ECCS-EG 77-28 EUROPEAN CONVENTION FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK CONVENTION EUROPEENNE DE LA CONSTRUCTION METALLIQUE EUROPAISCHE KONVENTION FUR STAHLBAU EUROPEAN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STEEL CONSTRUCTIONFOREWORD The European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) presents this second provisional edition of its Recommendations for the design and fabrication of steel stractures. These Recommendations are not a mere synthesis of specifications and codes currently in force in the member countries : the ECCS has chosen to follow the advancement of knowledge in the relevant fields and, in particular, to adept mordern principles in matters of structural safety. For the ECCS it was obvious that the steadily increasing permeability of national boundaries, the more and more frequent involvement in export markets, and the progress of international contacts at the level of research, resulted in an urgent need of harmonizing the criteria and procedures for structural analysis and design and that such action had to be a move towards progress. Therefore, this document is based on probabilistic concepts of safety and the use of enhancement ("load") factors for the enelysis of structural resist- ance and stability inatead of the traditional reference to allowable stresses. The method of checking structural safety envisaged here refers to limit states which may be defined as any states in which a structure or any essent- ial part of it becomes no longer capable of fulfilling the function for which it was designed. The object of design is to ensure that the probability of reaching a particular limit state is less than a certain agreed value for the type of structure under consideration. This fundamental option leads to a more accurate and more consistent evalua- tion of the degree of safety and corresponds to the presently observed develop- ment in other internationel bodies as yell as in the official regulations of many countrias. However, due to the limited availability of statistical data, certain types of loads must be evaluated in the traditional way. Therefore this method is usually designated as "seni-probabilisric Limit state method". OF course, the introduction of these concepts in countries where specifica- tions or codes ere still based on the nethod of allowable stresses represents a major change in the habits of design offices. The resulting new procedures require therefore a certain time to becone familiar to designers.£¥ ‘This change, for which the FCCS has been one of the earliest promoters, corresponds to the current trend in the major international bodies concerned with structural safety and is progressively introduced in more and more national codes and standards. ‘The present Recommendations bring up also some advanced positions related to the Stability of structures and of their components. The results of thorough theoretical studies and of considerable international experimental research have led to better and safe rules for structural design. National specifica- tions and standards of several countries have been improved already as a conse- quence of this development. The background of the Recommendations on this important matter is given and explained in the "Manual on Stability of Steel Structures" which is a separate publication of the ECCS, prepared and edited by its Committee on Stability. Of course, perfecting design methods in order to arrive closer to reality leads often to an increase in the amount of work in the design office. This can be particularly true for safety checking and stability analysis. The line of conduct adopted for these Recommendations consists on the one hand in giving the means for a very accurate analysis, which can be adopted whenever it is considered worth while doing it, and on the other hand in allowing to set up simplified mehtods, procedures, or formulae, whilst ensuring their safety and suftabiilty for the majority, of usual instances. ‘These Reconmendations contain also a thoroughly detailed chapter devoted to plastic design,a relatively new field which is not yet covered by many specifications or codes. The use of this approach is rapidly progressing for many types of structures, Therefore the chapter dealing with it may be regard- ed as one of the major contributions to the value of these Recommendations. It must be stated that the Reconmentations apply specifically to structures made of hot~rolied steel within the Limits of characteristics defined in the relevant chapter. In particular, they cover the following types of structures : building franes, bridges, industrial structures, roof systems, towers, storage tanks and lock gates. ‘The Recommendations do not apply to structures that use cold formed members, which are dealt with separately, nor to steel-concrete composite structures, for which a complete set of Recommendations is being prepared by a joint Com mittee, in co-operation with CEB, FIP.and IABSE. Furthermore, the behaviour of structures subject to fatigue is not taken into account here. This gap should be filled in a edition to come of the Reconmendations. Finally the Recommendations concerning the workshop fabrication of steel Structures, the safe working on erection sites, the choice of steel qualities for welded structures and the protection of steel structures against atmos~ pheric corrosion represent valuable additions to the series of docunents assen- bled here. A series of documents which did no: seem appropriate for inclusion in this volune Will be givea as appendices. They deal either with complementary (which does not mean unimportant) aspects or with particular types of structures or structural elenents.To this first category belong for instance the Recenmendations for the design of multi-storey frames in seismic zones. The Recommendations for 7 welled cold formed members, and those dealing with "stressed skin design", i.e. a rational use of thin steel sheet in buildings, belong to the second category. It must be noted that some of the general Recommendations cannot be applied to these types of elements because of the particular characteristics of the marerial due to strain hardening by cold forming. Therefore thay must be considered separately in many respects. These appendices will be published as a second volume to the Recommendations. As @ general remark ir must be stated that this second version of the Re- commendations is still incomplete on certain points and does not present yet 4 Ferfect consistency between the single chapters. However this statement should not be understood 4s questioning the intrinsic value of the Reconmendations, which bring up a large number oF valuable and useful elements and undoubtedly Pepressan on epcsllens Baste sagt uideline for eavancel eat eAte regulations. ‘The Recommendations are formilated in the usual shape of a model code, with commentaries on the opposite pages. As they are presented here, they represent a living image of the work performed with much zeal by many qua lists in the 16 technical committees and 24 task groups oF zhe ECCS. 71 bers and especially the cheirmen responsible for this activity, -too nunercus te wnable then to be individually naned-, deserve to be commenced here for their devotion to the progress of steel construction. A special nore eppreciation should however be made to Prof. L. Finzi, Chairman of Edizorial Group who was responsible for collecting the contributions and pre paring this docunent.VIL CONTENTS 1 BASES FOR DESIGN LL 1.2 1.6 1? 18 GENERAL. LIMIT STATES 1.2.1 ultimate limit states 1.2.2 serviceability Limit states REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF THE ACTIONS CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF THE STRENGTHS DESIGN VALUES OF THE ACTIONS 1.5.1 wltimate limit states 1,5.2 serviceability limit states DESIGN VALUES OF THE STRENCTHS VERIFICATION AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES VERIFICATION AT SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES 2° STEEL QUALITIES 3 STRENGTH OF STRUCTURES AND THEIR COMPONENTS 3k 3.2 SERVICEABILITY LINIT STATES ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES 3.2.1 tension 3.2.2 compression 4.2.3. shear and torsion 3.2.4 bending 3.2.5 plane stress rey 3 1s 15 WW Ww 19 19 21 23VIIL STABILITY OF STRUCTURES AND THEIR COMPONENTS 4.1 CENTRALLY COMPRESSED MENBERS 4.1.1 centrally compressed simple members 4.1.2 high strength steel compression members 4.1.3. cold formed compression members 4.1.4 thick-walled compression members 4.1.5 angles 4.1.6 centrally compressed built-up menbers 4.2. MEMBERS IN BENDING AND COMPRESSION 4.2.1 beam columns in braced frames 4.2.2 beam columns in unbraced frames 4.3. LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING 4.4 THIN-WALLED COMPRESSION wEn@ERS ] 4,5 BUCKLING OF PLATES i 4.5. BUCKLENG OF SHELLS PLASTIC COLLAPSE DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 5.1 SCOPE AND GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS S.1.1 type of structures 5.1.2 principles for calculation 5.1.3. type of material 5.2 LOADS 5.2.1 mode of action 5.2.2 design loadings 5.3 BASIS FOR CALCULATIONS 5.3.1 plastic moment 5.3.2 shear 5.3.3. interaction between bending moment, shear and axial force 5.4 LOCAL BUCKLING 5.5 BRACING REQUIREMENTS AGAINST LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS 5.6 STABILITY OF COMPRESSED MEMBERS 5.6.1 axially loaded menbers 5.6.2 members in compression and bending 25 25 25 39 al aL 45 47 33 33 37 59 61 61 61 63 63 63 65 65 67 67 67 69 6g 69 69 73 3 7 7 a15.9 Ix CONNECTIONS OVERALL STABILITY AND DEFORMATIONS 5.8.1 overall stability 5.8.2 deformations MULTI-STOREY FRAMES 5.9.1 general requirements 5.9.2 multi-storey braced franes 5.9.3 multi-storey unbraced frames 6 BOLTED CONNECTIONS 6.1 6.2 NORMAL BOLTS 6.1.1 principles of calculation 6.1.2 bolting procedures HIGH-STRENGTH PRELOADED EOLTS 6.2.1 principles of calculation for friction grip bolting 6.2.2 bolting procedures for friction grip bolting 6.2.3 checks for friction grip bolting 6.2.4 principles of calculation for preloaded shear bolt connections 6.2.5 bolting procedur connections for preloaded shear bolt 6.2.6 checks for preloaded shear bolt connections CALCULATION OP FRAMING CONNECTIONS WITH HIGH-STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS 6.3.1 end plate connections 6.3.2 flange plate connections 7 WELDS TL CALCULATION AND DESIGN 7.1.1 general 7.1.2 butt welds 7,1.3 fillet welds 7.1.4 penetration 7.1.5 intermitcent fillet welds 7.1,6 contact pressure 87 87 87 1 93 93 93 103 125 125 125 135, 137 137 133 137 137 163 163 163 163 169 173 173 473 175 175 1e1 1an 1817.1.7 lamellar tearing 7.1.8 preheating 7.1.9 calculation examples 7.2. MANUFACTURING Ti2el generel 7.2.2 walding procedures 7.2.3 butt welds 7.2.4 fillet welds 7.2.5 partly penetrated welds 7.2.6 fusion faces 7.2.7 tack velds 7.2.8 temporary and secondary attachments 7.2.9 elimatic conditions 7.2.10 welding consumables 7.3. CONTROL AND INSPECTION 7.3.1 general 7.3.2. supervision and inspection 7.3.3 radiographic inspection 7.3.4 ultrasonic inspection 7.3.5 other inspection and testing methods 7.3,6 correction of faulty welds 7.4 GOOD ECONOMICAL DESIGN PRACTICE 7.4.1 general 7.4.2 examples cf good economical detail design TOLERANCES IN BUILDING AND COMPONENTS 8,1 THE BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIONS B.1.1 scope of validity 8.1.2 documents of overriding importance 8.1.3 costs 8.1.4 definitions @,2 TOLERANCE REQULREMENTS 8.2.1 permissible deviations after erection of steel structures 8.2.2 permiccible deviations in adjacent parts of the 181 183 185 201 201 201 203 203 203 205 205 205 207 207 207 209 209 209 209 209 2 21 217 229 229 229 229 231 231 231 231 233xt B.3 CONTROL MEASURES 8.3.1 control classes 8.3.2 control schedule 8.3.3 measurements procedure 8.3.4 costs of control ANNEXE A- COMMON UNIFIED RULES FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIONS AND MATERTALS ANNEXE B- DIMENSIONAL BUCKLING CURVES ANNEXE (C - CONVENTIONAL DESIGN RULES BASED ON THE LINEAR BUCKLING THEORY 243 243 243 245 245 247 293 335EUROPEAN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STEEL CONSTRUCTIONCOMMENTS ond ‘The stated apectfieations concern already known methods: - elastic design - plastic design. They can be applied only by qualified engineers having the required knowled- ge of the assumptions which have been adopted in these various approaches and the necessary appraisal of what the "negligible errore" can be. Other approachea may alao be used: = atther by direct experimentation, = or by different caleutation methods hut in thie case, it behoves the engineer to prove the reliability of the sa _-ty degree. On applying the present recommendations one is veleased from the hange to prove it. 4.2 The follaving items mot be completed for certain kinds of structures and for certain types of actions, Those itema should be given in particular specifications, especially in case of fatigue and dynamic actions. 142.2 In a general way, the verification cateutattons will be of the Tet order (it's the current practice). The requirements concerning the buekling, the lateral buekling and the Local buekling have been set up by placing the catculotions in the field of the ‘nd or der; they iead to formulations which wilt be applied to verifications based on force resultants as calculated by let order theory.RECOMMENDATIONS R 1 BASES FOR DESIGN Rll GENERAL The clauses of the present document concern the application to the steel structures of the general safety principles which are given in Annexe & and whose field of application englobes not only all the types cf structures but alec all the structural materials. ‘The Following specifications concern the verification processes, which are called limit state verifications, to be carried out by taking into account for the actions and the combinations of actions on one hand and for the strengths on the other hand, the design values obtained by applying various y-coefficiente to some representative values. To set up the numerical values, code maker authorities, master builders or consulting engineers should decide accofding to each particular case. The ge neral principles, given in Annexe A, have been stated on that purpose. In the following articles, the numerical values are supposed to be fixed and given to the designers or supervisers in order to carry out 2 limit states ve rification, R1.2 Limit sTATES There are two categories of limit states: = the ultimate limit states, - the serviceability limit states. R 1.2.1 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES ‘These limit states, which correspond to the maximum load carrying capaci y, should be checked either by an elastic method of analysis or by the so called ‘plastic design! methods cf calculation. In both cases, the limit states can be reached due to = loss of static equilibrium of the structure considered as a rigid body, = elastic or inelastic instability, and, depending on whether there is an elastic or a plastic calculation, due to:COMMENTS The folloving items give the characteristic values of the strength for diffe rent etates of strei = The charasteriatic value of the strength in case of tension ts or the value of the yield point guaranteed by the eteel fabricator or the mean value minus two atandard deviatton. It te admitted for elastic calculations under bending momenta at ultimate limtt etate to take into accourt @ partial yielding of the erces section (see R3.2.4). O13 In eone cases, the epectfications could etipulate that tvo possible estrone values of G are to be conatdored uhich will be noted by: Spar 3 Sain" The Qy are aaacased by the relevant authorities, by coden, ox by epsotfie regulations. Tp a different value @,.., wwe Will have to be given in the spectficatons wider the omer's, user's or consulting engineer's responsability. The values for ¥, ae proposed by the CEB and reconmenied in view of harmo ntaing the oaloulations, are aa follovs ie taken for the serviceability states, thta va~ ACTIONS Working Loada Yo % ¥2 ~ donestic and office 0.5 0.8 0.4 buildings, stores = parkings 0.6 0.7 O68 + highway bridges 0.5 0.3 ° Climatic toads . wind, enov 0.5 0.2 ° The wee of the different representative values ¥p@y or ¥jAy OP Vy0y te in- dicated for the different combination of actione in R 1.5.1.1, R 1.5.1.2 om 215.2.RECOMMENDATIONS ~ attainment, even at 6 single point in the structure of a conventional level tf etress. This conventional level of stress is given in different items of these recommendations as celculation values of the resistence, vhen the stresses are calculated in the elastic field, — transformation of the structure into a mechaniom (plastic design). When the stresses are calculated over the initial geometry of the structure (before loading), the verifications are called of the ist order. The verifications are called of the 2nd order when the calculated for ce resultants are nonlinear with respect to the displacement of the structure. The verifications of the Ist order are accepted only if the possible errors can be judged as being negligible. R 1.2.2 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES ‘The serviceability limit states, which generally consist in deformation criteria for steel structures, are assessed by codes and/or specifications, the latter being stated to cover particular cases. For the serviceability limit states, the calculations aust always be carried out in the elastic field. R 1.3. REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF THE ACTIONS ‘The representative values of the actions ere those values which, after having been affected by 7 coefficients defined in R 1.5 according to the given combination of actions, will indicate the design values for the limit state veri Eication, These values are assessed by codes and practice, or if necessary, by explicitly stipulated specifications for the constructional work being considered. In the following articles, the representative values will be noted with: G for the permanent actions Q for the variable actions. Generally, only the value will be used for the ultimate limit states and for the serviceability limit states. Tn some cases, the specifications ean indicate two different values: Q for the virimste limit states Qk, for the serviceability limit states. When there is a combination of actions involving several veriable ac~ tionssthe representative values of some of them become: ¥ Qy. ‘The specifications for a given construction may stipulate that acciden tal actons are also to be taken into consideration whose values is then noted with Q..COMMENTS ous The coefficients vhich are indicated hereafter for vartous actions are global ~sading factore to be applied. They have deliberately been chosen identical to those proposed by the CEB. ‘Prom a practical point of viev, it ts the most interesting to have the same de~ eign values beccuse, as it ta cenerally the case, the structure involves oteel nembers and conerete members at the eane time. ‘From she edme point of view, 1¢ ie aleo interesting that the design values of the actions are identical, whatever the chosen vertficavion method can be (ela- ette or plastic destgn). Te vould be conventent to have the sane values introduced for the caleula- tion of the fowdarions, The epecific behaviour of each material shalt be taken into account by intra ductng other factore whieh are not applied to the actions. Ci.5.11 Consequently the fuvianental combinations may be urttten: L5G COP Gag) +18 (Qyy + ay Yog Sex! if the effect of permanent actions te increasing the ef feet of variable actions; and 1.06 (or Coin? #15 (Ory + ahi Von ex) if the effeet of permanent actions has to be deducted from the effect of varia~ bie actions. ‘thie may lead to a great number of possible combinations, espectatly tf it to difficult to know which one ehall be the baste action among all the variable eotions. Simplified methods may be applied if they are on the safe side.RECOMMENDATIONS R 1,4 CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF THE STRENGTHS ‘The characteristic values of the strengths are those values which, after being possibly affected by soze coefficients, will indicate the values to be taken into the calculation. Ta the following articles, these values are given according to the nature of the stress and to the verification procedure (elastic or plastic). R 1,5 DESIGN VALUES DF THE ACTIONS ‘The design values shall be obtained by applying y factors given in R 1.5.1 and R 1.5.2 to the representative values given in R 1.3. ‘When one considers a combination of actions including several varisble actions, the action producing the greatest effects shall be chosen as “basic action" affected by an index 1, the other variable actions are called “accom panying actions" with index i > 1. ‘There is generally 4 great nunber of possible combinations. Caleula~ tions shall be presented only for the combinations giving the most unfavourable consequence: R 1.5.1 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES One shell consider several combinations of actions. Each combination includes necessarily permanent loading. The different combinations are classified as: . fundamental combinations + accidental combinations. R 1.5.1.1 Fundamental combinations Design values ar c ‘s Ya UK Yq Yoi GK feb Eucepted the case where special specifications require other values, one shall adopt: veri @ 210 according to the most unfavourable consequences. and Yq 7SCOMMENTS C4.5,18 Consequently the accidental conbinations nay be written: 1,1 G (or Gas) + a + Yay Sax * di Vag eax if the effect of parmment actions ie increasing the effect of accidental ad variable actions; ee O69 G: Com Grin! $ a, ia ¥n1 ey 4 aka Yog Sex if the effect of permanent actions has to be deduced from the effect of the ac gidental and variable actions. Geanout the term @. those orbinations may also be considered in the case of aseldental eituationa’ (fire, oollapae of « part of the structure due to explo- How impact ...) if tt ie spectfied to consider such ettuations. c1.5.2 Consequently the conbinations of actions may be uritten: C+ iy (OH Ogg) * Fr Y2e Mex (OG? If woo different values G,,, 2d Gg, have been considered for the uivinate Limit states, here 6 shall he taken as the mean vaiue. c1eé Tha Ypp faster has been introduced so that the same y-factore should be ap- plied to the actions for elastic or plastic deatgn.RECOMMENDATIONS K 1.5.1.2 Accidentel combinations Accidental combinations have to be considered if the specifications give representative values Q_ of accidental actions. Each accidental combination involves only one accidental action Q,. This accidental action may be accompanied by several variable actions, the de~ sign values for those actions shall be teken as Vy for the basic variable action ani yy, Q,, (i>1) for the others. The design values are: 1° 1s % Yq Yun x Yao Sx en Unless other values stipulated in the specifications, the factors shall be: <1. or = 0.9 ‘sg ‘s according to the most unfavourable