at 600mm centres, boarded both sides with 125mm plasterboard with joints taped and filed. The same will be achieved by a 100mm reinforced concrete wall with 2émm cover to the reinforcement. A resistance of 60 ‘minutes is achieved by doubling the thickness of Blasterboard on the stud wall to 25mm, and increasing the thickness of the concrete wall to 120mm. A 90mm thick masonry wall will achieve the same 60 minutes resistance (only 75mm is required for non-loadbearing partitions). (3) Fire and smoke in concealed spaces With modern construction methods there can be many hidden voids and cavities within the walls, floors and roofs. ‘These can provide 9 route along which fire can spread rapidiy, sometimes even bypassing compartment walls and floors. This unseen spread offre and smoke isa particularly dangerous hazard. Steps must therefore be taken ta break down large or extensive cavities into smaller ones and to provide ‘cavity barriers’, fire-resistant barriers. across cavities at compartment divisions. Regulations stipulate the maximum permitted dimensions for cavities depending on the location of the cavity and the slass of exposed surface within it. Further stipulations dictate where cavity barriers must be installed le.g. within roof spaces, above corridors and within walls). Generally the ‘minimum standard of fre resistance of cavity barriers should bbe 30 minutes with regard to integrity and 1 minutes with regard to insulation. Fire stops must also be considered. These are seals that prevent fire spreading through cracks at junctions between materials that are required to act as a barrier to fire, and seals around perforations made for the passage of pipes, conduits, cables ote External fire spread The spread of fire from one building to another is prevented by the fre resistant qualities of external walls and roofs ‘They must provide a barrier to fire and resist the surface spread of flame. The distance between buildings (or between the bullding and the boundary) is obviously an important factor, a i the likely severity ofthe fire, which is determined by the fire load of @ building (ve. the amount of, combustible material contained within). Regulations therefore stipulate the required fire resistant qualities of external walls and the proportion and size of allowable unprotected areas (e.g. windows, doors, combustible Cladding, ete) depending on the type of building and the distance of the facade from the boundary. For example, the fagade of a residential, office, assembly or recreation building at a distance of 1m trom the boundary is allowed only 8% of unprotected area: at Sm. 40%; and at 12.5m, 100%. In contrast, the figures for shops, commercial, industrial and storage buildings ace: at Vi, %; at Sm, 20%; and at 12.5m 50%: and only at 25m, 100%. ‘More complex calculations are required when the facade is ‘not parallel with the boundary, or is not tat Generally, roots do not need to be resistant to fire from inside the building, but should be resistant to fie from ‘outside, and also resist surface flame spread. Again, the type of roof construction permitted depends on the type of building, its size and its distance from the boundary, Different root coverings are rated as t0 their resistance to fire: on pitched roots: sites, tiles, profiled metal sheet are in the highest category, bitumen strip slates in the lowest ‘Sheet metal fat oof coverings perform the best, whilst the performance of various bitumen felt roof coverings depend ‘on the types of layers, underlayers and supporting structure,‘Smoke and heat venting systems ‘Smoke and heat venting systems comprise one or mare of the following elements, togetner with the associated activation and conttol devices, power supplies and smoke vents heat vents = mechanical smoke extractors Given that they have the task of removing smoke and heat in the event of fite, these systems contribute ta preserving escape and access routes = aciltating the work of the firefighters the prevention of flash-over, hence retarding or avoiding a ful ie = the protection of equipment = the reduction of fire damage caused by burning gases and hot ash = reducing the isk of fire encroaching on structural The main function of smoke venting is to create and maintain smoke-free zones in which people and animals fan escape from a fre, These zones also ensure freighters are unimpeded by smoke when tackling the fire and give the contents better protection from damage. In addition, smoke vents contribute to heat venting, ‘The task of heat vents is to conduct away hot burning gases during the development of a fire. There are two main {0 delay or retard the flash-over ~ 10 reduce the risk of the fre encroaching on structural elements, In the same way a8 smoke vents contribute 1o heat venting, heat vents contribute to smoke venting, The working principle of smoke and heat venting systems lies in the property of hot gases to rise. The cfectiveness of the system depends on: = the aeradynamic efficiency ofthe air venting = the effect of wind = the size of the air vents = the activation of air vents = the location of the installation relative to the general arrangement and size ofthe building ‘Mechanical smoke extractors Mechanical smoke extractors perform the same task as ‘smoke vents but use forced ventilation (e.g, fans) to achieve the extraction of smoke. These smoke extractors are particularly useful where smoke vents are neither appropriate nor feasible for technical reasons. ‘Appropriately sized smoke vents oF mechanical smoke extractors can, in principle, be used in the place of heat In view of their funetion andl haw they work, mechanical smoke extractors should be provided: ~ for single storey buildings with very large areas and ojos = {os aude a1ouwd payquuBe mup AoLA jade suose 9uq 2usoxe exteacrove eyonia po bionigsa: ut weu or cen sewor ave NaH {ie MONK: HeCHANNCa SOK SAUSELSTS ShSHIg Be BEBE tt wee oF teu seHOH! ata HOH Ge HONK: MECHANICA smoke extractors should be provided: ~ for single storey buildings with very large areas and ~ for buildings with long escape routes which cannot bbe kopt smoke-froe for a sufficiont period by other = for buildings subject to particular regulations, in Which special protection is necessary = for buildings housing particularly valuable articles or ‘equipment, or materials that are susceptible to smoke damage and therefore require extra protection. SMOKE AND HEAT EXTRACTION SYSTEMS Arrangement and sizing of smoke and heat vents Smoke and heat vents should be arranged as uniformly as possible within the roof sections, Special atention should be given to ensuring tha, inthe event of fire, the smoke and heat vents do not increase the danger ofthe fre spreading from building to building, or jumping between fire compartments within the building, in this respect, the boundary wall should be considered as fre wal. for which there are increased requirements To conduct the smoke and combustion gases directly 10 the outside, itis more effective to have a large number of smoke and heat vants with small openings than to provide a smaller number with larger openings. Typically, the spacing between smoke and heat vents and the distance from the lower edge of the structure leaves) should not be greater than 20m and not less than the minimum distance from the walls, which is 8m. The distance of smoke anc heat vent openings from structures on the surface of the roof must be large enough to ensure that their operation is ‘ot impaired by wind effect ‘A possible increase in wind loading should be noted when smoke and heat vents are located at the perimeter of flat roots. As a general guideline, in roofs having a slope of from 12° 10 30°, the smoke and heat vents should be arranged a high as possible and there must be a minimum of one ‘smoke and heat vert per 400m? of plan surface area (projected root area). For root slopes >20", the required efficiency of the smoke and heat venting should be considered on an individual project basis. In roof areas with 2 slope of «12%, one smoke and heat vent should serve not more than 200m?. Where, due to the building structure, thore are further subdivisions of the root, there must be a ‘minimum of one smoke and heat vent per subdivision. ‘Smoke and heat venting system efficiency To ensure the smoke and heat venting system operates at full aerodynamic efficiency, care must be taken to ensure that there is an adequate volume of air in the lower region fof the building. The cross-sectional area of the intake vents should therefore be at least twice as large as the cross: sectional ares of the smoke and heat vents in the root