Datasheet >
2002
sulfate-resisting Cement
and Concrete
Introduction
Concrete exposed to sulfate solutions can be
attacked and may suffer deterioration to an
extent dependent on the concrete constituents,
the quality of the concrete in place and the
type and concentration of the sulfate.
>
Knowledge of the sulfate-resisting
characteristics of concrete is necessary so that
the appropriate steps can be taken to minimise
the deterioration of concrete exposed to sulfate
solutions.
For many years, sulfate-resisting cement was
specified in terms of its chemical constituents.
In recent years, sulfate-resisting cement has
been characterised by its sulfate-resisting
performance and has been included in AS 3972.
This article reviews the factors affecting sulfate
resistance of concrete, seeking to put in
perspective their varying influences and thus
enabling practical and effective measures be
taken to produce sulfate-resisting concrete.
Sulfate Attack on Concrete
Occurrence – Naturally occurring sulfates of
sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium are
sometimes found in soil or dissolved in ground
water or present in aggregates (eg pyrite). Sulfate
may be present in industrial effluents and
wastes such as in industries associated with the
JULY
manufacture of chemicals, batteries, aluminium
and in the mining industry. The water used in
cooling towers may also contain sulfates because of
the gradual build-up of sulfates from evaporation.
Mechanism – There are two chemical reactions
involved in sulfate attack on concrete:
1 Reaction of the sulfate with calcium hydroxide
liberated during the hydration of the cement,
forming calcium sulfate (gypsum).
2 Reaction of the calcium sulfate with the
hydrated calcium aluminate, forming calcium
sulphoaluminate (ettringite).
Both of these reactions result in an
increase in the volume of solids which is
the cause of expansion and disruption of
concretes exposed to sulfate solutions.
>
Sulfate may be present in
industrial effluents and wastes
such as in industries associated
with the manufacture of chemicals,
batteries, aluminium and in the
mining industry.
 Table 1 Recommendations for concrete exposed to sulfates

Sulfate concentration, SO42– Min curing – Min concrete

Min cement equivalent Added cover to
in water in soil Cement Max content moist curing protection reinforcement
(mg/L) (%) type w-c ratio (kg/m3) (days) needed? (mm)

<400 <0.4 GP, GB 0.55 300 3 No 50

400–600 0.4–0.6 GP, GB 0.5 330 3 No 50
SR 0.55 300 7 No 50
600–3000 0.5–1.2 SR 0.5 330 7 No 65
3000–6000 1.2–2.0 SR 0.45 370 7 No 65
>6000 >2.0 SR 0.45 370 7 Yes 50