consequence; and Ya * qth R 1.5.2 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES unless otherwise specified all y- factors are equal to 1. The representative values of variable actions have to be teken equal to Q, unless Q,,. values are specificd. In combinatiom of actions the representative values for accompanying variable actions are obtained by using p, factors. R 1,6 DESIGN VALUES OF THE STRENGTHS These values are obtained by dividing the characteristic values of the strengths by y-factors which -until further notice~ are all to be taken equal to 1 for the verifications carried out in the "elastic design”. For the plastic design, the moment of plastic hinges saturation Z, e shall be divided by a coefficient y,, (plastic y,) which, until further notice, has to be taken: ae 2 Yep * or where a= 1.12 (mean shape factor) n is the coefficient for partial yielding in elastic design (see R 3.) and has to be assumed not greater than 1.12.10 COMMENTS 17 Inthe ease of elastie design, and in the domain of linear behaviour of the structure (firet order), ot ehould be more easy to make the elactic analyote taking into account the values of actions vithout ary or y factors, and then, arrenards, to corpute for the different combinations the effects of acttons fnonents, shear and revral forces, atresses, deformations ...) by applying to these effects the » and y factors.1. RECOMMENDATIONS R1,7 VERIFICATION AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES The calculations are carried out with the above design values of the ac~ tions and of the strengths. When the elastic design is used; a verification has to be made that the eonventionel level of stress is not exceeded in any part of the structure. If the plastic design is used, it will be checked that the load factor which has been determined with che design values of the actions reaches at least the value 1 before an actual mechanism occurs, when this factor is not reatric~ ted by zoma other phenomena (like local or global instability or too small rota tion capacity). Furthermore, the following verifications are to be carried out in all the cases: = global stability ~ local stability of all the members ~ contingently, fatigue phenomena if it is required for the structure being con sidered. R 1,8 VERIFICATION AT SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES The verification is carried out with the design values of the actions 49 defined for these limit states. The calculations are always msde in the elastic field.w COMMENTS ce Ae in current ateel the reversibility point ve pract the yield point the values 0, may be assumed as 0, tically cotnotdent with13 REGOMMENDATIONS R2 STEEL QUALITIES In steel constructions,mechanical properties and chemical composition of steel are to be in compliance with EURONORM 25-72. The steels considered in these Recommendations are Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510. ‘The mechanical characteristics to be introdyced in calculations are as fellows: eg ie . ) Steel Yield Poimy Se N/om Fe 360 zs Fe 430 275 Fe 510 355 Steel with a strength higher than that given in the above tables may be used, In this case special arrangements should be made in order to agree with the present Recommendations.4 COMMENTSRECOMMENDATIONS R 3. STRENGTH OF STRUCTURES AND THEIR COMPONENTS R 3,1 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES when the Losding combinations of R 1.5.2 are involved, both the defor mations and the displacement components must be compatible with the use of the structure.16 COMMENTS 32 The woul simple ealoulationa of Strength of Material are completely va- lid only in thie cases, It 19 neverchelese usual to ealoulate stresses in eo bers by means of the sane calculation mathods. The results obtained are generally safe. 4 piece tn tenaion collapses whan trvevereibty lengthened wider conatant load, that is, when the stress reaches the elastve limt. Tha plasticity criterion ta transposed from other states of stress by means of the inaveated coefficients. In the cave of bending,plastification does not lead to ocllapse- Tha bent element can withstand loads greater than those that develop stress equal to the elastic Limit in the exterior fibres. Collapse takes place only hon the applied moment emceeds the monent of plastic rests tance. fg the value of , (aee R 1.6)oan be assuned equal to the writy, in practe oe - te equal to thd tension at the yteld point c, (see R 2), Therefore the formula te: Sepp £°r © 5.22.2. Effective end connections of each single angle, uhether in eimple on butte ci eere mst have at Least wo rivets or two bolte or the equivalent velding SRGPILL the dimensioning requivenente of F 4.1.5.2 and 4.1.5.3. These re quivenents have been derived fron BS 449, paragraph 42, and from publication 4:7, 195%, of the BOSA, H.N. Nelson "Angles in Tenston™. fon commections that conaist of one bots on one leg of the angle, pressure on the hole greater than that commonly used may be accepted provided that spe. on TM ana de’ taken in poeitioning the hole: See ASCE, Journal of the Structural Trvteton, Auguat 1969, J.B. Kennedy and G.R. Sinclair "Ultinate Capacity of Single Dotted Angie Connootions". Thes implies taking inte account alasable pregoures cn the hides when checking the connection, pressures whtoh wii? aruays Pre it necessary to use more rivets or bolts if the tensile strength of the strut ta to be fully exploited.v RECOMMENDATIONS R 3,2 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES In the case of simple states of stress: - tension = compression ~ shear = bonding for a structural element of constant section and sufficient length in ratio to its transversal dimensions a simple test of its viability is to transform its design stress resulting from the usual Strength of Materials calculations into an effective stress, thus permitting a direct comparison with the design strength. ‘The effective stress ¢,., is the result of the design stress multi- plied by a coefficient chosen s8'as to obtain the same security against colle fee, vhatever be the nature of the stress the elenent has to withecand. ‘According to this the coefficient has the folloving values: tension 1 simple compression: 1 shear 1.73 bending Vn nis a coefficient of plastic adaptation deponding on the shape of the cross~ Section of the eleuent and related to the maximum alloved deformation in the nost stressed fibre (see R 3.2.4). ‘The viability of the element can be justified simply by noting vhe- ther: a eee +F R 3.2.1 TENSION The ideal stress of @ piece in tension is equal to the quotient of the factored tension force if divided by the net section (see R 6.1.1.5). R3,2.1.1 Simple tension members For an angle connected on both legs the effective area Avge to be considered is the net area AL + 5 For an angle conf€ited on only one leg the effective area Aucy is given by: dee My FEMS where ‘A, is the net area of the connected leg, ‘al is the area of the free leg, pig SA, + Ay1b COMMENTS 3.2.8 the present recommendation does not appty to thin uatled menbere nor to pieces eubjeat to buckling. va 2.3 ‘The present recommendation doce not apply to thin walled menbers nor to pie cea subject to buckling.19 RECOMMENDATIONS R 3.2.1.2 Built-up tension members The overall effective section in T~coupled angles of equal size connected along the flange of the T itself is given by: Begg SOAR ee AS where A, is the net area of the connected leg of each angle, and A, is the area of ‘the free leg. The coefficient € may be taken oqrete SAAS g Yor T-coupled equal angles connected along the eb of the T to both faces of the connection plate, Sete” ne: where A... is the net area of each angle. In all cases the component angles mist have at least two interme diate cnnnections. o R 3.2.2 COMPRESSION ‘The effective strees of anelement in compression is the quotient of the design compression force divided by the net section or by the gross sec~ tion if the holes are filled. R 3.2.3 SHEAR AND TORSION Shear can have two causes: ~ the application of transverse forces (shear forces) ~ the applicetion of torsion monent Tn all the effective stress is o,e¢ = 1.73 t,t being the shear stress.20 COMMENTS c 8.2.4 thie method ts not euteble when the plane of the Loading process eauing the bending leads to the verping of the ptece. Tea practice oxtnencty complicated to determine the coefficient of plastio adaptation im any bending plane whatsoever. Besides. 218 plane does Pieponerally eorreepond to the Loading plane, the voreton that follows 12,1” practice, generally neglected. ‘The formas are obtained through the usual procedure of superimposttion of ‘tieal states. Feot) petting in the plane perpendicular to azis 22, one should have: vor bending in the plare pexpendicular to axis yy, one should have: For bending about tuo azes, the folioutng is adniestble: ou, on, = 4 Ht Bu - 36 © ch ~ 36 a al - 43 20 280 > Bi - 43 c ci - 43 a Az = 43 doe te 30 265 b 3a - 43 Fe 430 £ Chie a a3 = 43 oer 40 250 > 33 - 43 c 03 - 43 a Au = 43 235 b BG - 43 © ch - 43 a AL = 5L 220 380 b BL - 51 € 1-51 @ 42 ~ 51 20 te 30 360 > 82 - 51 e 2 - 51 a Ag - 51 30 #40 340 b 33 - 51 Fe 510 e c3 - 51 a Ay = 52 320 b Ba - 51 © ch = 5129 RECOMMENDATIONS Ogle, VALUES OF NONDIMENSIONAL COLUM CURVE " AL Oo 0.01 0.02 -9,03.0.08 «= 0,050.06 0.07 0,080.08 9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 TL 110000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 °2 Yloooo 0, 9981 0.9962 0.992 0.9822 0.9900 0.9877 0.9854 0.9829 0.9805 73 019780 0.9756 0.9731 0.9706 0.9582 0.9657 0.9632 0.9607 0.9582 0.9556 059530 0.9504 0.9477 0.9449 0.9421 0.9392 0.9362 0,9330 0.9298 0.9265 7§ 0.9230 0.9193 0.9156 0.9117 0.9078 0.9039 0.9000 0.6961 0.8923 0.8865 "% 018848 0.8810 0.8772 0.8733 0.8693 0.8652 0.8611 0,8570 0.8530 0.8489 "7 0.8427 0.8404 0.8359 0.8312 0.8264 0,6214 0.8164 0.8115 0.8055 0.5015 [B 0.7965 0.7914 0.7860 0.7806 0.7749 0.7634 0.7575 0.7515 0.7455 19 0.7384 0.7333 0.7270 0.7207 0.7143 0.7013 0.6947 0.6880 0.6813 1,0 0.6746 0.6678 0.6610 0.6541 0.6473 0.6336 0.6267 0.6196 0.6130 1,1 0.6061 0.5993 0.5925 0.5858 0.5791 0.5660 0.5595 0,5530 0.5866 112 0.5403 0.5339 0.5276 0.5213 0.5151 0.5029 0.4970 0.4911 0.4854 1.3 G.4798 0.4742 0.4687 0.4633 0.4580 0.4475 0.4423 0.4372 0.4321 114 0.4271 0.4221 0.4172 0.4124 0.4077 0.3984 0.3939 0.3694 0.3850 TIS 013807 0:3764 0.3727 0.3681 0.3640 0.3600 0.3560 0.3521 0.3482 0.3444 116 0.3406 0.3369 0.3333 0.3297 0.3262 0.3227 0.3193 0.3159 0.3126 0.3094 0.3062 0.3031 0-3000 0.2970 0.2940 0.2910 0.2881 0.2852 0.2824 0.2798 0.2768 0.2741 0.2714 0.2687 0.2661 0.2635 0.2603 0.2583 0.2557 0.2532 0.250) 0.2482 0.2458 0.2434 0.2410 0.2387 0.2364 0.2342 0.2320 0.2298 0.2277 0.2256 0.2235 0.2215 0.2194 0.2174 0.2153 0.2133 0.2113 0.2094 0.2076 0.2036 0-2041 0.2024 0.2007 0.1990 0.1973 0.1956 0.1939 0.1923 0.1890 0.1873 0.1857 0.1842 0.1826 0.1811 0.1795 0.1780 0.1768 0.1737 021723 0.1709 0.1696 0.1682 0.1668 0.1655 0.1642 0.1628 0.1602 0.1589 0.1576 0.1563 0.1551 0.1539 0.1527 0.1515 0.1503 0.1482 0.1471 0:1461 0.1449 0.1437 0.1425 0.1414 0.1404 0.1394 011373 041362 0.1351 0.1341 0.1332 0.1323 0.1313 0.1303 0.1294 0.1275 0.1268 0.1256 0.1247 0.1238 0.1229 0.1220 0.1212 0.1203 0.1187 0.1179 0.1171 0.1163 0.1155 0.1147 0.1140 0.1132 0.1124 OL1117 0.1110 0.1103 0.1086 0.1089 0.1082 0.1075 0.1068 0.1061 0.1055 011048 071041 0.1035 0.1028 0.1022 0.1015 0.1008 0.1002 0.0995 0.0988 0,0982 0.0976 0.0964 0.0958 0.0952 0.0945 0.0940 0.0935 0.0929 0.0923 0.0917 0.0906 0.0901 0.0885 0,0889 0.0884 0.0878 0.0873 0.0868 0.0863 0.0858 0.0854 0.0849 0.0844 0,0839 0.0834 0.0829 0.0824 0.0819 0.0814 0.0610 0.0806 0.0801 0.0797 0.0793 0.0788 0.0784 0.0779 0.0775 0,0771 0.0766 0.0762 0.0758 0.0754 0.0750 0.0746 0.0742 0.0738 0.0734 BUD EER EH OSaY DaUbunHow30 TABLE B Follows at next page COMMENTS SHAPE OF THE SECTION coum HELD, CURVE STRESS ROLLED ‘TUDES WELDED TUBES. (hot fipished)| oi ied tubes x x fy x | Wetded eubss a foue t it) (hot finished) t WELDED BOX SECTIONS ~ Buckling about y wx: hy, fy > 0. 94 o. ryt bys ty I. Not valid for heavy welds (Gull penetration)vhen h/t<30 = Buekling about x-x h/b 3 1.2 a ° h/b ¢ 2.2 > be = rE ~ Buckling about y-y h/b > 1.2 > ° 4 h/b ¢ 1.2 ¢ or = r AND K WELDED SECTIONS: thay ~ Buckling about x-x a) flame cut flanges b 0.9% @ b) rolled flanges > 0.9% oF x = = Buckling about y-y a) flame cut flanges ’ 0.4 a, b) rolled flanges e 0.9% 6,31 RECOMMENDATIONS y/o, VALVE OF NONDIMENSIONAL COLUMN CURVE “b" AA oO 0.01 0,02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.08 = 0.07 0.08 0.09 © 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 «11,0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 +2 1,0000 0.9967 0.9933 0.9899 0.9865 0.9830 0.9795 0.9760 0.9724 0.9687 +3 0.9650 0.9612 0.9573 0.9533 0.9493 0.9453 0.9412 0.9372 0.9331 0.9291 +4 0.9250 0.9211 0.9171 0.9132 0.9093 0.9054 0.9014 0.8974 0.8933 0.8892 +5 0.8850 0.8807 0.8762 0.8717 0.8671 0.8624 0.8577 0.8529 0.8480 0.8430 +6 0.8380 0.8329 0.8278 0.8227 0.8174 0.8122 0.8068 0.8015 0.7960 0.7905 +7 0.7850 0.7794 0.7738 0.7681 0.7624 0.7566 0.7508 0.7449 0.7390 0.7330 +8 0.7270 0.7210 0.7148 0.7087 0.7024 0.6961 0.6897 0.6832 0.6766 0.8700 3 0.6633 0.6566 0.6500 0.6434 0.6369 0.6305 0.6241 0.6177 0.6114 0.6051 © 0.5987 0.5924 0.5861 0.5799 0.5737 0.5678 0.5615 0.5554 0.5495 0.5435 1 05376 0.5318 0.5260 0.5202 0.5145 0.5088 0.5031 0.4975 0.4919 0.4864 2 0.4809 0.4754 0.4700 0.4647 0.4593 0.4541 0.4489 0.4438 0.4387 0.4337 4 9.4288 0.4240 0.4192 0.4145 0.4098 0.4052 0.4007 0.392 0.3918 0.3874 4 0.3831 0.3788 0.3746 0.3704 0.3663 0.3622 0.3582 0.3542 0.3503 0.3464 50,3426 0.3389 0.3352 0.3317 0.3281 0.3246 0.3212 0.3178 0.3144 0.3111 & 9.3078 0.3046 0.3014 0.2982 0.2950 0.2919 0.2888 0.2857 0.2826 0.2796 7 0.2766 0.2737 0.2709 0.2681 0.2654 0.2617 0.2601 0.2576 0.2551 0.2526 8 0.2502 0.2478 0.2455 0.2431 0.2408 0.2385 0.2362 0.2340 0.2317 0.2295 § 0.2273 0.2251 0.2230 0.2208 0.2188 0.2167 0.2147 0.2127 0.2108 0.2089 © 0.2070 0.2052 0.2034 0.2016 0.1999 0.1982 0.1965 0.1948 0.1931 0.1914 1 0.1897 0,1880 0.1864 0.1848 0.1833 0.1818 0.1804 0.1790 0.1776 0.1761 2 0.1746 0,1730 0.1715 0.1701 0.1688 0.1675 0.1662 0.1648 0.1635 30.1607 0.1594 0.1580 0.1567 0.1555 0.1542 0.1530 0.1518 0.1506 4 0.1483 0.1471 0.1660 0.1449 0.1438 0.1427 0.1417 0.1407 0.1397 S 0.1377 0.1366 0.1356 0.1346 0.1336 0.1327 0.1319 0.1311 0.1303 6 0,1283 0.1273 0.1263 0.1253 0.1244 0.1237 0.1230 0.1222 0.1214 7 O.1198 0.1190 0.1182 0.1174 0.1166 0.1158 0.1150 0.1142 0.1134 @ Q.1119 0.1111 0.1104 0.1095 0.1088 0.1081 0.1074 0.1066 0.1089 9 0,1045 0.1038 0.1031 0.1024 0.1017 0.1010 0.1003 0.0997 0.0990 0 0.0977 0.0971 0,0964 0.0958 0.0951 0.0945 0.0939 0.0932 0.0926 0.0920 1 0.0914 2 0.0857 3 0.0804 40,0755 5 9.0712 6 0.0675 0.0902 0.0896 0.0891 0.0885 0.0379 0.0874 0,0868 0.0863 0.0846 0.0841 0.0835 0.0830 0.0825 0.0819 0.0814 0.0809 0.0794 0.0789 0.0784 0.0779 0.0774 0.0769 0.0764 0.0760 0.0746 0.0742 0.0737 0.0733 0.0729 0.0724 0.0720 0.0716 9.0704 0.0700 0.0697 0.0693 0.0689 0,0686 0.0682 0.067932 TABLE B (continue) COMMENTS cous} YIELD SHAPE OF THE SECTION CURVE STRESS AND H SECTIONS WITH WELDED FLANGE COVER PLATES ; t - Buckling ebout y~-y a 0.94 0 = Buckling sbout x-x b 0.94 oF ps ©” tinae BOX SECTIONS STRESS RELIEVED BY HEAT TREATMENT ¥ ~ Buckling about YET ten . %e L ” t+ u Y th 7 AND K SECTIONS, STRESS wlEVED BY HEAT TREATMENT = Buckling about x - x a °, Ral ~ Buckling about y— y b oy ly TI - SECTIONS HALF T - SECTIONS yd = Buckling about a wert ty e a yi eee ry y CHANNELS ee . %, Ix Sections not contained in the previous selection tables can be designed ac~ aordina te mmva Nal Faw ms asetimmant tan Trithon malin mine thren memeAD, oO. +0 1.0000 1 1.0090 21,0000 +3 0.9510 +4 0.8000 50,8436 -6 0.7829 +7 0.7187 18 0.6543 0.5931 0.5368 0.4856 09,4383 0.3952 0.3567 0. 3232 90,2930 0.2652 0.2410 0.2203 0.2024 0.1864 0.1718 0.1585, 0.1467 0.1366 0.1273 0.1188 0.1113 0.1063 0.0977 0.0914 0.0857 0.0804 0.0755 0.0712 0.0675, De eVanruUnroo bbb RP oe ryan Sections ° 0.01 1.0000 1.0000 0.9949, 0.9461 0.8947 0.8376 0.7766 0.7124 0.6478 0.5871 0.5315, 0.4807 0.4328 0.3911 0.3532 0.3211 0.2500 0.2626 0.2388 0.2184 0.2007 0.1850 0.1703 0.1572 0.1656 0.1357 0.1261 0.1181 0.1106 0.1036 0.0971 0.0508 0.0852 0.0799 00750 0.0708 x! 0.02 1.0000 1.0000 0.9899 0.9412 0.8893 0.8316 0.7701 0.7060 0.6416 0.5812 0.5263 0.4758 0.4293 0.3871 0.3496 0.3170 0.2871 0.2600 0.2366 0.2165, 0.1991 0.1837 0.1688 0.1560 RECOMMENDATIONS 0.03 1.0000 1.0000 0, 9849 0. 9362 0.8838 0.8256 0.7636 0.6957 0.6353, 0.5754 0.5211 0.4710 0.4249 0. 3832 0, 3462 0.3139 0.2842 0.2575 0.2345 0,2146 0.1974 0.1823 0.1674 0.1548 0.1435, 0.1337 0.1264 0.1165, 01091 0.1023 0.0558 0.0896 +0841. 0.0789 0.0742 0.0700 0.04 1.0000 1.0000 0.9799 0. 9312 0.8783 0.8196 0.7571 0.6933 0.6292 0.5696 0.5159 0.4662 0.4205 0.3792 0.3427 0.3109 0.2813 0.2550, 0.2324 0.2128 0.1958 0.1807 0. 1862 0.1536 0.1424 0.1328 0.1237 0.1158 0.1084 0.1017 0.0951 0.0891 0.0835 0.0784 0.0737 0.0697, 0.05 1.0000 1.0000 0.9750 0. 261 0.8727 0.8136 0.7506 0.6869 0.6232 0.5640 0.5108 0.4614 0.4162 0.3754 0.3393 0.3078 0.2785, 0.2525, 0.2303 0.2110 0.1942 0.1790 0.1650 0.1524 0.1614 0.1318 0.1230 0.1150 0.1077 0.1010 0.0945 0.0885 0.0830 0.0779 0.0733 0.0693, 0.06 1-0000 1,000 0.9702 0.9210 0.8671 0.8076 0.7441 0. 6804 0.6171 0.5584 0.5057 0.4567 0.4119 0.3715 0.3360 0, 3048 0.2758 0.2501 0.2282 0.2092 0.1926 0.1774 0.1637 0.1512 0.1404 0.1308 0.1222 0.1142 0.1070 0.1003 0.0939 0.0879 0.0825 0.0774 0.0729 0.0689 /o,, VALUE OF NONDIMENSTONAL COLUMN CURVE te 0.07 1.0000 1.0000 0. 9654 0.9158 0.8673 0.8015 0.7377 0.6738 0.6111 0.5529 0.5008 0.4521 0.4076 0.3678 0.3328 0.3018 0.2731 0.2478 0.2262 0.2075 0.1910 0.1759 0.1624 0.1501 0.1394 0.1300 of high strength steel can be designed according to R 4.1.2. walled sections (t > 40 mm) have to be designed according to R 4.1.4 0.08 1.0000 1.0000 0.9605 0. $106 0.8555, 0.7954 0.7314 0.6673 0.6051 0.5474 0.4956 0.4474 0.4034 0.3640 0.3295 0.2989 0.2704 0.2455 0.2242 0.2058 0.1895 0.1745 0.1611 0.1489 0.1385 0.1292 0.1205 0.1128 0.1056 0.0990 0.0926 0.0868 0.0814 0.076% 0.0720 0.0682 3 0.09 11,0000 1.0000 0.9558 0, 9053 0.84% 0.7892 0.7250 0.6608 0.5992 0.5421 0.4906 0.4428 0.3993 0.3604 0.3263, 0.2959 0.2678 0.2432 0.2222 0.2041 0.1879 0.1731 0.1598 0.1478 0.1375, 0.1283, 0.1196 0.1120 0.1050 0.0984 0.0920 0.0863 0.0809 0.0760 0.0716 0.0679, ThickCOMMEKTS C411 Menber for which the conditions 40 not satisfied are to be tracted acconiing to R 4.2. 4.1.1.5 Por this typo of eeotion flemmal-toraional buckling corresporde to etther pure toratonal buckling or weak-axts flexural buckling, and tn those cases whe~ re the former governs the Load at which tt occurs is never more than a few per cent less than the critical load for pure flemaal buckling.35 RECOMMENDATIONS R 4.1.1.4 Suall transverse losds Simple menbers that sre under compression and at the same time subject to small, uniformly distributed loads can be treated as simply compressed members if the following conditions are satisfied. Let g be the unfactored value of dead weight g, be the factored value of the tranaverse component of the Y dead weight gy be the factored value of transverse component of the snow load and wind pressure. Then these loads may be called "omall" if the following condition is satisfied: itt ae The member is checked by imposing: &, + 4 os 9, [1 zak) in which 0, og are defined by point R 4.1.1.3 and k, is vorked out fro the table deSending on the slenderness 1 of the manber and the ratio i“/h wher 2.0 i the radius of gyration of the section (cm) in the bending plane con sidered h the beight of the section (cm) in the same plane. Yor members with a elenderness \< 70 the influence of small di- stributed loads may be neglected. R 4.1.1.5 Flexural-toreional failure This section applies only to nominally axially loaded members; for members subjected to deliberate bending and compression see R 4.2. For doubly symmetrical hot-rolled sections no check is necessary. For ethertypes of cross-section, particularly unsymmetrical sec~ tions, the design strength for flexural-torsional failure should be taken as the value of o, obtained by entering the appropriate column curve for weak axis buckling #ith che value of X given by: where c,, = elastic critical stress for flexure torsional buckling.36 COMMENTSCORRECTION FACTORS Kj FOR TRANSVERSE LOADING DUE TO DEADWEIGHT 2028084 220 280 100. 200 210 joo 110 «120-130 4Os18DT6D. 170180 90 RECOMMENDATIONS geseeses sasdedda SSSR5S8R saegsress scdddddd Sa8sbess SBESEN3S3ER Bdddcadsceds BSSSSESHESSS SRRESSELESSS Soddddddddad Basegueeeess ABS eee i SSSRBSs SSS SSSSSLELLLRKSSS gegerssse Sdcdsdddddddd ASSERRSSSASSASRSSSSESSSES 738 COMMENTS C 4.1.2 As yield etress 0, for entering the nondinensional colum curves, the guaranteed mintmm value has to be taken. The fictitious reduction of the yield stress as specified wder P 4.1.2.1 fo. reduced) has to be applied both to the yield strese o,, and to the slen- einese 2. (See Point P 4.1.1.3) when entering the nondinEnstonal column curves. Types of Crose Sections and Corresponding Golwm Curves for high strength steel 4 mie SE (cone SHAPE OF THE SECTION CURVE YIELD STRESS Rotted a o, x co oe is Welded a 0.95 0, t : (hot finished) sin ene Buckling about BOX eh ie Fae SECTIOVS yu: ys ty @ 0.90 0, hy Wot valid for heavy welds (full penetra~ tion when h/t<30) Buokling about re a © r Buokling about vy b es Buckling about WELDED an ee rCaIn toy - flare aut flanz a 0.20 0, - rolled flange | 2 0.90 0, ap Buckling about uy = flare cut flan; i ge a 0.90 6, - rolled flange | _b 0.90 &, ROLLED I-SECTIONS ‘Buckling about = WITH WELDED FLANGE PLATE Buckling about| Oie uy HEAT TREATED BOX-SECTIONS Oy HEAT TREATED Buckling about I-SECTIONS aa % on Bueling about a oy39 RECOMMENDATIONS R 4.1.2 HIGH STRENGTH STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS This article is concerned vith compression menbers of high strength steel. . High,strength steel in this context means steel with a yield point 2 o,, 2430 W/m". R 4.1.2.1 Checking the load carrying capacity The limit stress o, for checking the load carrying capecity as defined under Point R 4-1-1.3%can be found ss a function of the slenderness ratio 4/\_ by entering the nondimensional colum curves "a, "a" and "b" with the appropriate yield stress. The assignment of the varbus types of cross sections te the column curves "a, "a" and "bY is given in the Comments. ‘o oy/o, VALUES OF NONDIMENSIONAL COLUMN CURVE" 0. 0.01 0.02 0.03 4.04 «0.05 0.06 = 0.07 0,080.09 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0900 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9983 0,9956 0.9948 0.9930 0.9910 0.9691 0.9872 0.9852 0.9833 0.9813 0.9794 0.9775 0.9756 0.9737 0.9719 0.8700 0,9682 0.9664 0.9645 0,9627 0.9608 0.9590 0.9571 0.9552 0.9533 0.9515 0.9496 0.9477 0.9459 0.9440 0.9421 0.9403 0.9384 0.9366 0.9346 0.9327 0.9308 0.9288 0.9269 0.9249 0.9229 0,9208 0.9188 0.9168 0.9148 0.9129 0,9108 0.9087 0.9085 0.9040 0.9013 0.8982 0.8949 0.8914 0.8676 0.8836 0.6794 0.8751 0.8708 0.8659 0.8610 0.8560 0.8509 0.8456 0.8401 0.8345 0.8267 0.8228 0.8166 0.8103 0.8039 0.7973 0.7905 0.7838 0.7765 0.7692 0.7618 0.7543 0.7467 0.7390 0.7313 0.7235 0.7157 0.7078 0.6999 0.6920 0.6840 0.6761 0.6681 0,6601 0.6522 0,6443 0.6364 0.6286 0.6208 0.6131 0.6055 0.5979 0.5904 0.5831 0.5758 0.5685 0.5614 0.5543 0.5473 0.5404 0.5336 0.5268 0.5202 0.5136 0.5071 0.5007 0.4944 0.4882 0.4820 0.4760 0.4701 0.4643 0.4586 0.4529 0.4474 0.4419 0.4365 0.4313 0.4261 0.4209 0.4159 0.4109 0.4060 O.401l 0.3964 0.5917 0.3871 0.3628 0.3781 0.3737 0.3694 0.3651 0.3610 0.3569 0.3528 0.3488 0.3449 0.3410 0.3372 0.3335 0.3298 0.3262 0.3226 0.3191 0.3156 0.3122 0.3089 0.3056 0.3023 0.2991 0.2959 0.2928 0.2898 0.2868 0.2838 0.2809 0.2780 0.2752 0.2724 0.2695 0.2669 0.2642 0.2618 0.2590 0.2564 0.2539 0.2514 0.2489 0.2465 0.2441 0.2418 0.2395 0.2372 0.2349 0.2327 0.2305 0.2284 0.2262 0.2241 0.2220 0.2200 0.2180 0.2160 0.2140 0.2121 0.2102 0.2083 0.2064 0.2046 0.2028 0.2010 0.1992 0.1974 0.1957 0.1940 0.1923 0.1907 0.1891 0.1875 0.1859 0.1843 0.1827 0.1812 0.1797 0.1782 0.1767 0.1753 0.1738 0.1724 0.1710 0.1696 0.1683 0.1669 0.1656 0.1642 0.1629 0.1616 0.1603 0.1591 0.1578 0.1566 0.1554 0.1542 0.1530 0.1518 0.1506 0.1495 0.1483 0.1472 01461 0.1450 0.1439 0.1428 0.1417 0.1407 0.1395 0.1386 0.1376 0.1366 0.1356 0.1346 0.1336 0.1326 0.1317 0.1307 0.1298 0.1289 4.1279 0.1270 0.1261 0.1253 0.1244 0.1235 0,1227 0.1216 0.1210 0.1201 0.1193 0.1185 0.1177 0.1169 0.1161 0.1153 0.1145 0.1138 0.1130 0.1123 @.1115 0.1108 0.1100 0.1083 0.1086 0.1079 0.1072 0.1065 0.1058 0.1051 0.1045 0.1038 0.1031 0.1025 0.1018 0.1012 0.1005 0.0999 0.0993 0.0987 ¢.0981 0.0975 0.0959 0:09%63 0.0957 0.0951 0.0945 0.0939 0.0934 0.0928 0.0922 0.0917 0.0911 0.0906 0.0901 0.0895 0,0890 0.0885 0.0880 0.0874 0.0869 0.0864 0.0859 0.0854 0.0849 0.084440 COMMENTS C4251 the yield atress is defined as the minimm guaranteed value of the finished product. In absence of such a value the minimum guaranteed value for the ba~ aie matertal has to be used. 0 4.2641 fa yield stress for entering the nondimensional colum curves the guaranteed winimin Saiue has to be wed. (The yield stress ts defined as the mean value Tinus two times the etandrad deviation of a group of atub colunn tests), Tension coupon test can be wed to determine the yield stress, provided that oleae sorrelation can be proved to the yield stress determined by a stub colwm see The tensile coupons have to be located in such a way that the variation Of ike yteld stress acrces the plate thickness is fully represented). ‘BYPE OP CROSS SECTION _x Ene x COLUMN CURVE Rolled #-Shapes = Buckling about x2 € = Buckling about y-y a Welded H-Shapes butlt-wp from rolled plates = Buckling about = = Buckling about y-y Ro Welded E-Shapes built-up from flame-cut plates = Buckling about == e = Buckling about y-yaL RECOMMENDATIONS R e1+3 COLD FORMED COMPRESSION MEMBERS This article is concerned with cold formed sections not affected by local buckling. The possible failure by local buckling of thin walled cold formed meubers has to be considered separately. R 4.1.3.1 Tubular gections ‘The pertinent design curve for sections with a wall thickness up to 10 m is curve ‘The limit stress a, for the stability check as defined under point R 4cl.1.3 can be found as a fiinction of the slenderness ratio\/\, by entering the noadimensional column curve "ce" with the appropriate yield stFess. 4.1.4 THICK-WALLED COMPRESSION MEMBERS By definition, thick-walled compression menbers are those rolled or welded shapes for which the residual stresses vary significantly through the plate thickness. With regard to the European colum curves, shapes with « plate thick~ ness of more than 40 um are considered as "thick-valled" or "heavy" shapes. R4.1.4.1 Checking the load carrying capacity ‘The limit stress v, for checking the load carrying capacity under point R 4.1.1.3 can be found Ss a function of the slenderness ratioh fi, by tntering the nondimensional colum curves "c" and "d" with the appropriate yield stress. ‘The assignment of the various types of cross sections to the column curves "'c" and "a" is givea in the Comments.42 COMMENTS3 beruai nibh ow Coes nurunHoe vaperee ys oy/e, 9. 11,0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.8170 0.8407 0.7691 0.6989 0.6329 0.5720 0.5171 0.4681 0.4244 0.3855 0.3505 0.3189 0.2905 0.2651 9.2423 0.2220 0. 2038 0.1876 0.1731 0.1601 0.1485 0.1380 0.1266 0.1201 0.1123 0.1052 0.0985, 0.0921 o.oL 1.0000 1.0000 0.9916 0. 9093, 0.8332 0.7620 0.6921 0.6265, 0.5662 0.5119 0.4635 0.4204 0.3819 0.3472 0.3158 0.2878 0.2627 0.2402 0.2201 0.2021 0.1861 0.1717 0.1589 0.1674 0.1370 0.1277 0.1193 0.1116 0.1045, 0978 RECOMMENDATIONS 0.02 1.0000 1.0000 0.9629 0.9017 0.8259 0.7549 0.6853, 0.6202 0.5605, 0.5067 0.4589 0.4163, 0, 3782 0.3439 0.3130 0, 2862, 0.2603, 0.2381 0.2182 10,2004 0.1846 9.1708 0.1577 0.1463 0.1361 0.1268 6.1185 0.1109 0.1038 0.0972 0.03 1.0000 11,0000 0, 9742 0.8941 0.8187 0.7478 0.6786 0.6140 0.5549 0.5018 0.4544 0.4123 0.3746 0.3407 0.3101 0.2826 0.2580 0.2360 0.2163, 0.1988 0.1831 0.1691 0.1565, 0.1452 0.1351 0.1259 0.1177 0.1101 0.1031 0.0965, 0.04 1.0000 1,000 0. 9656 0.8866 0.8115 0.7407 0.6719 0.6078 0.5493 0.4988 0.4500 0.4084 0.3711 0.3375 0.3072 0.2800 0.2557 0.2339 0.2145 0.1971 0.1816 0.167 0.1553 0.1442 0.1341 0.1251 0.1169 0.1094 0.1024 0.0959 0.05 1.0000 1.0000 0.9570 0.8790 0.8044 0.7336 0.6653, 0.6017 0.5438 0.4916 0.4456 0.4045, 0.3676 0.1955 0. 1802 0.1664 0.1543 0.1431 0.1332 0.1242 0.1161 0.1087 0.1018 0.02 VALUE OF NONDIMENSIONAL COLUMN CURVE "a!" 0.06 1.0000 1.0000 0. 9487 0.8713 0.7974 0.7266 0.6587 0.5957 0.5389 0.4870 0. 4413 0. 4006 0.3642 0-3312 0. 3016 0.2749 0.2511 0.2299 0.2100 0.1939 0.1787 0.1651 0.1530 0.1421 0.1322 0.1234 0.1153 0.1080 0.1011 0.0946 0.07 1.0000 1.0000 0.9405 0.8637 0.7903 0.7196 0.6522 0.5897 0.5329 0.4821 0.4370 0.3968 0.3606 0.3281 0.2987 0.2724 0.2489 0.2279 0.2090 0.1923 0.1773 0.1639 0.1519 0.1410 0.1313 0.1225, 0.1146 0.1073, 0.1004 0.090 0.08 1.0000 1.0000 0.9325 0.8560 0.7833 0.7126 0.6457 0.5837 0.5276 0.4774 0.4328, 0.3930, 0.3872 0.3250 0.2959 0.2700 0.2467 0.2259 0.2073 0, 1907 0.1759 0.1626 0. 1507 9.1400 0.1304 0.1217 0.1138 0.1086 0.0998 0.0934 43 0.09 1.0000 11,0000 0. 9247 0.8483 0.7762 0.7057 0.6393 0.5776 0.5223 0.4727 0. 4286 0.3892 0.3538 0.3218 0.2932 0.2675 0.2645 0.2239 0.2055 0.1891 0.1745 0.1614 0.1496 0.1390 0.1295 0.1209 0.1131 0.1059 9.0991 0.0927a4 COMMENTS C4252 For angles with k/t ratios greater than those given in the table, the redu- etion of the eritical atress in the elastic range due to torsion can be worked out by the method proposed in "Qssature Metaltique", n.12, 1947, Ch. Massonnet "Application de la théorte du flanbage des barres d parots minces 2 quelques types particuliers de sectiona droites", or in the elastic piastio range with the methed given in: ASCE = Journal of the Structural Division, August 1967, "Electrical Transmission Line and Tower Design Guide". The Liméts of b/t rattoe are valid only for single augle menbera; for butl- wp manbers mare dangerous eituatione may artae due to toretonal buakling which must be checked, C4558 For thie wee of the oane oritioal stresses for eccentrically and centrally Ioaded struts, see alse = The Belgian Code WBN 5, Art 419; - 85 449, paragraph 300; = Colum Research Counctl, paragraph 3.10 of the "Guide to Design Criteria for Metal Compression Monbere", = The ASCE Guide already quoted in the Commentary at R 4.1.5.4.4s RECOMMENDATIONS R4.1.5 ANGLES Thies chapter deals with menbers under compression nominally straight made of equal or unequal angles with leg width ratio between 1 and 2. For compression members built up of two angles, see R 4.1.6. R 4.1.5.1 Dimensional rations of the angle This chapter concerns angles with ratios between the widths of the larger b and smaller a legs not greater than 2. The present Recoumendations for compression members are valid for ra tios between the nominal width b of the larger leg and its thickness t not grea ter than the ratios given in the following table for the various steels. 7% b/t max Type of steel 1s Fe 510 wv Fe 430 18 Fe 360 For the design of angles with b/t ratios greater than those in the ta~ ble the same criteria adopted for light gage steel members may be adopted. 24.1.5.2 Centrally compressed simple members Members consisting of single angles, centrally loaded, are to be calculeted with reference to curve B} for thickness up to 20 mm and according to curva B4 for thickness over 20 om. R 4.1.5.3 Eccentrically loaded compression members The load in these struts is transmitted by bolts or other connectors on only one leg. When these members are the web members of lattice trusses and are relatively flexible their compressive strength is influenced by che stiffness of the connections to the main members. For these members the linit stresses will be calculated entering curve B3 (thickness < 20 mn) and B4 (thickness > 20 um) with: 7 0.60 + 0.57 for 4A. < 1.41, i i for AA tah. When the chords and the veb members do not attain their maximun stress level for the same load conditions = 0.35 4 0.754A_ for 141s eff46 COMMENTS For the effective length and the radius of gyration for calculating the alenderness, see in particular: = DIW 4114 Blatt 1 10,08; Blatt 2 Ri 6.49; = ECCS Manual on Stability (Chapter 3.1.5) C41 Batter-plates to be effective must be placed at each end and, at least, at two intermediate pointe, Equal spacing ts recommended. ¢ 4,2.657 In the case of etruts with batten-plates the recommended forma for ts necessary, because the relation betueene andd (see R4.1.6,2) ts based on this definition.a7 RECOMMENDATIONS may be used if the chords give good end restraints to the web members and at Telst twe bolts or rivets in line are present at the end connections of the web members. In caleulating the slenderness\ A _ the length to be considered is tha one between the nodes of the geometrical scheme (full length centre-to~ centre of intersections). For the same purpose, the radius of gyration will be the minimum for the angle, unless efficient lateral bracing is used to im pose a well defined bending plane. These provisions do not apply to continous angle struts as the flanges of trussed girders, the rafter of trusses etc. Ro 4.1.68 CENTRALLY COMPRESSED BUILT-UP MEMBERS ‘This article concerns struts made up of two aqually cross-sectioned and pa~ rallel chords interconnected either by lacing or by batten-plates. The overall buckling plane is assumed parallel to the one of the con necting menbers. The analysis of this systen is made by taking into account geometrical second order effects. In particular the deflections of the built-up strut cor Tesponding to the design axial force F* are to be evaluated. R 4.1.6.1 Symbols A, cross-sectional area of a single chord; ae tae cross-sectional area of the built-up section; hy distance between the centroids of the chords; a distance between the joints; L length of the pin-ended struts; 2 T= 0.5h5 Apte 20 I, moment of inertia of a single chord 1 coefficient to reduce the portion 21, of I (see B 4.1.6-2) a slenderness of the strut; And /osne Apt2l ; 3 (struts with batten-pletes) 7G) additional deflection of the struts as the result of the Load ing fg initial deflection at midspan (see R 4.1.6.2)48 COMMENTS The elastic shear etiffness GA, is the ratio between the shear foree V and the eorpasponding shear deformation. The reduction of GA by 1°/12 results from the condition that a single pa~ nel of the strut with Batten-plates may not buckle prior to the uhole struc. The elastic critical lead of a panel to he eer a? a en, panel = = The night-hand side of thie exprecoion mast be compared vith N_., of the who le strut (sce F 2.1.6.2), Both oritical loada have the came valSE tf the pro. seed reduction factor x°/12 ta introduced. CHG As far as laced struts are concerned, in general the distance h, between the controtda of the chords is suffictently Large. in thia case the propeacd nethod of caleulation denands to omit the contribution 2, to I. Contrary to this in the case of otrute with batten-platés h. can be rather small. Then tt uould be too consemvative to neglect thie torn’ The multiplier n is introduced to take into account plastic behaviour of the whole strut, The dependence of © on ie determined according to results of expexinontal and theoretical investigartons. The value of fp to be eonotdered inoluden wo effects: fp = {3 + 1. $5, correspond to the initial ount-of-straighinoas of OG butte wp nenber fofh = 0.0015 £9 corresponds to the other effects, euch as the mechanical imperfections (residual stresses eoc.),49 RECOMMENDATIONS E elastic modulus of the steel; elastic shear stiffness of the built-up strut. In the case of struts with bagtenplates the evaluated shear stiffness CA, must be reduced by the factor 1/12. R 4.1.6.2 Deflections A pin-ended built-up member subject to the design axial force F* is supposed to deflect according to the following equation: = ¥ Ter yx) = £5 sin w x/L ay Lor, where N. is the Euler critical losd: 2, a +4 a) Laced members In the last formila the moment of inertia I does not contain the portion 2I,. Therefore 7 T= 0.5 hg Ay (e = 0) b) Struts with batten-plates In this case the term 2I¢ is taken into account in the following manner: 2 T= 0.5 ho dp + © 20, where for © (0 Se <1) the following relations are valid: oss £75 L 75 £% £150 a 2150 ~ 2115 2 °.50 COMMENTS C 4.1.6.4 When the member te laced or there are four intermediate (or more) batten— plate the maxima slope oan be approzinated by the fottewing formula: Zi 8g, = ¥'(O) = *SL RECOHMENDATIONS R 4.1.6.3 States of stress at midspan At midspan the following effects are present: war * Me PEG ¥ cr Each chord has to be checked according to the specification for simte suputsygigee R 4.1.1.3) a5 @ centrally compressed member by a force = 0.5F* + 0 A, and with the length aqual to the distance a between the Janes: R4.1.6.4 State of stress at the eni ields At the onde of the built-up columns the following effects are to be considered: es NeE*, VN cg 0, max where tg8,q, 18 the maxima slope of the possible deflection line of the strut. a ~ Laced members In the case, considered here, of equal spacing, additional verification for the chords are not needed. The lattice menbers and their connections to the chords are to be checked for the axial forces due to the shear force V. b - Struts with batten plates Each chord can be approximately checked according to the specifications for simple strut as subjected to: It is necessary to show thet: ME = v*a/4 cM where: Myyy full piascic moment of the single chord taking into account the pint axial design force NZ ~ P*/2. In the case of ‘coyenoeeiz eross-sections of the chords(channels) the mean va~ lue of the two possibilities concerning the position of the neutral axis can be chosen because the use of the relation s = May 71% Main Bet? G ~ NEM, YD generally leads to an uneconomical design. Tha batten plates and their connections to the chords can be approximately checked according to the specifications for simple beans subjected tot va My Mn If the batten-plates are connected to the chords by rivets or bolts (turned or friction-grip), there must be at least two of them for each connection.52 COMMENTS cae Franes can be divided into two categories braced and wibraced frames, depen ding on the vay the direst effect of herizontal Loads and the destabilizing ef foot of lateral displacements are resisted. A structure ts called braced tf special structural elements such as shear walls, central core or wind bracings are used to prevent hortzontal dtoplace~ ments. In an wibraced frame, only the flemural rigidity of the members is re- lied ipon to resist horizontal displacements. A clear definition of what frane ts to be considered braced or unbraced can. mot be given. In general, this depends on the stiffness ratio of the bracing and the frame itself.For practical purposes if this ratio is larger than 5, the frane can be considered as a braced frane. If thie ratio te omaller than 6 the Frame ts to be considered unbyaced. The colums of a braced frame are designed wider the cesumptton that the no des do not translate relativly to each other, Ae a result the colwms can be ‘then isolated from the etructure. The colwm is assumed pin-ended and Loaded with the axial forces and bending moments vkich follov from a conventional a~ alysis. The behaviour of a bean-colum is more complicated than the behaviour of a censralty loaded colum, because of second-order effects, lateral torsional Euakling and transverse loading. Lateral torsional buckling corresponds clo- sely to lateral buckling of a beam due to bending moments onty. Therefore, the coeffictent for lateral torsional buckling can be assured to be identical to the coefficient for lateral buckling (see B 4.3). A paraneter e* ia introduced, called a "paraneter of imperfection". This ts not a real eocentricity but a parameter whieh represents the combined effect of alt inperfectiogs, such as out-of straightness, residual stressee, non- homogeneity ete; e* te determined such that for a centrally leaded aolwm the limiting stress te equal to the buckling stress of the Ewopean duckling curves. Equating the above formulae and solving for e* we find 3 2 rp unl Ww fa - + oy 4a or 3 f-P-via-z ik cr ay cor be taken from the appropriate buckling curve. 3k pee Gan = EA w= a,/o53 RECOMMENDATIONS R 4.2 MEMBERS IN BENDING AND COMPRESSION R 4.2.1 BEAM COLUMNS IN BRACED FRAMES Colums in braced franes are subjected to normal forces, bending mo- nents and shear forces. Transverse loading in the direction perpendicular to the colum axis is also poseible. Tn the following articles, a distinction is made between bending about the strong axis (x-axis) and bending about the weak axis (y-axis). It is also recognized that some colums are susceptible to lateral torsional buckling, in particular I shapes.5a COMNENTS - Colums whieh fall in thia category are those colums for which: tne, 75, 50.4 (see aleo R 4.3). on,D Lateral torsional buskting doce not take place in the case of bending about the veak axis. 4 check for buckling about the strong azic te necessary becax seh, can be anailer than, due to intermediate eupports. Theeo aonditions apply to colwme in case of béaztal loading and in the ca- ge of colums susceptible to lateral toretonal buakling.38 RECOMMENDATIONS 2 — Bending about the strong axis x-x, with no lateral torsional buckling, and nc transverse loading. ‘The following relations ghall be satisficd. BM, tHe peas ° wit aM x 9 £ yy @) My, ates @) with: o = W/A Me 7 gex!S Sern 7 TEAS on = affective slenderness in the plane perpendicular to the x-axis (strong direction) a = effective slenderness in the plane perpendicular to the y-axis 3 (weak direction) Oy 7 Limit stregs corresponding to yraxis 6, = 06 + 0.4 GE > Oh uw x2 wat = ent-monent ratios Hy is the end-moment with the smallest absolute 2 value. mM, = absolute value of ML, wy = section modulus about the x-axis. b - Bending about the weak axis (y-y), with no transverse loading ‘The following conditions,shall be satisfied. v o+e <9, a £m 6) °, 6) c - Bending about the strong and/or weak axis, with no transverse loading The following relations shall be satisfied. Gemome) ov OM, 2 Hee 4 eco, @ * y Ye. . BM By eye) © W. ot a x y z ¥ qs «) y56 COMMENTS paling the Largest bending monent in the coiwm due to transverse loeding od ee oeed Largest end manent can be conservative in those cases where Wie cocws closed to the eupports, Transverse loaie, hovever will generat ly Nos Gnas bending moments ukich attain a maim at midspan. eas Sta nob she cave, [BM + Ha,| om be repiaced by Hang» the nasimn monet along the colum when transverse Loade and end moment8"Bre applied. C482 A frane ta to be considered wibraced if the horézontal leading and the bending nonin meguiting from a horiaontal dteplaconent of the frane are carried by vhe frano itself. eet joseible to cover the comler stability behavioux of an wibraced frame by a eteple fermila, For aw approsimative elasto-plastie analysts see the chapter on plasticity.37 RECOMMENDATIONS v = coefficient for lateral torsional buckling, v = o,/o) opt critical Lateral buckling stress (see R 4.3). = Bending about the strong and/or weak axis, vith transverse loading The following relations shall be satisfied. * LY BM AM ANeR | x ag Hod NE ig ¥. x wy VB MeMy,) | te LG sMatHon |, By _lByty ley Moyt o* oar 7 by an x a MOM ot ta Se x y where Ng, * largest bending moment in the colum due to trecsverse loading in the plane perpendicular to the x-axis. To determine Mo, the coltm is considered to be 2 simply supported ean « Tf Mand Mare of opposite signs,and if |M),|<|24 J, Ho, ie cons{fered edGal to zero. oxi slid Nox Noy "See above, x replaced by y- " 4.2.1.1 Bracing The bracing shall be designed for The loads which act directly on the bracing elements. = The horizontal loads on that part of the structure for which the bracing acts as a horizontal support. = Second-order forces and bending moments which are a result of the horizontal displacement of the structure. In addition to the above mentioned loadings, the effect of erection misalignment must be considered. 1 R 4.2.2 BEAM COLUMNS IN UNBRACED FRAMES ‘An unbraced frame shall be designed according to second-order theory. A representative initial imperfection must be adopted.58 COMMENTS C48 the value of 6, » may be obtained ueing either of the following methods: =the provisions of &"kational cade “published research data. Useful tables, charts and simplified formas are given in Rok, K., Carl, t. wd Lindner, J.1 Blegetorstonsproblene duwwandiger gerades Stibe, W. Ernest b son, Berlin, Verlag 1972 and ahapter 6 of Structural Stability Research Cow dei: Guide to Stabtiity Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Wiley 1978, Values of non-dimensional limiting strese op/Rs,, are listed for the practical pange of the slenderness paraneter’no,/5,,, ) 1” the table below. For values of vna,/0 = less thet 0.4 no allouancd fO%Pateral torsional buckling is necee— sar} a8, may be taken cen, Therefore, although the design curve ts presen fed in torBe of stress, it rebognises the ability of short beans to carry their Fuld plastée monent My. NOW DIMENSIONAL VALUES op ho, oO. 6.01 0,02 0.03. 0,04 «0.050406 0-07 0.08 0.09 “1. 140000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 “y 018999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994 0.9993 0.899% <3 019000 059989 0.9987 0.9986 0.9982 0.9979 0.9976 0.9972 0. $968 0. 9804 “A 00959 0.5954 0.9948 0.9942 0.9935 0.9927 0.9919 0.9910 0.9900 0. 3669 “Glenys 0.9865 0.9852 0.9637 0.9822 0.9806 0.9788 0.9769 0.8749 0.9728 7B 019705 0.9681 0.9655 0.9629 0.9500 0.9570 0.9539 0.9506 0.9471 0.9435 7G Oignse 09358 0.9317 0.9274 0.9230 0.9184 0.9136 0.9086 0.9035 0.8982 “(018928 018872 0.8815 0.8756 0.8696 0.8624 0.8571 0.8506 0.8441 0.6374 0.8308 0.8237 0.8167 0.8096 0.8024 0.7951 0.7878 0.7804 0.7729 0.7654 0.1579 0.7503 0.7426 0.7350 0.7273 0.7196 0.7119 0.7043 0.6966 0.6869 0.6813 016736 0.6660 0.6585 0.6509 0.6434 0.6360 0.6286 0.6212 0.6138 0.6067 0.5995 0.5924 0.5853 0.5714 0.5646 0.5578 0.5511 0.5444 0.5379 0.5314 0.5250 0.5187 0.5063 0.5002 0.4942 0.4882 0.4824 0.4766 0.4709 0.4653 0.4597 0.4488 0.4435 0.4383 0.4331 0.4280 0.4230 0.4181 0.4132 0.4084 0. 