It should be pointed out that sulfates and
chemicals in general rarely, if ever, attack concrete
if they are in a solid or dry form. To result in
significant attack on concrete, sulfates must be in
solution and above some minimum concentration.
The severity of sulfate attack on concrete depends
on the following:
■ Type of sulfate; magnesium and ammonium
sulfates are the most-damaging to concrete.
■ Concentration of the sulfate; the present of
more-soluble sulfates is more damaging to
concrete. Most recommendations take into
account the amount of sulfate present in
classifying the severity of the attack Table 1.
■ Whether the sulfate solution is stagnant or
flowing; severity of the attack increases in the
case of flowing waters. Thus the nature of the
contact between the sulfate and the concrete is
important. More intensive attack takes place on
concrete which is exposed to cycles of wetting
and drying than on concrete which is fully and
continuously submerged in the solution.
■ Pressure; severity of the attack increases
because pressures tend to force the sulfate
solution into the concrete.
■ Temperature; as with any chemical reaction, the
rate of the reaction increases with temperature.
■ Presence of other ions; other ions present in the
sulfate solution affect the severity of the attack.
A typical example is seawater which contains
sulfates and chlorides. It is generally found that
the presence of chloride ions alters the extent
and nature of the chemical reaction so that less
expansion is produced in concrete due to the
sulfates in seawater.
As can be seen, the intensity of the sulfate
attack is a complex question which is influenced by
many factors. In practice, however, it is difficult to
consider all the factors involved and in most cases,
the severity of the attack is related mainly to the
sulfate concentration and the means for combating
it are specified accordingly.
Factors Affecting Sulfate Resistance of
Concrete
Sulfate attack on concrete will take place when the
sulfate solution penetrates the concrete and
chemically reacts with its constituents, mainly the
cement matrix. Thus, factors affecting sulfate
resistance of concrete are not only those influencing
the chemical reaction with the cement matrix, but
also those influencing the permeability and the
overall quality of the concrete.
Cements
The relationship between sulfate resistance of
portland cement and its tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
content is well established(1). Portland cement
containing less than 5% C3A has been classified as
sulfate-resisting cement and used as the
specification criterion in many codes and standards
for cement all over the world, including the
Australian Standards until relatively recently(2).
Studies have shown that cements potentially
containing less calcium hydroxide on hydration
perform well in sulfate exposure, eg certain
portland/blast furnace slag cements and portland/
fly ash cements((3,4). The effectiveness of these
cements in enhancing the sulfate resistance of
concrete has been the subject of extensive work
and many explanations for the improvement have
been offered.
It was recognised that a limit on C3A content for
these cements is neither appropriate nor applicable
and that a reliable performance test method and
associated criteria are required to characterise
cements in terms of their performance. As part of
the development of the Australian Standard AS 3972
as a performance-based specification for portland
and blended cements, the cement industry, under
the auspices of Standards Australia Committee
BD/10, completed an extensive investigation which
resulted in replacing the limit on C3A for sulfate
resisting (Type SR) portland cement by a
performance test and a performance limit suitable
for Type SR cement, being either portland or
blended cement(2).

Page 2 of 5 > sulfate-resisting Cement and Concrete

 Cement: 1 2 3 4

5
22
)=
/m 3
(kg
nt
nte
co
RATE OF DETERIORATION
310

nt
me
Ce
Severity of sulfate attack depends on type and
concentration of the sulfate and increases with
wetting and drying 390

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
A standard test method for measuring C3A CONTENT (%)
expansion of a standard mortar prism exposed to a
standard sodium sulfate solution for an extended Figure 1: Effect of different portland cements and
period of time has been established and is cement contents on rate of deterioration of concrete
published as AS 2350.14. A maximum limit for exposed to sulfate-bearing soils (after Verbeck)6
expansion after 16 weeks of sulfate exposure is set
at 900 microstrain for Type SR cement. This
maximum limit takes into account not only the 280 = Cement content (kg/m3)
performance of the cement but also the precision of
the test method. The precision of the test method is
such that the difference between two test results for
the expansion after 16 weeks of exposure to a
standard sodium sulfate solution, obtained in two
different but experienced laboratories under
conditions of reproducibility, may be expected
(probability of 95%) to be up to 300 microstrain. This
maximum limit for expansion implies that it must
not be exceeded by one or any result. For example, 330
AVERAGE EXPANSION

a sulfate resisting cement could have an average, or

target, expansion at 16 weeks of 600 microstrain or
less so that a single result obtained in a different
laboratory may not exceed the maximum limit set in
the Standard.
Caution should be exercised in interpreting the
expansion results. The test method is inherently of
lower precision than other performance tests,
eg strength or drying shrinkage. Thus, for example,
a cement producing an average expansion result of
500 microstrain may bot be of a significantly better
performance than another cement with an average
expansion result of 600 microstrain.
It should be pointed out that the use of Type SR
cement alone will not guarantee the production of
sulfate resisting concrete. As outlined in this article,
other factors are involved and should be considered
as their effect may outweigh the effect of cement on
the sulfate resistance of concrete.
Cement content
Cement content of concrete significantly affects its
sulfate resistance, regardless of the composition of
the cement as is evident from Figures 1 and 2.
The data presented in these figures represent a
range of portland and blended cements. The rate of
deterioration decreases with increase in cement
370
C1 C2 C3 C4
CEMENT
Figure 2: Effect of different portland and blended
cements and cement contents on expansion of
concrete exposed to sulfate solution
content, even in concretes made of ordinary
portland cement. In other words, to produce sulfate
resisting concrete, the use of sulfate resisting
cement should be combined with the use of a
minimum cement content. This conclusion is
reflected in recommendations to produce sulfate
resisting concrete(5) Table 1.
Water-cement ratio
Low permeability of the concrete is a significant
factor influencing its resistance to sulfate attack.
Given good quality materials, satisfactory
proportioning and good concrete practice, the
permeability of the concrete is a direct function of
its water-cement ratio and the curing time. In other
words, all other factors being equal, sulfate