0.3990 0.3944 0.3899 0.3854 0.3810 0.3767 0.3724 0.3682 0.3641 0.3600 0.3560 0.3520 0.3481 0.3443 0.3405 O133e7 0.3331 013295 0,3259 0.3224 0.3189 0.3155 0.3121 0.3088 0.3056 0.3024 0.2992 0.2961 0.2930 0.2900 0.2870 0.2840 0.2811 0.2783 0.2755 012727 0.2699 0.2672 0.2646 0.2619 0.2594 0.2568 0.2543 0.2518 0.2494 012470 0.2446 0.2622 0.2399 0.2376 0.2354 0.2332 0.2310 0.2288 0.2267 012246 0.2225 0.2205 0.2185 0.2165 0.2145 0.2126 0.2106 0.2088 0.2069 012080 0.2032 0.2014 0.1997 0.1979 0.1962 0.1945 0.1928 0.1911 0.1895 Crie79 011863 011847 0.1832 0.1816 0.1801 0.1786 0.1771 0.1756 0.1742 0.1728 021713 0.1700 0.1686 0.1672 0.1659 0.1645 0.1632 0.1619 0.1608 Lis 011581 011569 0.1556 0.1544 0.1532 0.1520 0.1509 0.1497 0.1486 011474 051463 071452 0-1441 0.1430 0.1420 0.1409 0.1399 0.1388 0.1378 011368 0.1358 0.1348 0.1338 0.1329 0.1319 0.1310 0.1300 0.1291 0.1287 011273 011264 0.1255 0.1246 0-1237 0.1229 0.1220 0.1212 0.1203 0.1195, O11187 011179 0.1171 0.1163 0:1155 0.1147 0.1139 0.1132, 0.1126 0.1117 0.1109 0.1102 0,1095 9.1088 0.1081 0.1073 0.1066 0.1060 0.1053 0.1046 0.1039 0.1033 0.1026 0.1019 0.1013 0.1007 0.1000 0.0994 0.0988 0.0982 010575 0.0969 0.0963 0.0958 0.0952 0.0946 0.0940 0.0934 0.0929 0.0823 0.0917 0.0912 0,090 0.0901 0.0895 0.0890 0.0885 0.0880 9.0875 0.0869 ee Ns on amie alain A ARIS A.AR3D 0.0825 0.0820 GUUS PNB BS : DRO re NON RUNFOwWSTEURENHO wDRECOMMENDATIONS R 4,3 LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING This article deals with the lateral torsional buckling of beams sub- ject to the folloving conditions: = the beam is of bisymmetrical cross-section = the loads act in the plane of the web and all eccentricities ere accidental = distorsion of the cross-section and local buckling of its component plates are prevented. ‘The design curve given below relates to beams whose ends are simply supported in the lateral plane (fork bearings). It may be used for other end conditions providing the values of g,, are determined for the actual conditions. In all cases it is necessary that both lateral deflection and twist be prevented at the supports. Checking the capacity ‘The beam is cafe providing oso, vhere g = maximum extreme fibre bending stress under the design load g, “ limiting stress for lateral torsional buckling obtained as follows. Determination of the limiting stress The value of Gp is to be obtained from ne. - r B xm whitee:"T: aVaGTOLS a. MEET AY YER er 1 -* shape factor for major axis bending o, = material yield stress of, p= theoretical critical stress for elastic lateral torsional buckling n= system factor. ‘The value of n shall be taken as 2.5 for all types of cross-section.60 COMMENTS cae tn waiting for more elaborate rules pplying to thin-uatled members, it has been decided to present simple formilae taking accowit of the possibility to eapand the cross cection dimension in bare of high stenderness for the eake of ceonam but ignoring the transition region where the valle buckle plastically for stresses comprised between the proportional Limit and the yield stress and the effect of the wall imperfections on the value of the Limiting etress for plate buckting. The coeffictent 0.8 has been chosen to cover this simplification and also to inonoase the wall thickness slightly above the value given by the "naive theory of buckling” where one urite: Sor = Fork where 0. te tho onitical atress given by the linear theory of plate buckling aud ¢ is eritieal stress for Euler buckling for a eolum miSBh, recent research shovs that bare designed according to this naive theory are especially sensitive to imperfections. When the value of the b/t ratio exoveds the veconmended limite, the carry~ ing capacity mat he established by a actentifie method. Thus, the use of box aootions with (2/t) >(b/t) yu, should be posetble. c46 __ The present Recormendations do not contain any rules relatéd to shelts. Hovener the ECCS Manual on Stability of Steel Structures, contatna in Chap ter 10 - Shells a draft of design epectficatione pertaining to a Limited ran- ge of types of shell and loading.61 RECOMMENDATIONS R 4.4 THIN-WALLED COMPRESSION MEMBERS The width/thicknese (b/t) ratio of structural elements subjected to axial compression shall satisfy where: oF designates the limiting stress given in R4.1.1 a, is the critical stress given by the linear theory of plate buckling: we TEL ex ‘be 12Q-v°) After elementary transformations, with v= 0.3, one gets > : z 2 < 0.760. Va) /—*$—> (o, 9.) Kor ‘This formula gives following results: = one edge free, the other simply supported (angles): = 0.426 E < 0.49./ mA Wy apt = both edges simply supported: o= 4 b E Bersz/—E, = (% o,) R 4,5 BUCKLING OF PLATES The ultimate strength of plated structures depends on their postbucy kling etrength reserve. Methods are presently being developed by Commission 8 to design plate and box girders for ultimate strength. In the meantime, provisional rules have been established on the basia of the linear theory of buckling plates. In these rules the postbuckling stren- gth reserve is taken into account by a suitable correction factor which is ba sed on the available experiments. These rules are given in Annexe C. R 4,6 BUCKLING OF SHELLS62 COMMENTS C 5.1.2 The present miles are based on the so-called "simple plastic theory" which isa first-order theory neglecting the effect of the elasto-plastic displace- menté on the mode of action of the forces, Henceforth, they apply only to atructures for ukich this approzimation is acceptable. Plastic design is intended for use in structures which depend on continuity for their abitity to carry the computed maximum load, Plastic design is there~ fore not recommended aa a eubstttute for elastic-deotgn for etructureo that tre essentially pin-conneoted. If svay franes of one or tuo storeys are designed by simple plastic theory, the stability rules (see Ff 5.4, & 5.5, R 5.6) must be satisfied. Second order effecta must be allowed for in the design of frames with a low degree of rigidity, © 8.1,2.7 Simple plastic design methods assume that members are not twisted. A special analyate mat be made in the case of btarial bending.63 RECOMMENDATIONS RS, PLASTIC COLLAPSE DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES R5.1 SCOPE AND GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS Subject to the limitations contained herein, the structures defined under R 5 1.i way be proportioned on the basis of plastic collapse design, i.e., Considering as s limit stete the fornation of a plastic collepse mechanisn, SMtepe in the case of multi-storey frames, for vbich in principle a second order theory must be used The present specifications are to be considered as complementary to the specifications for elastic design and 211 pertinent provisions in these specifi, cations which are not modified by the present text apply. R5.1.L TYEE OF STRUCTURES Clauses R 5.1 to 5.8 of the present specifications apply to plane frame~ Like structures for vhich the equilibrium equations ney be safely written consi- dering the undeformed geometry of the structure, i.e., second-order effects may be neglected. More specifically, above clauses will generally apply to: ~ simple or continuous beans = one and tvo storey frames, braced or unbraced. In any dubious case, it ia up to the designer to establish that the sumption is fulfilled. Mslti-etorey frames, which do not comply with above asoumptions, are covered by clause R 5.9. Yne design of two- or three-dimensional objects, like plates, shells, etc, is outside the scope of the present specifications. above BS.Le1.1 Members The cross-section of menbers must have at least one axis of symmetry, jecated in the plane of the structure, except for secondary members which sre restrained against twist.4 COMMENTS CEE The following assunptiona ave made tn epplying eimple plastic theory to the design of beans and frames: On wy loading, the loade ave aseuned to vary proportionally to each other. = he oolue of the Bending moment oan at most equal the full plastte moment M1. = the material ie oufficiently ductile to sustain large local strains in acne of high curvature. —plastee deformations of the structure am be treated as concentrated at the plastic hinges. ~ Uastic deformationa of monbera between the plastic hinges do not alver the overall geemetry of the structure. = defleziona of menbers and of the overall etrusture at the point of collapse (just before the formation of the lect plastie hinge) are sufficiently amalt not to impaix the capacity of the structure to sustain the specified toade. —conneations between members of the structure are suffictently strong to tran~ Smit the full plastic momenta of the merbers, and have sufficient rotation capacity to altow the formation of the collapee mechanism. The plastic Lintt theorems which may be used to determine the ultimate load are: a) Uniqueness theorem: The value of Load ukich satisfies the three conditions of mechantam, equili- briun and plasticity te equal to the true value of the plastica Limi? toad. b) Upper bound theorem: A load ealeulated from an aseuned mechaniem te greater than or equal to the true plastic Limit’ toad. c) Lower bound theorem: 4 load for whioh the equilibrium and plasticity conditions ave eatiofied te lesa than or equal to the true plastic limit load. No combination of loads may exceed the ultimate load. For any combination of loads, it met be possible to find a set of moments eatiafying the lover bownd theorem. For complicated structures tt may weli be that "exact" plastic limit Loads emmot be found, due to involved geometry of parts or of the complete structure. ‘The above theorems enable the bracketing of the ansuer elosely enough for practical engineering purposes. ‘in actual, and therefore three-dimenstonal, building frane usually ia treated as a collection of two-dimensional frames subjected to statically equivalent loads. This procedure disregards part of the strength of the actual structure. Zy the lower-bourd theorem, euch a design is on the safe side as compared with a deaign of the three-dimenstonal structure excluding any possible inetabi- lity effeet. © $.1.3 The requirements assure that the material will eahibit a good structural duc- tility, together with euffictent otrain-hardening. Strain-hardening ts as much nuoded as ductility to achieve moment redistribution and the attatrment of the Limit load. A member made of a material which exhibits Limited stratn-hardening Will experience very high Local strains at the critical sections and this will lead to early instability, or, if thie te prevented, to fracture of the material. ‘4 simple plastic deeign has been limited to the struatures part made of 13 Luin? tanina = mowbed uteldaatnana plateme and aood ductility (see R $.1.2).65 RECOMMENDATIONS 25.1.2 PRINCIPLES FOR CALCULATION The structures satisfying the requirements of R 5.1.1 may be designed using the simple plastic theory, The ultimate load of the structure is the most unfavourable load, or combination of loads, for which: 1 - Total or partial collapse of the structure is achieved by the formation of a number of plastic hinges sufficient to transform the whole structure, or part of it, into a mechanism; 2-4 bending moment distribution may be found: = which is in equilibrium with the applied loads, even in the possible sta~ tically indeterminate parts of the structure; = in which the sign of each moment is in agreement vith the sign of the corresponding rotation in each mechanism; - in which no bending moment exceeds the plastic capacity of the member considered. RS.1,3 TYPE OF MATERIAL The present specifications apply to steel structures. The struccursl steel will be: A) of the standardized Fe 360, Fe 430, or Fe 510 grade; 8) of any other grade, provided that the three following conditions are met: 1. The stress-strain diagram shows at yield stress a plateau extendigg at least 6 times the yield strain;66 COMMENTS Plastic design methods might alao be used with materials without a marked yield plateau (e.g. aluniniun alloys, high strength oteol), but experience with Buch materials ts Limited. C824 = The notion of plastic hinge aseunes that the monber ic eubmitted to bending only, with an attowance for shear and normal foroes, but excluding any tor- Gtonal effect. External foross mist act im such a vay as to avoid torstonal honente, whioh would diminish the plastie resistance capacity of the monbor tn compression, shear and bending. = another fundamental assumption of plastic design ie that the material rematns utile mtil collapse. This precludes the use of plastic design in the case of structure eubjected to fatigue. Por the eame reason, environmental conditions, quality of steel and fabrica- tion and erection procedures must be ouch ao to avoid any risk of brittle fracture. ‘The rules given in these specifications may be used tf the variatione in the applied loading are enall or if the nunber of repetitions t2 encll. In cases of doubt, an analysis should be made for alternating plasticity and inevenental collaps2 (shakedown). Alternating plasticity does not usually cecur in normal butiding frares. Repeated wind and enov Loading is only rarely critical for shakedown, but the effect of ears, trucke and eranes may be more marked. tn making @ plastic design the following effects may generally be neglected: settlement of supports, residual tresses and stresses due to temperature varia tione, provision of extva restraint (e.g. clamping of joints) not attoved for in the design. C. 5.2.2 The way a structure is designed has no influence on the mode of action of the loads, and the enhancenent factor applied to the Loads in plastic design met therefore be the eane as that used in elastic design.67 RECOMMENDATIONS 2. The ratio of the guaranteed lower limit of the ultimate stress co the gueran teed lower yield stress has to exceed 1.23 3. The tensile test elongation ay = 5a) is at least 15: R5.2 Loans R 5.2.1 MODE OF ACTION The loads, or resultants of loads, must act in the plane of the struc~ ture. ‘The loads acting on the structure must be predouinantly static. The use of plastic design is not allowed for structures vhich may be subjected to damage by fatigue and by exceptional seismic loads. In some cases, where loads other than wind, varying independently, may cause the ruin of the structure by accumulation of small cycles of plastic de~ formation, the collapse load must be replaced by the stabilization load, i.e. the highest load for which the cyclic plastic deformations come to an end after 2 certain number of loading cycles (shake-doun load). It is the responsibility of the designer to accertain when the number of load variations and their intensity during the required life of the structu- re are such as to necessitate the calculation of the stabilization load. It is also the responsibility of the designer to estimate the stabilization load in a sufficiently accurate way. R 5.2.2 DESIGN LOADINGS The design loadings F* are vorked out starting from the characteristic actions Fy taking the enhancement factors Ye), into account according to the relation: * Fw veo Fe The value of is taken equal to the enhancement factor for ela~ Yep stic design ‘ye The values of Yp are defined at R1.5 of the E.C.C.S. Recommendations for Steel Construction.68 COMMENTS ¢ 5.3.1 ‘The design vatue of the plastic moment M,, ts obtained by dividing the characteristic value of the plastic moment M, by a coefficient Ymp taking ‘nto azcourt the epecific behaviour of the structure in plastic design, and the fact that the Limit state of plastte design to the cotlepie of the structure. at ton 1 of the E.C.0.5. haa not fixed any particular value for Yyp- Presently, tuo trends are provatling: ™ a) ets Us, plastic deatgn the eane factors as for elastic design, thus merely substituting one Limit case to the other; by a ece for plastic design @ factor ty greater than 1, because the Limit etate is more dangerous. me another fact to consider io that, at R 3.2. ¢of £.0.0.S. Recormendations and on ee eee” come countries, a certain qnowst of ytetding 1s accepted in or oe Gootgn fon elements subjected to bending. In this case, the naximen bending moment in elastic design becomes: Meno, W¥ vith 1¢n 31.28 Since it te not possible, at the present time, 10 discard any of the two approa chee, Commission § (Plasticity) of the F.C.C.S., in ageonent with Comseton 1, has adopted, ae a substitute to reduction factors Peeulting fron a true pro~ habilistic study, the proposed formula. seer oadus of 2 48 a= 2/t, the mean value of which ie 11h, a ie Brdaed, pewever, to use the exact value of % for the profile conet- dered.69 RECOMMENDATIONS R5.3 BASIS FOR CALCULATIONS 5.3.1 PLASTIC MOMENT The plastic monent M, of a section may be calculated on the assump tion that the entire section yields in pure bending. 4. mula: : 2 given by the for Mi=Z.o. P r where Z is the plastic modulus of the section, which is equal to the sum of the static moments of both halves of the cross section about the neutral exis in plastic bending. The design plastic moment ¥,, is derived from the true plastic moment M, by the relation: Hy Ml—p 1 7 Mo! Yep with: = i toy a/ns c = 1,12 (mean shape factor) n= the eventual coefficient for partial yielding used in plastic design which may not be greater than a - R5,3.2 SHEAR Ynless there are reinforcements by diagonal stiffeners of double plates, the web of columns, beams and girders, including areas within the boundaries of the connections, shall be proportioned so that the shear force at the limit sta- teepe less Ehany or equal to, the maximm shear force V,; with: Vv, 20,58. 0 E pl ‘e 25.3.3 INTERACTION BETWEEN BENDING MOMENT, SHEAR AND AXIAL FORCE In sections, submitted to the conbined action of the bending moment, shear and/or azial force, it is possible that the full plastic moment may not be available, depending on the value of the other actions Generally, for ell cases not covered by the particular provisions be~ low, the reduction of the plastic capacity of the section will be determined on the basis of the lover bound theorem, i.e., normal and shear stresses may be Gieteibueed over the section in the best conceivable wey, provided their dit stribution is statically admissible. ya the case of rolled profiles, however, this general rule may be di- spensed with ané replaced by the sinplified rules belov, which experimental evidence has shown to be safe.Jo COMMENTSn RECOMMENDATIONS 2 5.3.3.1 Influence of shear force on the plastic moment In the case of doubly symmetrical rolled I- or H~ profiles, bent about the strong axis, the valua of the plastic moment vill not be affected by the presence of shear forces, if these may be transmitted entirely by the web. tm the case of doubly syumetricel built-up profiles, if the shear force Y is greater than 1/3 V\ tke plastic monent will be reduced according to the formula: e Mogg = Myy X (Led ~ 0.3 x W/VL) R5.3.3.2 Influence of axial force on the plastic moment In general it is allowed to use the accurate formilae for Standard sections, given in some handbooks. For doubly symmetrical rolled H or I profiles, the influence of the axial force on the plastic moment may be neglected if the axial force is jess than or equal to a limit value given in the table below. Othervise, the plastic moment must be reduced according to the formila given below. BENDING ABOUT THE STRONG | BENDING ABOUT THE WEAK AXIS AXIS H Limic O1N, 0.2 Sections | value ei ‘pl REA HEB n/N HEM 100 | Reduction] M.gel-IL Mj CL - N/NL1)] MegMarjt> |B to formula p e e HEM 600 z Limic 0.18 N 0.36 N sections | V2) 5 BNL 38 Ng rey | ™ Reduction ee") ‘n/N formula. | Mred@??22 Mp, (1 - N/N,4) Meta [ & R 5.3.3.3 Influence of both shear - and axial force on the plastic moment ‘The influence of both shear and axial force may be neglected if: N/0.10 Ny + Wp, £1 for rolled H-profiles (HEA, HEB, HEM 100 te 600); N/O.18 Noy + V/¥py <2 for rolled Teprofites (IPE 100 to 600).72 COMMENTS C54 In plastic andlysts, it ta tacitly assumed that, in all hinges, the moment capaatty of the menber will venain at the Level of the plastic manent until caer cges have developed to form a nechanion. Ab that time, the stect of the oct yinge may have bean atrained up to the end of tho yield platen. 7% ia Tree pore neceseany that the mbnent capacity not be impatred by tocal Duckling cref ore Meeatron’ corresponding t0 the ond of the yield plateau has been achie ved. ‘The restetawe to local buckling of the compression flanges 18 depandent on te eet Siotnese ratio and the constraint exerted by the web. A similar vituation exists for ueb buckling. C86 In order to realize the necessary inelastic rotations at plastic hi . stic hinge lo: tions, every menber must have sufficient Lateral eupport to cpaure that the = plastic nome af the, hinge locations ia not neduced by lateral torsional tr fore a mechaniem is formed. The abili: is tou buckding before a mechanien, fe ability ts ensured by Limiting «the73 RECOMMENDATIONS R5,4 Local BUCKLING In all the following formulae c., is expressed in N/am’. In order to prevent premature local buckling, the compressed parts under bending and compression (with formation of plastic hinges under limit load) must present a width-to-thickness ratio (b/t) lower than the following values. A) Flange of rolled shapes and flange plates of composed shapes: b/t < 17,5 123570, B) Stiffeners The part of flange plates in box girders located between the free edge and the longitudinal The part of reinforcing plates bolt lines or weld seans ble < 8,5 1735/0, C) The part of flange plates in box girders located between longitudinal bolt lines or weld seans ‘The part of reinforcing plates b/t < 32,5 2335/0, The depth-to-thickness ratio of the web to beams and columns designed vader limit lead for an axial thrust N and a bending moment cannot be higher then the highest value obtained using the following formulae. hye = (70 ~ 100 W/N,,) YTIS/e, if NIN, < 0.275 h/t < 43 1 257e, if W/N,) 20.27. R5,5 BRACING REQUIREMENTS AGAINST LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS Lateral bracing must be provided where needed in order to prevent lateral buckling of the members. In members where no plastic hinge forms in the collapse mechanism, the distance between lateral bracing supports will be proportioned according to the rules given at R 4,3. Tf plastic hinges do appear in a member, the section where the plastic hinge forms must be laterally supported, and the distance 1, between two bracing supports cannot be higher then the highest value obtained from the two following formulae: bli, < (60 ~ 40 M/M,4) VT37e, if “1 < MM, 0.5; (5.571) lk : igliy < 40 123570, if WM > 0.55 (5.5-2)74 COMMENTS Adiistonal information may be found in the following references: pstabilintt dunchlaufender Stahipfetten, Der Stahibau 38 eicon Mx dan Xippstohernetcenachuets beim Tra- Der Bautngenteur, 47 (1978), E. 7. Traglastversuche mit konvinuterlichen Pfetten und Welleterntt— Findeckung, Der Bauingenieur 41 (1966), H. 11, S. 440. PELIKAN, W.: YVersuoho sux Kippetoherhett von durchlaufenden Pfetten mit letch- ter Davhaindeekung. DAST-Forachungsvorhaben ~ 3.3.05/I Anechluss~ bericht von 13.2.1970 uid 3.3.05/1I Zwischenbericht vom 17.2.1970. OXBORT, J., HILDEBRAND, P.: Traglastversuch an durchtaufenden Pfetten mit Leichtbetonplatten ale Dacheindeckung. Dex Eauin- genteur 45 (1971), H. 4.75 RECOMMENDATIONS where M is the lowest end-moment of the segment between the two supports, is the radius of inertia of the whole section about the week exis. The above formula does not apply to members having their weak axis normal to the plane of bending. Columns embedded in masonry walls may be considered as laterally supported if the ratio of the thickness of the wall to the depth of the profile is not less than 0. Bracings must have enough strength and stiffness to operate until the limit load of the structure is achieved. This condition will be fulfilled if: Tyla 7 O29 (gg! bA/ALL) » 2 ‘ LyelMyp 0.8m ers pil Fly ~ for internal spans of continuous beans: c> 0.9m yer putty In these formulae ly is for the whole cross-section. Instead of continuous torsional restraint, isolated torsional springs may be used if, spread out, they present the same minimal value as the continuous coefficients here above and if their distance fulfills the conditions of form Ize 5.5-1 and 5.5-2. Connections must be provided in order to guarantee the effective transmis sion of moment between the supported beam and the device providing the torsional restraint,76 COMNENTS 5.8.1 In the case of colwme subjected to axtal forces only, it is not required, if one coneiders the teolated colwm, to put a limit on the slenderness ratio of the colwm, provided it is designed correctly, using the E.C.C.S. buckling cur ves. However, if one considers the overall stability of the frame, and more particularly, the senetvivity of the structure to second order effects, ona mist be amare of the fact that thie senettivity te a direct fusetion of the alender- ness ratio of the colwme. It te therefore necessary to limtt this slenderness patio for frames calculable by simple plastic, first-order, theory and for which no special overall atability analyets ts made. The linet. presented te intended for thio case, and may be exceeded if an extended atability avalyete te conduoted.W RECOMMENDATIONS R5,6 STABILITY OF COMPRESSED MEMBERS R 5.6.1 AXTALLY LOADED MEMBERS The slenderness ratio in the plane of the frame as L/D, of the columns which present a plastic hinge at a factored load, shall not be higher than Aa /EAL with Gl sn FETED Application of this formula may be replaced by a more elaborate method to check the stability of the column under second-order effects. The axial force at the factored load shall not be higher than Nyt aA co Se where o, is the limit stress taken from the E.C.C.S. buckling curves. R 5.6.1.1 The evaluation of the slenderness ratio in structures with fixed nodes For rectangular frames with fixed nodes, the effective length of the columns may be evaluated by the formula p> t (3 - 1.6 (5, + 85) + 0.88 8, 85] [5 - ca, + 85) + 0.28 8, 85] - Bh EK EK + Eka), 8, = DK MEK,, + EK.4), , gp/(TK 4, * EKpg) with! K, © 1/2 if column; c 1.15 I/L if the beam is hinged at the far end k (true hinge or plastic hinge); 2 I/L if the beam is fixed at the far end; 8, OF B, reduces to (0.95 if the corresponding column end is fixed ; 0.05 if it is hinged (true hinge or plastic hinge) . Alternatively, the effective length of the column may be evaluated by using the following chart, which has been adopted for the new British code.18 COMMENTS79 RECONMENDATIONS Effective length ratio aft Hinged 10 bg ag ‘Distribution costficient as " oe (Sum of beac os Milfness af top) h% as os Distribution cosfficien as Mh a2 My=eK/(K4Z Kit} a1 Ib=K/(K+E Kipp) Fixed of O%ar a2 a3 04 a5 Q6 07 OB 09 10 Fixed Hinded Th Column Stiffness Total Stiffness at joint Effective-length ratios for single column with restraining beams and rigid joints and no sway. R 5.6.1.2 The evaluation of the slenderness ratio in structures where nodes are free to move In the case of rectangular frames without bracing length of columns may be evaluated by the following formula ast ef [i the effective +24 (By + Bp) +141 8, By]/[B, + 6, + 8 Bgl Alternatively, the following chart may be used. These methods are not applicable to columns restrained by oblique beans.80 COMMENTS 05.6.2 Mombora eubjeated to combined arial foree and bending moment may exhibit dtf- ferent types of fatture: a) If the menber is very short, instability effects will be negligible, but the Plastic moment capacity will be reduced by the presence of the axial force, ae specified at F 5.3.3.2. b) If the member is sufficiently braced in the lateral direction or for a men- ber vhich ia bent about ita weak axts, the mode of fatlure will be inetabi~ lity due to secondary bending moment tn the plane of the applied moment. ¢) If a member bent about the etrong axto has inouffictent lateral bracing and if a large difference exiate between the bending atiffnesses about each of the principal azea of the crose section, the menber may bend out of the plane of the applied monents and twist at the sane tine. This type of fatlure ta called "Lateral torsional buckling". The firet mode of fatlure presente little difficulty and ie easily covered by the two formilae proposed, which ave a direct transposition from R 5.3.3.2.al RECOMMENDATIONS Effective length ratio @,/7 Sum of heam ae aifenesses at top joint TAK/ CIE) TEKMeIK ee) Fixed “onps 0.2 0.3 04 0S 08 07 0.8 09 10 Fixed us Hinged Colum Stiffness a Total Stiffness at joint Effective-length ratios for single column with restraining beams and rigid joints, and no restraint against side-sway (no shear). R 5.6.2 MEMBERS IN COMPRESSION AND BENDING In the following articles, several parameters are used, vhich are defi ned as follows: i = x or y axis, N = axial load, Ns = 0.6 +0.4 M../M,> 0. a 0.6 +0.4 M,,/M;. > 0.4, M, = end moment with the smallest absolute value, = end moment with the highest absolute value, = absolute value of M.,, = representative eccentricity about the i axis = = Coleg, DA = glee) IN) i82 COMMENTS the two reriaining modes of failure, tnvolving colwm instability, ave far less easy to cope with, and have led to various approaches and retatea design methods, vhich may be aorted into tuo groups: ul Nethote using a more op lesa elaborate interaction formula, intended to apply to all sizes of profiles. In the establishment of such formilae, only gene* pal aspects of the behaviour of beam colums are considered, and their use may Lead to an uneconomical design. But their use te relavively simple b) Nethods neprecenting more closely the actual behaviour of the eolum const: dered, and taking into account its precise environnent. These methods requi— ge the establisiment of spectal purpose curves or monograms for each type of golum, These graphic aids permit the evaluation of the actual moment-rota” tion relationstip of the colum, from which the capacity of beam-colwm with gnd-reatraints and of sub-assemblages is derived. The design obtained by the fe methods may be move efficient than with the interaction formulae, but at the coat of move intricate computations. The methods of the firet group are generally sufficient for low-rise buii- dings, while methods of the second group may be preferable in the case of multe: storey frames. ‘A comprehensive set of forrelae has been introduced im the European recommen dations for steel construction, for the ease of elastic design. Those formice have been olightly modified to fit in plastic desig. The formlac proposed, covering the case of beam colwme capable of lateral torsional buckling, are written in the form of biaxial bending formtae. In the present state, houever, they mst be used for monoarial bending only. t-e-, Either one of the bending moment M, or M, must be nade equal to sero These formlac have been tested in this case and have proved to be safe- Further investigations will be made to check whether or not they may also be safely applied in the case of biazial bending. The formulae for beam colum imply the evaluation of eccentricities, is e, using the formila stated. As @ einple substitute, the following approzima- : buckling curve invol, +5 values may be used, in function of the relevant F.C.C.5. ved: B,C.C.8. aurve 4 2 eC h te the height of the colwm. YOCEL has shom that the use of these values led to very close approvinations of the European buckling curves. The elendemess ratio. The formlae presented imply the evaluation of the slenderness ratio Ay = b, where t ts the radius of gyration of the cross-section and ty ts vie effect ve length of the bar. In structures whose nodes are fixed in apace, thts e, eti= ve length may be safely taken equal to the Sar aage Te ae nodes are not fixed, however, the problem of the determination of the effective length ts very difficult, as this Length changes each tine a new hinge te formed in the structure. If no other approach ia avatlable, the effective Length may be determined by the charte or formlae recommended in the cave of elastic design. Kt83 RECOMMENDATIONS limit buckling stress in the i direction, taken from the appro- Ki priate buckling curves of the E.C.C.S. a, * plastic modulus about the i axis oor = EULER buckling stress in the i direction Ws; Sen, AlN ® = coefficient for lateral tersional buckling, 9 = a ¢./oy a + limiting lateral buckling stress (see R 4.3). R 5.6.2.1 Monoaxial bending, strong axis, no lateral torsional buckling The following relations shall be satisfied: wis, + [u,/, - D1 (6, xe at .6-1) N/A < oyy (.6-2) <1 if N/N < 0.10 Baz (8.6-3) HM Sd LE Wy abs My Stan a - N/N,1) if RM, > 0.20 g be (5.674) eee £1 if N/M < 0.18 Dee O.6-30is) <1. - if > 0.18 33 & (5.6-4b: My S222 GN) SE WM, > Od whe « is) Loe R 5.6.2.2 Monoaxial bending, week axis, no lateral torsional buckling és +neD/M, 51 6 wry + yoy Do) By Hy + NED Ms (5.6-5) WIA < dy, (5.6-6) i PES en MyM) $2 Sf WIN, 50.2 Bad y 3 £8 = “ 2 i > % a= 5 6-8) Mo, Sa SPR 0.2)°/0.64 if N/R 0.2 Bes ¢ ) May £1 if N/M, < 0.36 aig (5.6-7bis) gus 3 BE 5. 6-api: yn, ZL GUN) 0.36)°/0.41 £ WIS) 0.36 4 fe is 8)84 COMMENTS85 RECOMMENDATIONS R 5.6.2.3 Moncexial bending with lateral torsional buckling (M, or M must be zero) x 3 s ef wry + [usa - D] aut N Mt [arty a) a, Mh <1 (5.6-9) * < im Ws + flo, =o] & 8 wy * fray - vp] ayy + mebima S' (seo In addition, the relations 5.6-2, 5.6-3, 5.6-4 or 5.8-6, 5.6-7, 5.6-8, according to the direction of bending, must also be satisfied. R5.6.2.4 Design equations for beam-colums biaxially leaded The design equations for colums subjected to biaxial bending with lateral torsional buckling are as follows. a) Provisions against buckling: + Not + - sees aM + Doel Oy = n] 8g Hy * NOD A, [rao a 8, Myf, £2 (56-11) + Ne* < a! Wiig + [My - v] 68, aM [By My - »v] by ¥ Rey 1 (5.6-12) vhere the gotations hove the seme meaning as in clause R 5.6.2. b) Provisions against formation of a plastic hinge at one (or che two) end: < a hy Ch Meea)” * My Meead” <2 (5.6-13) a may be taken conservatively equal to unity. In the case of compact H or I~ shape sections in which the flenge width is not less than 0.30 of the depth, one cen use the more refined veluer a 1.6 -cU/N [2 9ts/N,)] (3.6-14) In the case of doubly symmetrical I-profiles values of M.,, and M..4 are given in R 5.3.3.2. *86 COMMENTS c 6? Connection play a key role in asouring that a atructure can reach the compu ted ultimate load. The principal requirements for connections are: = 1) Suffictent strength, 2) Adequate plastic rotation capacity, 3) Overall stiffness for maintaining the location of all structural. units rela- tivly each other. The firet point implies a good proportioning of the elements of the conmec— tin. The distribution of internal actions nay be assessed by applying the "Lower bound theorem". ‘A sufficient rotation capacity ie an essential requirement for the assumed distribution of hinges at collapee actually occurs. This requirement implies a good detailing againet Local instability. o 5.8.1.2 The change of geometry which occurs near collapse can reduce the collapse load below the value given by simple plastic theory. Such a reduction te refer ned to as a "second effect” (see comentary under "deflections"). ‘It has been found that, provided the erttical toad (or "bifurcation toad") under vertical Loads only it at least ten times the plastie collapse Load given by etmple plastic theory, the lone of capacity due to second order effects is either negligible or is compensated by stratn-hardening. For single atorey etngle bay franes, the lowest critical toad ie always ob- tained for a mode involving sideevay (fig. 5.8-1) and the recommendations ensu re that, tf thts oritical load ie not at least ten times the plastic collapse load the engineer is required to investigate second order effects. Single storey multi bay franes may also have a sidesuay mode for the lovest eritical mode, particularly vhen the colums are slender, and the recormenda~ tione for aingle bay franca ave then applicable. Additicnally, houever, pitched roof multibay frames may suffer from c "snap-through" type of instability (fig. §.8-2), particularly wren extrene advantage has been taken in the design of the arching effect. Formula B in the recommendations safeguards aga?! this dawer. The extent to which arching action ts used in the decign ts mea ‘une? by the quantity ¢: if it te less than witty, no use is made of arching ste Vand theme Fetun mand ta abanh thie nemrinanentch RECOMMENDATIONS R5.7 CONNECTIONS ALL connections will have a design strength such that the structure shall be capable to resist all combinations of loads to which it might be subjected by the full factored loading. Connections may be designed by distributing the internal forces in tho best conceivable vay,provided that they are in equilibrium with the applied fac tered loads, that the plastic capacity is nowhere exceeded and that the adopted distribution does not entail excessive deformations. The plastic rotation capacity of the connections gust be sufficient for all the plastic hinges needed for the collapse mechanism-to occur. This rotational ca~ pacity must eventually be demonstrated sy experimental evidence. The rigidity of the connection must be such that the rotation capacity of no hinge in the collapse mechanism is exceeded. High strength bolts, bolts, rivets and welds shall be proportioned to resist the forces produced at factored load, according to the rules given in chapters R 6, R7y R 5,8 OVERALL STABILITY AND DEFORMATIONS R 5.8.1 OVERALL STABILITY R 5.8.1.1 Single storey portals a - Single bay frames Single bay frame designed according to plastic theory must satisfy the following requirements: Due to horizontal loads, applied in the same direction to the top of each column, and equal to 0.01 of the vertical load in the column at the requi Ted factored collapse load, the sway deflection shall nowhere exceed 1.8 h/1000 where h is the height of the columa, In calculating > al- lowance may be made for the restraining effect of cladding. Irrespective of the effects of cladding, the condition may be dee~ med to be satisfied provided the columas are rigidly connected to the main roof member which they support and provided Ih, < (50/t) I/h [a/(2 + @)] (240/0,) cose8B COMHENTS Shap-through mode Pig. §.8-2 second moment of area Ih bb second moment of area Ie é second moment 'b of creo Ip second moment of crea Icwhere: mre o a HM Be nega & a9 RECOMMENDATIONS span of the bay height of a colum minimum depth of the roof beam or rafter in that bay angle of pitch of rafter(@ = 0 for a flat roof) 0.5 G7) an) /siné minimum second moment of area of colums supporting the bay second moment of area of rafter guaranteed yield stress (N/mm*) ratio beetween the factored vertical load in bay end the uniformly di stributed load which would be supported by a continuous horizontal roof beam of span 1 with the same distribution of cross-section in plan as the actual rafter (See fig. 5.8-3) b - Multi-bay frames Multi-bay frames designed according to plastic theory must satisfy the same condition as single bay frames here above. In addition, they must also fulfill the conditio: Le, £25 (4 L/h) (2+ T/T) (20/o,) tan 20/ [eC np] If these requirements are not satisfied, one has to apply the se~ cond-order theory.90 COMMENTS © 5.8.2.1 The structural engineer is concerned with the deflections of the structure at tuo stages: @) Under the service toads b) At impending collapse, th-t te just before the last winge forms, thus tran aforming the structure into a mechanism. The importance of the deflections under service loads is obvious: too Lax, deflections may cause the cracking of plaster coatings, of windows, or may der the closing of doors, to cite trivial tnconventendes. Swinging walkways or ratlinge may aleo inspire feare in people. The service deflections are espeotatly more importart ae they are very Li- kely to actually cecur, and mist therefore be limited. As the Limiting values of service deflections will depend on technologteal op peychological considerations, they do not vary vith the way the structure is designed, and service deflections for plastically designed structures ehould therefore be the sane as in clastic desig. The tmportance of the deflections at impending collapse 12 related to the averalt atability of the structure. Of primary importance are the lateral de- Flections due to lateral Loads or to a lack of eymmetry of the geometry or of the vertical loading.Any sideeuay of the otructure vill cause secendary P-& effects, which will in turn amplify the deflections. At a certain erttical va- lue of the load, called the stability limit load, the reststance of the atruc- ture will begin to decrease and complete collapse will occur. The rigorous evaluation of the stability Limit load requires a second order elasto-plastie analysis. As a substitute to thta tedicue procees, tt has beon recommended in some codes to make an evaluation of the first-order deflection gi impending collapse: tf this deflection ts amall enough (< 0.020 h; h being the height of the story)” P-s effects can be neglected. This simplified approach, hovever, has two disadvantages: ~ First, in many tristancus, it ts very difficult, if not impossible to apply, because of the difficulty of determining which is the Laat hinge to form. ~ Second, even vhen tt can be calculated, the deflection at impending collapse nay make little sense. Indeed, the actual order of hinge formation depends on the actual structural and geometrioal imperfections of the structure and nay differ widely from the theoretical onder assumed in the caleulations, where these imperfections are not alloved for. The deeign requirements for Limited deflections at working load and the re- cormendaticna made in this document to safeguard againot second-order effecte are together sufficient to protect the structure against excessive P-A ef- fects,a1 RECOMMENDATIONS R 5.8.2 DEFORMATIONS R 5.8.2.1 Working deflectiong Deflections under service loads will be checked against the limite: tions given in the specifications for elastic design.32 COMMENTS Cs 91 This limitation is intended to make sure that the end moments induced in the colurms by P-\ effects remain amall. Indeed, the design rule R 5.9.2.2 asau- mes that the bracing system restete all P-a effects and that the colums are free of any significant ecllicttation due to evay deflection. Now, some calculations perfomed by DAVISON and ADAMS ahow that the drift of some tall braced frames may be larger than that of the corresponding unbraced frange. C 5.9.2.1 A situation more oritical than full loading can develop if the factored 1i- ve load is removed at a few Locations. The typical Loading arrangement that should be considered ts shown in fig. 5.9-1 (a). The factored Live loads are removed in alternate bays at levels U, C and L only, The colum moments caused ly thie localized checkerboard arrangement tend to approach the most oritical single cumature ease ( r= +1) while keeping the arial load relatively wn- changed. The posetbility of having a complete checkerboard pattern ie extremely remote and not even as critical a condition, since aztal load in the column would be substantially reduced. In the "localized" checkerboard loading, the axial lead will be reduced slightly, but at the lower stories the reduction i: usually insignificant. A comparison between the moment diagrams for full gra- vity aid checkerboard loadings te shoun in fig. 5.9-1 (b) « Not ondy can vr be increased from the double curvature case, but the moment applied to the colume at level @ can be increased.93 RECOMMENDATIONS R5,9 MULTI STOREY FRAMES R 5.9.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Generally, the design of multi-storey frames is subjected to clauses R 5.1 to R 5.7.They must in addition comply with the requirements described below. Lf any conflict occurs between an item of the present chapter and a similar item of R 5.1 to 85.7, the present clause takes precedence. Mslti-storey frames are divided into two categories: braced and unbra ced frames, depending on the way the direct effect of horizontal loads and the destabilizing effect of lateral displacements are resisted. Lf special struc~ tural elements (shear walls,central core, truss menbers.....) are used, the structure is called braced. It is unbraced if only the flexural rigidity of the mombers is relied upon. In the scope of the present recommendations, however, it is additional, ly required, for a bracing system to de considered as effective, that the fol lowing condition be fulfilled: s,/5, 25 where 5, is the stiffness of the braced structure S$, is the stiffness of the structure with the bracing system removed, If this condition is not fulfilled, the structure mist be considered as unbraced. In all cases, en effective bracing system must be provided in the d rection perpendicular to the mein frames. R 5.9.2 MULTI-STOREY BRACED FRAMES Multi-etorey braced frames designed plastically must be adequately bra ced in the two directions. R5.9.2.1 Colum design The colums must be designed for the most unfavourable local loading condition, which is net necessarily the combined case of full vertical loading plus wind effect.94 COMMENTS In the exterior eolwms, checkerboard loading only affects r since the co- lum moments at the floors above and below the Level C under conetderation are reduced while the moment at level C remains conetant aa shown in fig. 5,9-1 (b). Columns to be checked __ Checkerboord ~ Gravity (a) Loading Pattern (2) Moment Diagrams Pig. §.9-1 Checkerboard loading Yone of the methode of eaeco 2) and 2) te intended to be used alone throu- ghout tho entire building in orden to obtain an optim design. For instaxce, nothing ia gained with elastic restraint for very stocky colums, eo that it might be wise to avoid case 3) design when N/¥,., 18 less than 0.2, which ts usually the case of the Lover colums of very tall buildings. On the contrary, a cclum design procedure ueing restraining beams ie likely to be most economt- cab: a) for the top half of building b) for meszanine and ground floors (foyers) where there may be cone increase in colwm height rable eudden95 RECOMMENDATIONS ‘Three cases may be distinguished: 1) Minor axis beams have pinned connections, and the frames are designed as pla nar frames. In this case, the coluans may be designed according to clause R5.6.2. 