Page 3 of 5 > sulfate-resisting Cement and Concrete

 resistance of concrete increases with decreases in
its water-cement ratio. This effect of water-cement
ratio is shown in Figure 3 which is based on data
obtained from exposure tests(6).
Admixtures
There are many types of admixtures available for
incorporation in concrete to enhance certain
properties, or to achieve economy, or both.
Generally, the effect of admixtures on concrete
properties depends not only on their formulation
and their interaction with the cement, but also on
the variations or adjustments they bring about in
the proportions of the concrete mix. Thus,
admixtures that effect reduction in water-cement
ratio and/or increased workability can enhance the
sulfate resistance of concrete, provided they are not
used to reduce its cement content.
It is well established that admixtures containing
calcium chloride adversely affect the sulfate
resistance of concrete(7).
Construction practice
Concrete placing, compaction and curing are
important factors in producing low-permeability
concrete. Adding further water on site during
placing of concrete to restore slump or to aid with
the final finishing will impair the sulfate resistance
of concrete. Adequate compaction and proper
curing are required to produce dense concrete with
discontinuous capillaries (low permeability).
Finishing of the concrete to provide a dense
smooth surface, free of holes and defects can
enhance the concrete resistance to sulfate.
RATE OF DETERIORATION
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
WATER TO CEMENT RATIO
Figure 3: Effect of w-c ratio on rate of deterioration
of concrete exposed to sulfate-bearing soils (after
Verbeck)6
Page 4 of 5 > sulfate-resisting Cement and Concrete
Concrete footing attacked by sulfates in soil.
Soil contained 3.8% soluble sulfates
Design and detailing
Properly designed and detailed structures and
elements should provide for adequate
reinforcement, correctly located to minimise
cracking. Detailing to minimise ponding and/or
areas of turbulence is important in reducing the
intensity of the sulfate attack, thus enhancing the
sulfate resistance of the concrete.
Sulfate Resisting Concrete
From the previous discussion it may be said that
sulfate resistance of concrete can be significantly
improved by producing dense impermeable
concrete made of sulfate resisting cement, of low
water-cement ratio, with sufficient cement content,
which is properly placed, compacted and cured.
Various authorities have classified
aggressiveness into a number of categories of
increasing severity(5,8). Considering this
classification and the types of cement currently
available, Table 1 gives recommendations for
concrete exposed to five classes of sulfates of
increasing severity.
In using this table, a number of points should be
borne in mind:
■ In view of the many factors affecting the
intensity of sulfate attack and the many factors
influencing the sulfate resistance of concrete, as
discussed earlier, these classifications and
recommendations should be regarded as
guidelines and must be examined in relation to
the particular conditions met in practice. The
presence of acidic conditions as in the case of
sulfuric acid, may require additional measures
to be taken such as the provision of membranes
and protective barriers, depending on concentr-
ation and temperature of the aggressive
solution. Also, magnesium sulfate is more
aggressive than sodium sulfate. In the presence
of high amounts of magnesium ions (>1000 mg/l)
additional measures may need to be taken(5).
■ As mentioned earlier, Type SR cement can be
portland or blended cement complying with the
performance requirements of AS 3972. Blended
cements may contain fly ash or slag or silica
fume or a combination of these.
JULY Conclusion
The importance of the many influences on the
CCAA OFFICES
SYDNEY OFFICE:

2002 sulfate resistance of concrete cannot be too highly

emphasised. Whilst the influence of the cement
Level 6, 504 Pacific Highway
St Leonards NSW Australia 2065
POSTAL ADDRESS:
type is important, obviously it is not the only Locked Bag 2010
influence. Indeed, in most situations other factors St Leonards NSW 1590
TELEPHONE: (61 2) 9437 9711
will have an equal if not over-riding influence. It is FACSIMILE: (61 2) 9437 9470
the mix design of concrete; reduced water content, BRISBANE OFFICE:
increased cement content, proper placing, adequate Level 14, IBM Building
consolidation and effective curing that will produce 348 Edward Street
Brisbane QLD 4000
sulfate resisting concrete. TELEPHONE: (61 7) 3831 3288
FACSIMILE: (61 7) 3839 6005

References MELBOURNE OFFICE:

1 Mather, B Field and Laboratory Studies of the 2nd Floor, 1 Hobson Street
South Yarra VIC 3141
Sulfate Resistance of Concrete PCA TELEPHONE: (61 3) 9825 0200
Laboratories Research Bulletin, No. 227, 1968. FACSIMILE: (61 3) 9825 0222

2 AS 3972 Portland and Blended Cements PERTH OFFICE:

Standards Australia, 1997. 45 Ventnor Avenue
West Perth WA 6005
3 Mehta, P K Concrete – Structures, Properties TELEPHONE: (61 8) 9389 4452
and Materials Prentice Hall, Inc, Englewood FACSIMILE: (61 8) 9389 4451

Cliffs, New Jersey, 1986, pp 119–129. ADELAIDE OFFICE:

4 Oberholster, Van Aardt J H and Brandt, M Greenhill Executive Suites
213 Greenhill Road
Durability of Cementitious Systems Structures Eastwood SA 5063
and performance of Cements ed P Barnes, POSTAL ADDRESS:
PO Box 229
Applied Science Publishers, 1983, pp 365–413. Fullarton SA 5063
5 Sulfate and Acid Resistance of Concrete in the TELEPHONE: (61 8) 8274 3758
FACSIMILE: (61 8) 8373 7210
Ground Building Research Establishment BRE
EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES OFFICE
Digest 363, January 1996.
PO Box 243
6 Verbeck, G Field and Laboratory Studies of the Henley Beach SA 5022
Sulfate Resistance of Concrete Performance of TELEPHONE: (61 8) 8353 8151
FACSIMILE: (61 8) 8353 8151
Concrete, ed. E G Swenson, National Research
TASMANIAN OFFICE:
Council of Canada and the American Concrete
EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES OFFICE
Institute, 1967. PO Box 59
7 Popovics, S Concrete Materials – Properties, Riverside TAS 7250
TELEPHONE: (61 3) 6330 2476
Specifications and Testing Second Edition, FACSIMILE: (61 3) 6330 2179
pp 221–271, Noyes Publications, 1992.
WEBSITE: www.concrete.net.au
8 ACI Committee 201 Guide to Durable Concrete
EMAIL: info@ccaa.com.au
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1, 2001.
DESIGN: Helen Rix Design

Disclaimer: Cement Concrete & Aggregates

Further information on good concreting
practices can be downloaded from the Cement
Concrete and Aggregates Australia website at
www.concrete.net.au.
Australia is a not for profit organisation sponsored
by the cement concrete and aggregate industries
in Australia to provide information on the many
uses of cement, concrete and aggregates. This
publication is produced by CCAA for that purpose.
Since the information provided is intended for
general guidance only and in no way replaces the
services of professional consultants on particular
projects, no legal liability can be accepted by
CCAA for its use.

CCAA respects your privacy. Your details have

been collected to provide you with information on
our activities, publications and services. From time
to time your details may be made available to third
party organisations who comply with the Privacy
Act such as affiliated associations, sponsors of
events and other reputable organisations whose
services we think you may find of interest. If you
do not wish to receive information from CCAA or
wish to be taken off the database please write to
the Privacy Officer, CCAA, Locked Bag 2010,
St Leonards, NSW, 1590

Page 5 of 5 > sulfate-resisting Cement and Concrete