2) If minor axis beams are designed plastically ss continuous beams, plastic hinges are not allowed in the columns, which must then be designed elastical, ly using clause R 4.2. In both cases 1 and 2), the effective length ratio for the weak axis is 7. 3) If the restraining miner axis beams are deliberately kept elastic, but the major axis beams are designed plastically, then this permits the most econo~ mical slender colum design, with an effective length ratio less than 7. ‘The coluans are designed as follows: 3.a) General description of column design method This method of design is at present restricted to I-section colums only (or I-beam sections used as columns) and where there are no transverse loads applied to, the column between top and bottom joints, which must be96 COMMENTS ¢) where Universal beans ave used as colume for heavy moment (restraint greatly reduces torsion) @) where colums have to be pinned at one end and need to be "rescued" by re- straint at the other end (e.g. on bad ground) ¢) with rectangular floore noar the tep, or the edge, of a building where case D) method of design can be a mienomer: patterned Loading produces out of Balance reactions vhich ave not negligible. Moreover the sane snalt nominal minor acts beans are then used with the me- thod of ease 3), The colum design procedure using reotraining beana te desertbed in detail in "A nev approach to colwm design” (R.W. WOOD) Her Majesty's Stationary Offi ce, Holborn, London 1975. The eriterton of collapse ts one of vanishing total ateffnese and the original form does not involve any stress calculations, but nakes instead allowances for reduced stiffnece due to plasticity and buckling. Tt ie permisatble to use the original published form which is generally more economical and rapid in application. Phe patterned loadings for design is stow belov: May be reduced to Mey Interior Colwms (Major axis) Exterior Colums (Major axis)3.b) 7 RECOMMENDATIONS ‘at approximately the same level about both axes. The restraining winor— axis beams must be designed as continuous elastic beams (with rigid-join- ted moment resisting connections) but assuming no help from the colums when the columns are at the point of collapse, i.e. the beams are to be designed as effectively coatinucus but on pinned supports. The mejor-axis beams are designed plastically with moment resistant conaec tions, and may take advantage of rigid frame action with the colunne. The major axis column moments allew some plasticity under factored loads but are limited to a "compression flange plastic" condicion to avoid deterio- ration of elastic restraint (see Comments). All calculations are for factored load conditions of collapse. column design bending moments. These are calculated by simple moment-distribution or other means, assuq ning rigid joints, for a limited frame comprising the column length being designed and the adjacent upper and lower lengths, together with adjacent beams. ‘The far ends of all adjacent members can be taken as fixed. Patterns of liv ve loading should be considered under factored loa¢ conditions (appertai- ning to collapse) which give the largest component of single-curvature bending in the column about one axis, together with such loads es can occur similtaneously about the other axis. If, iri these loading patterns, the najor-axis beams cartying full load acquire full plasticity then the requi~ red plastic moment for the beam is used instead of the elastic fixed-end-mo nent’ and the bean stiffness is altered to zero. To avoid high bending no~ ments in columns about the major axis (e.g. external columns) it is permis sible to reduce the support moment of the beam dow to a minimum of M,,/3 provided that the plastic moment of the beam, M,,, is increased elsewhere co satisfy equilibrium, che beam stiffness still being zero in a moment di stribution procedure. Beams which carry only dead loads, and 211 beams fra ming into the minor axis of the columns are assumed to remain elastic (see Comments).98 COMMENTS c cre 4 Kel, Key, cto s RoI, Ket) Interior Colunns (Minor axis) Exterior Colums (Minor axte) Pig. 5.9-2 Tn most cases these patterns can not occur similtaneously and the voret shoulc be ehosen by inspection. VALUES OF 8g, Sw “SER 2 = }aehr0m I) )) Le (A A oS Ss '- SN MANA SII “10-20-30 +40 +50 -60 4) uy] el bottom & (Nominal Colum sti; 33 I/t) = [otal stffuess of all eit fness pont) Fig. 5.9°8 Critical loade of eolums for intermediate and botton storeys (Expressed as multiples of the Euler Load W),,)99 RECOMMENDATIONS 3.¢) Colum design Tne columns exe designed according to equation (5.611, -12 and -13) of section 5.6.2.4, These equations imply the evaluation of the effective slenderness ratios Mex * Tea/ig amd Agy 7 Tey liy, entering into the expression of u, and uy and into the expressions of the dummy eccentricities er and ee The effective length ly, aust for safety reasons, be taken equal to the actual length of the column because the adjacent strong axis beama are partly plastic. Om the contrary, the effective length 1,, is that of a restrained column (see coments) because the weak axis beaus remain fully elastic; 1g, may be obtained by using the appropriate charts of formulae applicable to the case show in fig. 5.9-2. The maximun value of M, is Limited to 1.08 Wo, (1 ~ N/A o,) The rules below are intended to facilitate the conputation of u, and e%, = - 6 We, AIN = 8 y with: Ser Moxy! Mery 6 = yt ° 2 2 N oP ED fl ery y! Im the above formulae N.,, is the Euler critical load of « restrained colum. Values of 6, are given in the charts of fig. 5.9-3 and 5.9-4COMMENTSio1 RECOMMENDATIONS vhile values of & may be approximated by the formula: 6 = (200/axial stress in W ux *)100/(1/i,)7 rained column, that is the value of o,, entering into the expression of e* in R 5.6.2 must be evaluated for an effective slenderness ratio equal to 1/(iy 7 5_,). ‘The dumy eccentricity 3 must be computed for a rt R5.9.2.2 Bracing system The vertical bracing systen shall be adequate, as determined by « rational analysis, to: 1) Prevent buckling of the structure under gravity loads 2) Maintain the lateral stability of the structure including the overturning ef fects of drift, under the following actions: 2) factored gravity loads + factored horizontal loads b) an assumed aut-of-plumb equal to 1/200 of the height of each storey or of the structure as a whole. ‘The same rules apply to the design of the bracing system in the other direction. The designer must taken any desirable precaution to avoid spatial in stability, and orgenize the bracing systems accordingly.102 COMMENTS © 5.9.3.1 Those design methods are complicated and should normally require the use of @ computer. Several computer methods are already avatlable and some references are given belov. While moat of them do not, at the present time (1975) take account of all the aspects of practical design, they allay the seavok for an optimum (minimum veight) solution 5. HORNE, M.R. and MORRIS, L.d.: Optirum Design of Multcetorey Rigid Francs. Chapter 14 of the book: B.H. GALLAGHER and 0.C, LIENKIEWICZ: Optimen Structural Design. J. Willey and Sons, Hew York, W.-Y., 1975. . EMKIN, L.2., and LITLE, W.A.: Plastic Design of Multtstorey Steet Frames by Computer. Journ. Struct. Div., ASCE, vol. ST 11, pp. 2375-2506, 1970. 7. EMAIN, L.2., and LITLE, W.A.: Storywise Plastic Design for Multtotorey Steel Frames, Jou. Struct. Div., ASCE, vol. ST 1, pp. 327-345, 1972. 8. DAVISON, J.H., and ADAMS, B.F.: Stability of Braced Frames. Structural En- gineering Report n° 37, Dept. of Cévil Engng., University of Alberta, 177 + 4 70 pp., Getober 1971. 9, DRISCOLL, G, e dr., ARMACOST J.0. ITT, BANSELL, W.C.: Plastic design of Mul— ttetorey france by computer, A.S.C.E., J. of Str. Div., Jan 1870. Equation 5.9/a is a modified version of the original Merchant-Rankine formila. The 0.9 coefficient has been introduced for two reasons: a) the original formla was quite conservative, and several checks have shoun that the modified veraion fits better to reality; 2) the original formula has been established in the case of bare frames folle— ving and ideal rigid plastic behaviour. Real france benefit of the strengthe ning effect of cladding and of strain hardening of steel. thie explaine the better fit mentioned above. Tt is recommended. to overdesign the frane by about 10%, (te. sp 40 10% to high) in order to obtain for on, a correct values. If it appeare from equation §,9/a that the frame mst be strengthened, tt is hetter to strengthen both beams and colums simltancously; t7 titts case, the ‘cane type of mechanian may be assuned as in the original design (beam hinges only to obtain a nev value of 1, ard 6,,/oy, may be aaowned to retain t18 original value. A more selective strengthening may be performed, bus a new con- plete analyeia te then needed to evaluate the modified value of boch a, and103 RECOMMENDATIONS R 5.9.2.3 Working deflections Deflections under service loads will be checked against the limita- tions given in the specifications for elastic design. In addition it must be verified that the horizontal deflection of tht bare frame under coubined full verticel and wind loading does not exceed 1/500 of the height of the structure. R 5.9.3 MULTI-STOREY UNBRACED FRAMES R 5.9.3.1 General considerations Basically, multi storey unbraced frames must be designed using an elastoplastie second order method, taking into account the additional moments induced by the lateral displacements of the points of application of the ver- tical loads |P-a effects]. As an alternative solution, it is allowed to use a simplified design method, as follows: Frame instability is taken into account by employing the modified Merchant-Rankine formule Me) 7941/09 + 4/00.) (5.9/2) where ag) is the failure load factor a, is the rigid-plastic load factor for idealized plastic frame ne~ chanisa a,, is the elastic critical load factor, which may be evaluated as deseribed in the comments. A fe oie a Tf a.,/a,, is larger than 10, then ap, is limited to a, am the freme may be designed according to first order theory. : TE 4 3EKby a Le 5Ke = 3EKb EKe % Equivalent ground bean (a) Astual frane (b) substitute beam eolum frane jor calculating stdesuay and elastic eritteal toad factor Fig. 5.98 Substitute mlét-atorey bean-colwm frane pring attffuees = (force in apring)/s Rollers Nominal distribution coeffictent KS(K, + Hye) The value of 5 refers to the estimated foree per unit displacement of the cladding, whtch is evaluated separately, The epring is supposed to represent restraint to horizontal movement in- posed mainly by diagonal comprescion in walle in any atorey. Fig. $.9-6 Single-storey substitute franeRECOMMENDATIONS 107COMMENTS Values of ¢ aa od wal 4 ° Unbraced frane 1 bb’ Go Pied 45-6 -7 -8 +910 Fixed Mh Hinged Pig. 5.9-7 Deflection (sidesway) of a eingle-sto: eolum frane shou tn Fig. §.9-6 (wabraced = 5 =0) Vatues of ¢ Hinged | 2-3-6 +5 6 7 “8-8 10 = ¢ esata ose od 4 Fixed ° Fixed us Hinged Fig. 6.9-8 Sideeway of single storey bear Bracing etiffness S=1109 RECONMENDATIONSLo COMMENTS Values of $ 19. % s aes a Bee 7 8 I os “4 3 2 8g I ° AA 2s 4ST Kg 23-45 6 7 5-9 10 y Ib Fig. 5.8-9 Sidesvay of a single-storey beam colum-frame. Bracing stiffness 5 = 2 Values of $ Fig. 5-9-10 sidesway of a single-storey bean-colwm-frane. Bracing sttun RECOMMENDATIONSuz CONMENTS Values of ¢ 10 te, 9 e 8 7 “6 1 ss “4 3 a ‘ ae At ne 2-3-4587 8-9 4-0 y Ih Pig. 5.911 Stdesvay of a single-storey bean-colum frane. Bracing etiffnesa 5 = « Values of ¢ 5 22 RR, a y | X Bas 7 i. 8 ee ” oa aS “ aR 3 Nel NY os “a ‘ °agt OKs 2-34-66 7-8 8 40 Y 1 Fig. 5.9-12 Stdeoway of a single-storey bean-colim franc. Bracing até Panna B= 514 COMMENTS ~ Elastic eritical load factor (a,,) for eway-franes, obtained graphically, using the subtitute frane, (Method due to W000), The substitute frane of fig. 5.9-8 can also be used to predict critical axial loads, vhich for designers can take the_form of effective length charta, fig. 5.9-6 being that for umbraced frames, & = 0. The firet atep ie to calcula te values of = rp 1? k= EP t°/ rr, total vertical toad at storey height of storey = total moment of inertia of colume at storey uhich will result in typical values of K of onder unity. The total axial toad IP muat be calculated at unit load factor, \p, = 1, normally implying working conditions. The seeond step is to read from fig. §.9-13, the effeotive length ratio (1y/l) for every atorey, using the modified degrees of restraint given by " and My ‘tm equations (2, 2a) above, to allow for continuity in the aub- stitute frame. Then the indicated Local value of the elastic oritical toad factor, o,,5 tn uhere IP must be in units of kW 1 mst be in unite of m LT, must be in unite of o each atorey ts given by 20,7/[k (14/2*] (4) The smatlest value of a, in all the storeyets generally a lowor 2, boud for the required overalt a,, for ali storeys acting in unison.RECOMMENDATIONS15 RECOMMENDATIONS116 COMMENTS VALUES OF EFFECTIVE LENGTH RATIO t/t hinged 1-0 SLOSS O89 SQ2 N O7 o6 hos os x 02 0.1 A 700.1 0.2 03 04 05 06 07 08 as 10 Fixed Me” Hinged fixed Colum sti. s Total stcfinesa at te Joune 7 Colum stiffness '» “ Total stiffness at Botton joint Fe leaf Bee = follers atiffnossee at top joint 4, 2Kpp Re ng = K/(K, + EK) ny = K/K, + Ky) Fig. 5.9-13 Effective-length ratios for single colum with restraining beans and rigid joints, and no re~ straint against eidesuay (no shear).a? RECONMENDATIONS118 COMMENTS If greater accuracy ts required, than proceed as follows: tet C_ refer to the onalleat evitical value of a, in the oritical storey, and 0, and 0, refer to values of a,,, in the adjacent upper and lover storey, if such ato~ reys exist. Then an improved value for a, ts given by Boy = Oy (2+ nt + npe[s + nf (fe) + nf (C,/C,)] (a) where nj =n) (K, + 5,/2K,5 ny = np (Ky + K)/2K, If, tn some other storey, « local value of a,,, extete, given by (4), vhich is now Lower than the revised value (4.a), then the process should be repeated at that storey to obtain the lowest overall value of a,,. It should be noted that the elastic critical load is obvained entirely graphically, and since for most frames a, should have a high value, the simplest method based on equa- tion (4) will normally suffice. Additional information may be found in WOOD-ROBERTS "A graphical method of predicting sidesuay in the design of mlti-storey buildings" - Proc. ICE June 2075. 5.9.3.2 The MERCHANT-RANKINE-WOOD formula (5.9/a) allows members to be chosen for avoiding in-plane mafor-axis "buckting”, ukich takes the form of overall frane instabslity not individual colum buckting. Under euch conditions, thts in- teraction formila tteclf allove for in-plane eocentricitics whieh need not be considered, other than the out-of-plumbd which affects o,,. However, primarily to avotd the use of torsionnally unstable beam-colum sec- ttons, use met be made of the lower-bound bending monent déagran that it vas necessary to find to enoure that the colume etayed elastic (T.9.3,1-a). These bending moments are then used to check out-of-plane buckling, but, vince there will be double-curvature bending (fig. $.9-14) and elastic colums, the check ts usually quite trivial. eae al ‘The fact that frame have to be braced at right angles does not mean that all minor-axis bonding can be neglected. However, ouch checke need not be elaborate because it has been shou that restrained colwme are extrencly strong (1) (2). It ts not necessary to modify the MERCHANT-RANKINE-WOOD formila to account for atray ménor-axia bending wider full load conditions, because the colums have to remain elastic and have a considerable reserve of strenath.ng RECOMMENDATIONS 2 5.9.3.2 Column design In principle, all columns must be designed for the worst combination of axial forces and moments, including the second order effects. it is sufficient to consider the case of full vertical loading plus wind for the purpose of checking that overall frame instability will not occur. Having thus obtained the column bending moments, the design rules are then those of clause R 5.6.2 with effective lengths in the two principal planes determined assuming no suay. Indeed, as the structure is analysed under the action of the applied loads and the sway forces, then these latter have been included and need not be considered a second tine. In these conditions, the interaction formulae of Clause R 5.6 are used only to compensate for the neglect of the local imperfec tions and of the secondary moments PS in the columns (where § is the dif- ference between the deflected shape and the chord of thc colum, see fig. 5.9-14 and the effective length is computed assuming that translation is prevented. By this means, out-of-plane buckling is checked, and out-of-plane buckling should also be checked when using the simplified method.120 COMMENTS (1) "4 New Approach to Colum Deeign". R.#.WOOD. Her Majesty's Stationery Offi. ee, London 1974, (2) "Teat of a Fully Continuous Multi-Storey Frane of High Yield Steel". R.F. SMITH and E.H.ROBERIS. J.I. Struct. E. (London) Vol. 48, . 10, October 1971, pp. 452-466, My v Fig. §.9-14 (a) Sway prevented (b) sway permitted C 5.9.5.3 Tt ts shown that a very sncll sttffnese S (fig. 5.8-6) wilt suffice to cou ter the overturning 4 effects in plastic frare instability of other-vise unbraced franca. By contrast very considerable reduction of eidesuay & in milti-atorey buildings are know to have taken place for moat practical values of 5S. The designer who does not believe the pessimistic suay-angle ¢ calcu- lated for base. franes ts, tpso facto, admitting the validity of the quantity 3 (fig. $.9-8 to -12) in reotnaining euay. Tt te proposed to take advantage of thie by permitting a very weak compoat- te-panel design associated with stiffness safety factors y,, of a very high order as a tenporary deliberately acceptable eafeguard until further experience £2 gained. The above considerations were developed for the case of masonry claddings. tn the ease of eladdings made of cold-formed thin-walled sheet steel, the ne ceseary information regarding the stiffnesa of the panels and the design emits ria for fasteners may be found in the Reoommendatvions for "STRESSED SKIN DESIGN".12. RECOMMENDATIONS In addition, with either cemputer-design or when using the simplified method, it may occasionally be necessary to check the column design for lecal Patterns of "checker-board” live loading under assumed no-sway conditions (5.9.2.1) hen: (s) the wind load is small and vertical loads tend to control, at their appro- Priate load factors, the bending moments about the major-axis, or (b) minor-ax: loading controls as a separate issue. R 5.9.3.3 For stability checks and evaluation of displacements it is allowed fo take into account the stabilizing effect of cladding, as described below, whenever this cladding is composed of elements offering a diagonal compreses strength. Then, in any storey, the stiffness factor for the cladding will be ~ 2 errs. 1° mK yA) where 1 is the storey height the summation of horizontal wall panel stiffnesses in any storey TK, is the sum of column stiffnesses in any storey Yer 38 @ stiffness factor which varies according to design conditions. For che calculation of deflection at working conditions half the clad ding is assumed to be effective, and 2 materials factor Ym of 10 is also ap- Plied, making y,. = 2x 10 = 20. In addition the maximum permitted value of 3 is 5. For the design of frameworks at the limit state of collapse only one Guarter of the cladding is assumed to be present in any storey, together with materials factor y, of 20, making y,. = 4x20" 80. In addition @ is limited to 2.122 COMMENTS 0 5.8.5.4 lateral deflections wider working load may be quickly evaluated using the nethod described in the conments to R 5.9.3.1. The oideoway under working load mat be eontrotted in each etorey because the stability of the frame may be mitned by a single etorey collapse.RECOMMENDATIONS As explained in the comments, if the columns are designed to remain elastic, and if all the beams have acquired two plastic hinges for a rigid pla stic mechanism, thereby losing all stiffness, frame instability cannot take place if in the substitute frame Pip, = Et /[e? & (n)] = ae) U[y? B GH] < Fe? = s/o or in alternate form: Ee < DIS, If this is checked in each storey for the oubstitute frame, the ri- gid plastic frame design can be alloved subject to a corresponding check of de flections, using fig. 5.9-2 to 5.9-8, under working conditions. R5,9.3.4 Working deflections Under working loads, milti-storey unbraced frames aust comply vith the recommendations given in R 3.1. ‘The lateral deflection must be less than 1/300 of the height involved, if the evaluation is made for the bare frame. For the check of the horizontal deflection due to vind, the complete structure, including cladding, may be considered. In this case, the maximum late ral deflection is limited to 1/500 of the height involved. As stated in R 5.9.3.3, the value of y,, for the cladding is 20 and the value of § is limited to 5. The appropriate chart may then be selected from fig. 5.9-7 to 5.9-12, and interpolation is allowed, The sidesway at working load must be checked in any storey.124 COMMENTS C62 Jn shear conneetions of type a the bolts are not tightened to a predetermined induced tension. Forces are only tranamttted when the shanks of the bolte bear upon the mate- rial arowid the bolt hole. Coneequently, greater deformation takeo place than in fetetion grip aonneations. Care mat therefore be taken to ensure that this inareased deformation haa no detrimental effect upon the function of the struc- ture. Por higher grade bolt material than 10.9 and steele with higher tensile atron- gthe than Fe 510, an inatgnificant anourt of research has been widertaken. vp = factor of safety againar yield. Ip £007 O, C 8.4.2.1b It cannot always be guaranteed that the deformation capacity of the bolt ts sufficient to balance an accidental moment distribution based on the elastic theory or one intentionally divergent based on the plastic theory. Hence, the- ro met bo safety against fracture of the bolt so that the latter does not happer before there ie aufficient plastic deformation in the adjacent material (with no clearly defined yield stress) and corresponding rearrangement of moment.125 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6 BOLTED CONNECTIONS There are two fundamentally different ways to provide bolted joints in structural steelwork, using: a) Non pro-loaded boite b) Either friction or shear ~ connections made with high strength pre-loaded poles. For type a) R 6.1 apply, for type b) R 6.2 apply. R 6,1 NON PRE-LOADED BOLTS In shear connections of type 2), the forces acting transverse to the shank of the bolt are transmitted by shear and bearing. These recommendations a5 valid for bolts up to 10.9 quality, that is, with yield stress cp < 90 kgf/mm” and tensile stress o, < 100 kgf/mm’, used in conjunction with structural components in steel up to Fe 510 grade. R 6.1.1 PRINCIPLES OF CALCULATION When the joints are loaded at right angles to the shank of the bolt the following recommendations apply. R 6.1.1.1 Shear in the bolts 4 ~ Working stress design. Shear in the bolta: +,4. = 0.7 9, ‘adn With threads in the shear plane: F, Taga Asp 7 7 gan 4gp * 7.70.15 Ap * ‘adm Without threads in the shear plane: FL stain Ag, ‘adm Where: Tadm 7 S2owable stress when bolts are subjected to chear. adm ™ Sllowable longituiinal stress in the bolts material. F, "allowable load per shear plane in one bolt subjected to shear. ‘adn A, 7 effective cross-section of the bolt. A = cross-section of belt shank. b- Load factor design. If the load on the joint has already been multiplied by the load factors according to R 1.5 the following are vglid With threads in the shear plane: fY=T A, = 0.7 6, A, ee ‘sp Without threads in the shear plane: £% -T A= 0.7 0, A.126 COMMEKTS In thie context, it must be demonstrated that belted connections, vhich are designed for a relatively smaller transfer of force than the actual capacity of the components joined, are only used where the distribution of moment art the corresponding forces on the joint are known vith sufficient certainty, and not, for example, as in statically indeterminate ayeteme with wintentional movemente of bearings, temperature movements, ete. The effective crovs-section, A, , in the threaded area corresponds to the Section of the plain substitute *P cylinder possessing the eae Safety against Fracture under tensile atress as the threaded portion of the bolt, It shall be calculated using the mean value betieen the core dianeter, dy and the flank diameter, dy, of the threades, A C6.16168 Jn componente loaded in tension, the allouable bearing presoure depends on the tearing of the material from the hole, that ts, on the allavable shean force, which depends on the allasable shear etrese and the edge distance of the hole.127 RECOMMENDATIONS Where: = yield stress (0.2% proof stress) of the bolt material with the limita- tion that the value used in design shall not be more than 70% of the tensile stress o,. £2 = design strength per bolt per shear plane when bolt is in shear. 7 = Limit shear stress (F = 0.7 0,). R 6.1.1.2 Bearing stresses I - Rearing in components loaded in compression a) Working stress design: 0.4.7 3 0.4m } Fhaam™ Tian @ MAT 6 wheres yadn™ @llowable bearing strece. Sajq 7 Allowable longitudinal stress in components. Fiain 7 allowable load per bolt when stressed in bearing. d= shank diameter of bolt. min£é = smallest sum of plate thicknesses in the same direction as the bearing pressure. 8) Load factor design o, =36, t os £} +o, 4 minzé o, = limiting value of bearing pressure 1 Gp 7 Y4RId stvere (0:27 prosh, stress) oF .cheseemponeataisiotnet £} = limicing value of the force transmitted per bolt vhen loaded in bearing. Ii - Bearing pressure in steels Fe 360 and Fe 510 in joints syametrically and unsymmetrically loaded in tension: a) Working stress design: o) =o 0,4, (See Table 1 for a) F. = Oyngq ¢ mins tadm ~ “1ad b) Load factor design: 3, = wo, (See Table 1 for a) £7 = 6, 4 mints128 COMMENTS 2d Rith an edge distance of 24 and an allovable bearing presoure ¢, = 20. the shear stress ta approximately: : = gp tReet 2 (2a = 0.5d) = 0.67 0.5, £61138 The working atrength of an wipretoaded bolted connection, stressed in tension, ie emall. In consequence, with alternating stresses, for example, when a large proportion of the load is due to wind, the load carrying capacity can be reduced, If the botte are preloaded by tightening, the amplitude of the alternating stresa in the bolt, which depends on the atiffness of the joint, te redused end therefore the working abrength of the connection loaded tn tension ts considera bly improved. Additional bending and tensile stresses my arise in the bolt through the di- etortion of the bolted components, which may have an wifavourable influence on the working strength of the connection, Hence the connection should be made reasonably attff.129 RECOMMENDATIONS TABLE 1g values Edge distance from holes in direction of force 23d 22d 2 15d > 1.24 oe) 2.5 2.0 1.4 1.0 Two criteria play a in establishing the allowable bearing pressu- tne Bapely deformation and ultimate strength. In the a-values in Table | foe the calculation of o, .1,, aed o, respectively, the limication of deforsecion is the relevant criterion. Uf the Hmitation of deformation is unnecessary, then the a-values gi- ven in Table 2 may be used for the bearing pressure in components loaded ia toe TABLE 2 a values (without limitation of deformation) Edge distance from holes in direction of force 22d | > lsd 2 12d « 2.5 | 175 1.25 R 6.1.1.3 Design strength in tension connections When bolts are externally loaded in tension the folloving recommenda tions apply: 2) Working stress design: 0, = ¢ Where: , = allowable stress when the bolt is loaded in tension. S.gn™ 2tlowable stress in bolt material, F.idm” allowable load per boit loaded in tension. aan} Fegan” % Asp Ag ~ effective section of bolt. ») Load factor eesign: 3 = t 7%: Asp _ ~ limiting value of stress in bolt subjected to tension. the tensile strass 9... £, ~ limiting value of load per bolt loaded in tension, R6-1.1.4 Design strength in connections subjected to combined shear and tenoion When volts are subjected to shear and tension the following additional checks must be made:130 COMMENTS C6115 The relevent crose-eection is the minimum value of the to suns Ay + Apt As and Ay + Ay. C 6.1.1.8 American tests have demonstrated that tha ultimate load of abetted connection te dependent on tite Length of the connection. The number of bolts used ie there fore of Uttle influence.131 RECOMMENDATIONS fa 2 Fyam > F “Fr + 2, With threads in the shear plane: F a) Working stress design "Sam 4, am ~ 9, adm Without threads in the shear plane: FP, , Where: EF = equivalent load F,= load applied per bolt derived from tensile force Fy load applied per bolt derived from shear force Fi, = allowable equivalent load O 4m” Silowable stress in the bolt material on effective section of bolt APP = section of bolt shank 22, opt t, v b) Load factor desig: With threads in the shear plane: f* = c, a, Withoue ghreads in the shear plane: f* =o A Where: £° = limiting value of equivalent lold o, = yield stress (0.2% proof stress) of the bolt miterial, with the limitation that the value used in design shall not exceed 70% of the tensile stress o, -s ‘adn foe £ = design equivalent Loni Fe = design load applied per bolt derived from tensile force ° = design loed applied per bolt derived from shear force R 6.1.1.5 Deductions for bolt hol In the design of tension connections the minimum cross-section, after deduction of belt holes, must be used. In the design of compression connections the complete cross-section can be used. R6.1+1.6 Length of connection For a spacing < 15d between the first and lest bolts in a connection, the allowable load carrying capacity of the joint can be taken as the sum of tho individual bolt loais. When the spacing is greater than 15d, the allowable load is 8 times the sum of the individual bolt loads.132 COMMENTS133 RECOMMENDATIONS This limitation does not apply for uniform distribution of load over the connection length, e.g. for the transfer of shear forces from the web Of a beam or column to the flange. R6.1.1.7 Staggered joints in tiered flange plates 3/5 (3/3 + 3/10) 3/5 3/5 ais — ous GIS 43/10) 3/5 3/5 te == 3/5 «s/s + 3/10) GIS + 3/10) 3/5 |= =i ays (3/5 + 3/10) 35 Le 3/5 3/5 (3/5 + 3/10) 3/5 t The load applied to any flange plate will accordingly be distributed among the two adjacent ‘plates. Having established the flow of the load, the shear force in each shear plane and the necessary number of bolts required in accordance with R 6.1.1.1 con then be calculated. It is also necessary to check that limitations concerning bearing pressure (see R 6.1.1.2) have been respected. The length of the connection shall be taken as the distance between the first and last bolts in each bolted component (length a).144 COMMENTS135 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.1.2 BOLTING PROCEDURES R 6.1.2.1 Bolt holes ‘The diameter of bolt holes shall not be more than 2 mm greater than that of che shank diameter of bolts up to and including M24 and not more than 3 un greater for larger diameter bolts. The holes may be punched in material with a thickness ¢ not exceeding 25 mm provided that 6 does not exceed the hole diameter d). R 6.1.2.2 Spacing of bolts TABLE 3 Minimum bolt spacing Pitch in direction of load > 30d v Edge distance in direction of load > 12-304 2) Edge distance Loaded in « Hee at right a gles compression = oo teat Uoated Tn 2a D d= hole diamter 1) In exceptional cases, 2 smaller pitch is allowed, provided that there is ade~ quate space for tightening the bolt, and the shear stress derived from bearing Pressure between the individual bolt holes does not exceed the allovable value 2) See Section R 6.11.21 3) In exceptional cases, this value can be used when considering a reduced value for bearing stress (see section R 6.1.1,2I1) The maximum bolt spacing will depend on the provisions governing corros- sion protection and instability. R 6.1.2.3 Washers In ganeral, washers are not required. However, the whole of the bea~ ring area of the bolt head and nut mist he in contact vith the componente being connected. Where this is not possible, e.g. with tapered flanges, then the bolt head or nut must be provided wich tapered washers.136 COMMENTS c 6.2 Je ts only when the static friction has been overaone ao a result of further leading of the Joint that sity occure and the bolt shanks come into bearing uith result that part of the load ie taken in shear and bearing, while a comet= derable anount of frtetion is still maintained. Further increase tn load results in plastic flay and the accompanying tran- sverse contraction of the connected part in a partial loss of the ehank teneton. In the elastic range the loas te insignificantly emall. Uitimately, the Joint fails due to the tenetle strength being exceeded in the net. or gross cross section follaving considerable elongation of the holes oP through tearing in the matertal at the first or Last boite. Generally the bolt material is av strong and the boita so vell proportioned that fatlure due to shearing of the shanks doce not occur. The fetetion grip fastentng and the high-etrength preloaded fitted bolt fastoning are rigid fastenings with only slight deformations. A shear belt sonnection, on the other hand, can only tranemit the force uhen the bolt shanks are in contaet with the valle of the holes. Care must therefore be taken to ensure that the larger deformations which cc- oar in fastenings of this kind do not exert adverse effect on the constructton as @ whole, 08.21.12, Smee the load-carrying capacity of a fetetion grip bolted comection depends gm the shank tension, high grade boty matertal mist be used if the mumber cf bolto in the joint ts to be a minim, : (Commonly used bolts: 0, = 690 to 1080 N/mm*).17 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.1.2.4 ghtening the bolts Tt is not necessary to tighten the bolts to a predetermined value. The bolt should, however, be tightened sufficiently to ensure that complete contact is achieved between the bolt head and nut and the components being connected. R 6.1.2.5 Nuts Tf movewents, such as vibrations, can occur in a structure, suitable measures shall be taken to prevent the nuts from working loose. R 6.1.2.6 Symbols for bolt materials The grade of the materials shall be quoted on the bolt and nut in such @ manner that it cannot subsequently be changed. R 6.1.2.7 Corrosion protection The usual precautions shall be taken to prevent corrosion. The conctact surfaces shall be protected, in general with iron oxide or zine chromate paint, lead primer or metallisation, e.g. by galvanising. R 6.2 HIGH-STRENGTH PRELOADED BOLTS In constructional steelvork the connection of components by high-stren gth preloaded bolts offers two alternatives, namely, the friction grip connection and the preloaded shear bolt connection. High-strength bolts other than fitted ones are inserted in clearance holes in the parts to be joined together and then preloaded by tightening the nut or the head of the bolc, 60 that the contact surfaces are firmly clamped together, especially in the vicinity of che holes. In a friction grip fastening the force acting across the shank of the bole is transmitted by static friction between, the contact surfaces of the connec- ted parts, while the bolt shank itself is subjected to axiel tension and torsion by the applied torque, In the case of the preloaded shear bolt connection it is assumed that the force acting across the shank cf the bolt is not transmitted by friction but by shearing and bearing. The shank of the bolt is therefore subjected by the ap. plied torque to axial tension and torsion and, by the force acting across the shank, to shear. R 6.2.1 PRINCIPLES OF CALCULATION FOR FRICTION GRIP BOLTING R 6.2.1.1 Preloading force The preloading force F, is the shank tension in the bolt, generally Produced by tightening the nut oxPthe holt head. It is given by: F808 a. A, P r "sp138 COMMENTS Generally the material used for the nut may have « somewhat tover yield point than the material for the bolt. The stress area A_ of the threaded part is the evces sectional area of a smooth cylinder whichl when subjected to torque or tension, has the sane toad factor as the threaded part of the bolt. It ts calculated on d_, the mean value benieen the cone diameter d, ad the flank diameter dy of the tivead: After the belt has been tightened a residual torque, Hips remains tn the shank. If this a weed as the basis for determining the etress in shark, then the e- quivalent etress may be dertved from the formula: [2 Bs opp = Opt a =n ey and the coeffictent of reatstance n can be derived from test. The magnitude of'n depends on the following factors: thread pitch, thread friction, nut and head friction and type of thread. For metric threads Steinhardt and Mohler have sham that n= 1.15; therefore: Sepp = 11S + 0.80, = 0.92 0, eff For Withworth and U.N.C. threade NF 1.18 aid ope = 1.18 + 0.6 0, = 0.94 0,139 RECOMMENDATIONS (or etre: sp 7 the stress area of the bolt. where o, = yield str at 0.2% proof strain) of the bolt material and140 COMMENTS € 6.2.1.2 the atip factor for a given material ts ultimately dependent on the crect- ment given to the contact surfaces. It te reeonmenied, therefore, that the ourface ahould be oo prepared that the best possible alip factor ta achieved. The slip load F, is that load at which slipping ocours due to static friction being overcome along the vole length of the joint. This does not mesn, however, that load can no longer be carried, On the contrary, even after elipping has occurred considerable fric- tonal forees remain in action. The glip factor is of decisive importance eo far as the Loading capacity of a friction connection ta concerned. It depends on the quality of the steel of the connected parte, the treatment given to their contact surfaces and their fintoh at the time of their assenbly. Tests sc far carried out justify the expectation that the following slip fac— tars can be achieved with adequate certainty: aprayed zine coatings (250un), U= 0.5; zine atlicate coatings, u = 0.3 to 0.5; zine based eposy coatings, uU= 0.3. If a higher alip factor than that shown in the Left-hand colum or a different treatment of the contact eurfaces should be velected, the alip factor muoz be determined by experiment in each case. ‘The calculations must in this case be based on the value reached in 90% of all testpieces. With normal distribution of the results this corresponds tou ,-1.265 (e = standard deviation, = mean value of u). The following points musi"be cb- served when the teste arecarried out: ‘The testpieces mat be in accordance with Pigs. 1A and 1B. The dimensions indécated in these diagrane are recommended. ‘The pretoad, Fy to be applied mat be calculated by means of the formula given in R 6.8.1.1. 7 It must be proved by measurements that the effective preloads applied corre- spond to these values. The displacements of the a-c lings with respect to the b pointe (see Pigs. 1A and 15) must be determined. The slip in the bolted con- nection ia denoted by the average of the displacement on both sides. The slip lead P_ is defined as that toad at which a slip of 150 um ts thserved. The alip ffstor y can be caleulated from et we a #, The slip factor of the two bolt fastenings in one testpiece must be determ— 5 Testpieces (10 bolt fastenings) must be tested. 4 Testpieces must be loaded at normal speed (duration of the teat approxima tely 10-15 min. J. With the fifth tesptece a creep test must be carried out with a opecific load of 90% of the average slip Load in the first four tests. If, in the time bet- ween five minutes and three _ hows after the application of the load, there are no displacements > 2um(2n 10°) the stip Loads for this testptece, too, can be determined tn the normal way.141 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.2.1.2 Slip factor or coefficient of friction The slip factor u between the faces in contact is that dinensionless value by which the normal pressure must be multiplied in erder to obtain the slip load F,. If the contact surface have been treated with due consideration of ell the necessary aspects (see R 6.2.2.2) calculation can be based on the fol- lowing slip factors: Fe 360 uy = 0.5 Fe 4300 y= 0.5 Pe 510 4 = 0.55 If the contact surfaces have been provided with a sprayed coating of aluminium (thickness 7 50um) the celculations can be based on a slip factor of 0.5, If the contact Surfaces are not treated in any way the calculatic 4 for all structural steels can be based on the value u- 0.3 (see also R 6.2.2.2).142 COMMENTS BOLTS #16 BOLTS M20 HOLES 9 18 ROLES # 22 ft 16, +t 40 40 80 PIG, 1B FIG. 18RECOMMENDATIONS144 COMMENTS If the standard deviation of the ten vatues obtained exceeds &% of the mem value, further teste mot be carried out. The nececoary number of testpieces in this case t2 given by the formila: mee in which: n= the necessary number of testpteces (tio fastenings each) e,= standard deviation tn first five teatpieces (10 values) as percentage of mean value, If creep ocews in the joint in the fifth testpiece, further creep teste mat be carried out, It must be proved, by means of at least 5 testpieces (6 fastenings), that the load associated with the ettp factor on which the calculation is based does not cause dieplacementa greater than 300um during the life of the conatruavion. The displacenent-log time eurve (Fig. 1C) can be linearly extrapolated az econ os the tangent can be ascertained with sufficient certainty. 300um Fic, 1¢ displacement log log ty ——_—— = life of construction min. duwation for test for tectpiece 1 t,= min, duration for teat for testpiece 2 The loading (elip factor) for testpiece 3 te set too high. 6.2.13 The shear mode n, of a bolt ts determined by the number of planes in which, 2a 2 reeult of the Bhank tension of the bolt concerned, a systematic traramis~ ston of frictional forecs in possible. Thus for a web plate joint with tuo symmetrical cover plates r,, = 2.RECOMMENDATIONS RB 6.2.1.3 Design strength in friction connection ‘The design strength for a single bolt with one fricticr 145 mm plane is Gerived by multiplying the shank tension by the slip factor and by a Factor y,.- Hence: eS ft Be 08a A, a7 tpt "p™ Yt sp (for one bolt and one contact surface).146 COMMENTS As already mentioned the frictional forces remain in part effective uitit failure occurs even after the connection has alipped. The fact that ao a rule, there to no poeatbility of the shank of the bolt shearing shous very clear ly that the strength of the connection is in no way erdangered even after the alip limit has been exceeded. So slipping ts not a dangerous limit atate and therefore a probability of reaching the limit state of 4.10 * is allowed. This results into enhancement factors for variable actions of 1.31 ad for permaient actions of 1.20 instead of the norngl enhancenent factore of 1.50 and 1.33 correeponding to a probabi- Itty of 10°, However it will be complicated to use Lower enhancement factors only for connections aubjected to a frtetion force, whereas for connections aubjected to a tensile force and for the connected parts the normal enhancement factore are used. This difficulty ts solved ky uaing the normal enkancomont faotore corresponding to a probability of 10° ad deriving the design strength by mitiptying the atip loai #, =u F, by a factor y, = 1.15. For wuaual and rarely occurring toad conditions, for example conditions a- rising for a brief peried during erection, a higher value of , say 7, = 1.2 ean be chosen depending on the type of construction concerned and the choice ts the responsibility of the engineer. de a repetition of stress greater than that required to cause slip could e- ventuadly result in a drop in the stip factor, a lover probability of reaching the Limit state must be provided in the case of structural elements for railuay bridges, cranes and crane girders, for which proof of the fatigue strength has to be given. This probability shall be taken as 10° (equal to the normal pro- bability) and therefore y, = 1. C 6.2.1.8 Oving to the elastic conditione induced by the applied preload in the bolt, which ia in tension and the platee wider compression, a suitably Limited tensi- le load on the connection will cause an insignificant tnorease in the bolt ten- ston; there te thus no fear that the tensile strength of the bolt vill be ex ceeded. In order to maintain an even pressure on the contact sunfaces in the serviceability state, the proportion of tension on any one bolt shall be limi- C 6.2.1.5 When the connection ts subjected to a tensile force,F* the remainging clam ping force between the plates will be about F, - 0.7 ee147 RECOMMENDATIONS The factor y_ for the most unfavourable loading conditions stipulated in current standards shB11 be taken as y_ = 1.15. The most unfavourable case of Ploading includes such loadings as can arise under normal circumstances, however, and not those resulting from unusual circumstances. For parts of railway bridges, cranes and crane girders which are sub- jected mainly to dynamic loads, a factor Y, = 1 is necessary and 80 a lower de~ sign strength is used. Pe R 6.2.1.4 Design strength in tension connection Where the connection is subjected to tensile forces in the direction of the bolt axis, the design strength per bolt is: x fe R 6.2.1.5 Design strength in connections subjected to combined shear and tension In connections subjected to both shear and tension, the design strength per bolt is given by the formulae: FE phy 7 OT FED = fe =F,148 COMMENTS € 6.2.1.6 In joints of the type shoun in Fig. 2 the lose of pressure in region A cau- sed by a bending moment Mis aluays cowled vith a corresponding increase in pressure on the opposize side C of the bending axie. The sun of the pressure forces in the friction area thus remains uichanged and there is no diminution ‘of the frictional resistance of the joint perpendicular to the bolt axis. 6.21.8 This maximo clearance ie in agreement with ISO Fit h1l to H 12,149 RECONMENDATIONS R 6.2.1.6 Design strength bending moment Since an external moment does not affect the prolosd in a joint, the Gesign strength per bolt which the joint can transmit under a shear force} and a bending moment M, as in R 6.2.1.3, is given by the formulacs M connections subjected to combined shear and ¥ x fee yur a” YphF and if n is the number of belts in the joint, the design strength i * ite EF g7 7 YpH Ey The design strenggh under a bending moment M must be so determined fhat the max tensile force Fey exerted on any eingle bolt a6 @ result of wives not exceed the design strength af according to R 6.2.1.4 i.e. Few S * a, 6.2.1.7 Design strength in connection subjected to combined shear, tension and bending moment When the connection is subjected co a shear F*, a tension P* and a bending moment M, the design strangth per bolt in the coaection, takifig into account the formulae given in R 6.2.1.5, is expressed by the following formula: 2 x ‘*- (Fo - 0.7 FF 8 ypu, 7) Tf n = number of bolts in the connection, this becomes: z * E fen Fo - 07 F 8 vp ¥Q P 7 Pe The design strengty under a bending moment M must be 80 determined that the max, tensile force Fly exerted on any one bolt, after supersesing sme 203d Gus tthe tensile force FF on the connection, does not exceed the design strength f° according to R 6.2°1,4 that is But Pic ster Ten Fo St eR, R 6.2.1.8 High strength grip firted bolt com Ap connections made with hefg fitted bolts, the holes through the reree cp Pe connected are so drilled that the clearance between the hote snd. the shank of the bolt is not greater than 0.30 am.1s0 COMMENTS © 8,2.1,9 £ 8 B 0 10 15 O28 1.18 oO 5 i a ae 0.6 © 1.42 13 0.8 1.48 val 100° 1S ui 10. 0 6.2.1.10 The value of 25% ts derived from: 40 _ 40 “Tes = 26.79 26 Pear The formula shaun in R 6.2.1.9 aiso applies to the fitted bolte butno lar- ger value of alip factor can be used than for normal high-strength friction grip bolts. 8.218 For light gauge steel construction spectal investigations are being carried out to establich the design etrength in bearing.151 RECOMMENDATIONS On the broad assumption that preload has been applied in accordance with R,6.2.1.1 and having regard to R 6.2.1.3 the design shear strength of the bolt £, amounts to one and a half time for ordinary high strength preloaded bolts in aceBrdance with R 6.2.1.3. The design bearing strength of the hole is dealt with in R 6.2.1.12. R 6.2.1.9 Combined use of normal and fitted high-strength friction grip bolts The use of a combination of normal and fi grip bolts in the same connection is permitted. For all bolts ia such connections the design strength in shear eS tted high-strength friction is ® times that applicable to normal tolts in accordance with R 6.2.1.3. That is 2 = 8 where Bo =1.5- 0.5 (1 met _ No. of fitted bolts Total No. of bolts The design in bearing strength is dealt with in R 6.2.1.12. R 6.2.1.10 Allowance for bolt holes Deductions for holes apply only in the case of tension members. In calculating the stress in the member concerned, it can be assimed that, of the design load on any bolt in the critical cross section, 40% is transmitted by friction before the net section has been reached in the case of ordinal bolts and 25% in the case of fitted bolts. For connections with both types of bolts the same figures may be ry bsig used. R 6.2.1.1] Combined use of high-strength friction grip bolts and welds The combined action of high-strength friction grip bolts and welds, under predominatly static loading, is permissible in principle. The design strength of each of these connecting media ie used in the calculation. This applies particularly to fillet welds. As a rule the welding should be completed before the bolts are fi- nally tightened. R 6.21.12 Design strength in bearing The design bearing strength per bolt on the vall of the hole is ex- pressed by the following formula: = ond i 3152 COMMENTS C 6.2.2.1 Torque urenches may be used which can be set to a predetermined torque with automatierelease when this torque ts reached. Manual, pneumatic or electric wrenches are aattable. Te has been found that, even in the case of bolte from one works and one ba~ toh, there may bo considerable variation in the eceffictent §. It te therefore advioable to determine this value by tests. Since torque wrenches in general have an accuracy within + 5% there vill be a reserve of preload. The contact surfacesmust fit snugly before the bolts are ti: stoned wp. When the several plies of the joint fit enugly together the percusston wrench goes over to hammering. There must be a thread length of at least 5 mm betueen rut and head. Panti- culanly when short bolts of large dianeter are being used 1t 1s adviscble to se~ lect a smaller anowit of rotation. The firet applied torque enswes that the plies of the joint fit enugly to- gether. ‘The stamting point for the fottoving angle of rotation ie thus fairly accu- rately determnd. By further turning the nut through an angle of 90 to 120, the effect of inaccuracies tn the preloading achieved by means of the moment God, therefore, tho offeet of vawiation in the coefficient, 5, te reduced. The Gpplication of the torque in thts case also can be achieved with a pereusston urench fitted with an automatic cut out. ‘Tf thie automatic cut out ta vet by meane of a ecrey pressure gauge, the gau ge mst be eet to a value of 3/47. In this case an indicating accuracy of + 5% te not necessary. F133 RECOMMENDATIONS ‘min ™ thickness of thinnest connected part t 9%, ~ yield stress in parts to be connectad a” = bolt diameter R 6.2.2 BOLTING PROCEDURES FOR FRICTION GRIP BOLTING R 6.2.2.1 Tightening the bolts Bolts may be tightened by wrenches which indicate the applied corque or by the turn-of-the nut method. For the first method, tightening the bolt vith a torque urench, the required torque must be determined according to the preload which is to be ap- plied. The foroule for this is: M=éaP t P HM, = torque 4 = bolt diameter F, 7 preload to be applied 5 = 4 coefficient (about 0.18 for bolts in the as~delivered condition-Lightly eiled). To make absolutely certain that this torque is present after the bolt has been tightened up a torque about 10% higher is applied. The second method of tightening is based on a predetermined rotation of the nut, The tightening can be achieved in three ways as follows: a) The bolt is firet made “hand tight" and the nut is then turned further by a specified amouni ©) Using @ percussion wrench the bolt is first eightened until the several plies of the joint achieve a “snug fit", after which the nut is further turned’ by the amount a> WD +etea where: a = rotation in degrees t= total thickness of connected part in um d= bolt diameter in mm ©) Three quarters of the required torque ie first applied and the nut is then turned a further 90° to 120°1s COMMENTS C 6.2.2.2 The material used for blasting should be carefully selected (sand, steel shot, cast iron shot, wire ohot, ete.) and the treatment chould be carried out, making full use of all that ie known of the process, 80 aa to achieve a favourable cocf Feetent of friction. When flane-cleaning ta used it te particularly important that full use should be made of experience gained with regard to burner action (possible use of wo bumero), the gas-omygen mizture and the angle of inclination of the flame so the surface of the plate. According to the results of tests carried out by menber countries, mill acale adhering to the contact surfaces causes a substantial reduction in the coefficient of friction, Precautions met therefore be taken to remove thie scale ae comple- tely as poseible, wrick is beet dona by blasting with sand on steel shot. If the surface ia to be flane-cieaned,it mst be given a preliminary treatment to ensure that the mill scale is at least loosened eo that tt can be removed by the subse— quent flame-cleaning, A simple method of doing this de to expose the contact surfaces to the veather, when the ruat which forms will Loosen the scale. © 8.2.2.3 The holes may be punched as well as drilled. Burrs met be removed in accordance vith F 6.2.2.6. Holes for fitted bolts should be dritted. R 6.2.2 It ts also posatble to use spectal nuts with machined-on vashers. The effect of these nute on the preload to be achieved must, hovever, be considered.155 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.2.2.2 Preparation of contact surfaces The preparation of the contact surfaces of the part to be bolted to- gether must be carried out by a suitable method (see R 6.2.1.2). When the joint is assembled the contact surfaces must be free from dust, cil, paint, ete. Spots of oil cannot be removed by flame-cleaning with- out leaving harmful residues and must be removed by suitable chemical means. If the parts cannot be assembled as soon as the contact surfaces have been trea~ ted, it is sufficient to remove any thin films of rust or other loose material by brushing with a soft steel brush. During thie process the roughened surface must not be damaged or made smooth. R 6.2.2.3 Holes To avoid the necessity for reaming at site, the holes are generally nade 2 mm larger then the shank dianeter of the bolts. For fitted bolts sea R 6.2.1.8. R 6.2.2.4 Pitch of bolts Tae bolt pitch in the direction of loading should preferably be three times the nominal diameter of the bolt. In particular circumstances it is per- uissible to reduce the distance to the size of the washer, provided this does Rot prevent the bolts being tightened and there are no objections on the grounds of additional forces. The edge distance perpendicular to the direction of loading should be at least 1.5 times the diameter of tha hole and, in the direction of force, at least twice the hole diameter. R 6.2.2.5 Washers Washers must as a rule be 4 mm thick and with a 45 bevel on one inner similar bevel on the corresponding outer edge for recognition purpo- sufficient to use only one washer, which must be firted under the part to be turned (nut or head). R 6.2.2.6 t of contect surfaces To achieve a uniform stress distribution, the parts to be connected must be so prepared that, when freely assembled, the contact surfaces fit coge- ther as closely ao possible vithout being forced.156 COMMENTS C6227 An effective means of protecting the contact surfaces te to apply self-adho- sive or sprayed-on filns of plastic. Up to the present, hovever, no protective goating te known which doeo not affect the slip facter adversely, tf coatings of this Rind are to be applied, special attention mst be given to thetr influen oe 06.25.21 To icosen the mut, generally about 70 to 75% of the tensioning torque te ne~ cassany. 06,2.4.7 See also R 6.2.1.1.187, RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.2.2.7 Protection against corrosion Parts to be joined with hsgf bolts mst be protected against corrosion by suitable measures designed co prevent moisture penetrating to the contact sur- faces and to the bolt hoks.Such protection (e.g. sealing) may also be necessary as 2 temporary measure when joint faces are left wholly or partially exposed du- ring erection. If structural components in which the contact surfaces have been pre- pared for preloading bolting are stored for very long periods there is a risk of rusting. Under certain circumstances a lower slip factor may have to be conside- red. The same applies when the contact surfaces are protected by thin coats of shop primer or by metallizing. R 6.2.2.8 Storage of bolts Bolts for a structure must be stored so that the surface finish produ- ced on the bolts during manufacture is not significantly altered and, in particu- lar, does net vary from one batch to another. B 6.2.3 CHECKS FOR FRICTION GRIP BOLTING R 6.2.3.1 Preload Two different procedures may be adopted to check that a specified cor que has been applied: 1. The bolt is turned a further 10°, for which st least the specified torque has to be ‘applied. The position of the nut on the bole which is to be checked is marked. The bolt is then held firmly and the nut is unscrewed by 1/6th of a turn. To turn the nut back its original position, it must be necessary to apply at least the specified torque. K 6.2.3.2 Slip factor It is advisable to make random checks of the slip factor achieved by surface preparation, R 6.2.4 PRINCIPLES OF CALCULATION FOR PRELOADED SHEAR BOLT CONNECTIONS R 6.2.4.1 Preloading force The preloading force ¥ is the shank tension in the bolt, generally produced by thightening the nut oP the bolt head. Te ie formulated by Fo = 0.80, 4 Pp r “sp158 COMMENTS C 8.2.4.2 There ie no need to specify the slip factor in the case of preloaded shear bolt connections. In this type of connection, a coating of any kind on the con~ tact surfaces exerts no influence on the toad bearing capactty. In the case of shear bolts which are not preloaded the values quoted in the specification issued by Committee I of the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork apply. = a = (According to R 6.2.4.3 6, = 0.89, 80 that 1 = 0,65 c,). Shear bolt connections aré only able to tranemit force’ when the shanks of the bolts are in contact with the walis of the holes. Care must therefore be taken to ensure that the very severe deformations whi. eh occur in these connections do not exert any adverse effect on the function of the construction as a whole. 0 6.2.8.3 According to R 6.0.1 2, = 0.8 0, Agp Therefore fi = f (soo atao R 6.2.1.4).159 RECOMMENDATIONS Where o, = yield stress (or the stress at 0.2% proof strain) of the bolt material and Agp ~ the stress area of the bolt. R 6.2.4.2 Design strength in shear connections High strength bolted connections can also be designed for bearing pres sure and sbear. When fully preloaded in accordance with R 6.2.4.1 the folloving design strength can be taken. For shearing of high-strength bolts: F = 0.65 «0.8 xo, = 0.52 o, that is vherey = limit shear stress f¥= design shear strength per bolt A= cross sectional area of bolt shank ny> plane characteristic (aunber of planes). The design strength in bearing in structural components of Fe 360 and Fe 510 is given by: Hence £ where = limit bearing stress = yield stress ir parts to be connected = design strength per bolt in bearing € = diameter of bolt shank tagpt thickness of thinnest connected part. R 6.2-4.3 Design strength in tension connections The design strength in a preloaded bolt due to an externally applied tensile force is given by: * Hence ff =a, A,, hore T= limit tensile stress in bolt ~ yield stress of bolt material (i.e. stress at 0.2% proof etrain) = stress area of bole £* = design tensile strmgzh per bolt.160 COMMENTS 06,244 F and F2 ave design toade catouiated with enhancement-factore corresponding 20 a probability of reaching the limit etate of 10°.161 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.2.4.4 Design strength in connections subjected to combined shear and tension With bolts stressed in tension and shear: Sea and vhere: 1 ™ shear stress in bolt shank he ARs, al (design shear force) A (cross sectional area of shank) ‘| = limit shear stress when bolt is stressed in accordance with R 6.2.4.2 as 0.520.) o> design tensile stress in bolt shank shat 18 p% (design tensile force) Bip ce een ee © k (eross sectional area of shank) = limit tensile stress when bolt is stressed in accordance with R 6.2.4.3 G, = 0.80.) c rc = design tensile stress in stress area of bolt A, sp op that is FE (design tensile force) sp Ayp (stress area of belt) ons R 6.2.4.5 Design strength in moment connec When the connection is subjected to a bending moment it mist be proved that the limit tensile stress @, in accordance with R 6.2.4.3 is not exceeded in any of the bolts. IE, in addition, a tensile force is applied to the connection, the ten eile stresses occurring in the bolts as a result of this force and the bending moment must be added together. If the connection is subjected to a bending moment, external tension end a shearing force simultaneously, @ stress calculation in accordance with R 6.2.4.4 must be carried out.162 COMMENTS163 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.2.4.6 Allowance for bolt holes in the case of preloaded shear bolt connections, no allowance may be made for the transmission of forces by friction (see R 6.2-1.10), In the case of tension connections full hole deduction must be made in the cross-sectional values, B 6.2.4.7 Combined use of preloaded shear bolts and welds Combined load carrying by preloaded shear bolts and weld seams is not permitted. R 6.2.5 BOLTING PROCEDURES FOR PRELOADED SHEAR BOLT CONNECTIONS For making preloaied shear bolt connections, section R 6.2.2 is to be followed referring to the following points: R 6.2.2.1 ~ Tightening the bolts R 6.2.2.4 = Pitch of bolts R 6.2.2.5 ~ Washers The following points do not apply: R 6.2.2.2 ~ Preparation of contact surfaces R 6.2.2.6 - Fit of contact surfaces Instead of R 6.2.2.3-Holes, the following applies: The clearance between bolt hole ani thread diameter must be in accordance with that specified for black bolts. Instead of R 6.2.2.7-Frotection against corrosi Normal corrosion protection measures must be taken. on, the following applies: R 6.2.6 CHECKS FOR PRELOADED SHEAR BOLT CONNECTIONS Only R 6.2.3.1.-Preload, must be observed. R 6.3 CALCULATION OF FRAMING CONNECTIONS WITH HIGH-STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS B 6.3.1 END PLATE CONNECTIONS The use of hefg bolts in this type of connection may, because of its flexibility, lead to a better distribution of the end and mid-span moments.164 COMMENTS C 6.5.1.1 It te advieable to place the rove of bolts ana ad b-b as close ca possible ta the teneton flange and not to use more than tuo bolts per ray. If more than tuo bolts are used in one rou a wiiform distribution of forcea can no Longer be relied on. tp The bolt forces and the thickness of the end plate can be calculated by means of the formilae (with two bolts in section ava): u = a 2 Legge ond i, = Limit moment in the cross section of the end plate immediately along-side the tension flange Limit moment in the net orose-ecction a-a of the end plate.165 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.3.1.1 Calculation of bolt forces ané thickness of end plate when conncc- tion is subjected to a bending moment.156 COMMENTS C8.3.1.2 (52, tp gw | | The tensile force N is distributed biveen the bolts in such a way that it is balanced by the bolt forces. Eig. (see figure): _2 ‘ae _a "2 = aap The bolt forces F* and the thickness t, of the end plate are caloulated in aecordanze with R 6.§.1.1 (replacing T byPa When the connection ts stressed by a tensile force N and a bending moment Noid T must be added together. C6318 pe The caloulation ie carried out in accordance with P 6.2.1.8 and R 6.2. when the conection is aubjegted at the same time to a moment M and a g eile force N, the bolt forces F; must be determined in accordance with and P 6.3.1.2, paeas ten 6.5.12167 RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.3.1.2 Bolt forces when connection is subjected to tension R 6.3.1.3 Connection subjected to a shear force168 COMMENTS C 6.8.1.4 T 1 1 B The thickness of the colum flange mat be calculated. If no stiffening plate A ie fitted the following applies: y+ —z— ack Where_ H = Limit moment in colum flange (thickness t,), the effective length of flange being taken as = lett With thie assumption for the flange calculation, the pointe B are not eub- fected to contact preseures Q. b- 3a 0 6.3.1.5 The web of the colum must be caleulated. Care must be taken to ensure that any additional shear, and compressive force in the web in the vicinity of the compression flange of the beam vill not cause buckling of the web. € 6.3.2 n ee -—1r—-4 Pahl Mi A i i i beeen ' ! I iL F I169 RECUMMENDATIONS R 6.31.4 R 6.3.1.5 Calculation for web column ‘R 6.3.2 FLANGE PLATE CONNECTIONS170 COMMENTS C 6.3.2.1 Where n= number of bolte f= design atrength per bolt in shear im accordamce with R 6.2.1.3. g The flange plate must be calculated for the tensile force T. Bolt holes are to be alloved for in accordance with R 6.2.1.10. C6,3.2.8 If a bending moment M occurs at the eane tine, the tensile force N can be tranamitted by the bolts in the tension flange. h The moment #, = Zt can be deduced from the bending moment M. It is necessary that M- Mi< 0 and that Me MH, Pensnft where T 1 The flange plate ta calculated for a tension of T +N. 0 6.3.8.3 The shear force acts om the bracket welded to the colum. The weld sears must be calculated. The beam must have adquate bearing on the bracket. C 6.5.24 The web mst be cateulated. Care mast be taken to ensure that any additional shear ard compressive forces in the web in the vicinity of the comrosaion flange of the bean vill not cause buckling of the web.a RECOMMENDATIONS R 6.3.2.1 Bolt forces when connection is subjected to « bending moment R 6.3.2.2 Bolt forces when the connection is subjected te tension R 6.3.2.3 Stressing of connection by s shear force R 6.3.2.4 Calculation for web of colum172 COMMENTS e7 The vghiddty may be extended to fine-grained steel with a yield strength above 400 N/nm® and to some types of Low alloyed structural steel when necessary infor nation ia available. The suitability of the electrode material cannot be based solely upon mecha- nical tests, but metallurgical considerations must also be taken into account. Crd In order to calculate the otrength and load bearing capacity of « welded joint the distribution of the load over the individual welds in the joint has to be determined. In principle there are tuo different approaches to deter- mine « load distrtbution. The actual load distribution wilt fall between the se two approaches. The designer may choose the approach hich ts moet sutta- ble for the calculations. the firat approach to determine the load diatribution in a welded Joint is to aseune the etresses in the different parts of the joint to depend directly on the stresses in the adjacent parent matérial. This approach ts universal and car alvaye be used, although tt sonebinee leads t0 complicated streae cal culations. The cther approach to determine the load distribution is to derive it from the total load of the entire Joint by a plastic analysie. This ts done by resolving the total load into forces related to the Joint geometry and avet- gning to the individual welds thoee forces vkich they are best auited to car ry according to their orientation and atiffnese, allowing yielding in a sin- gle weld. Often there are several posstbilities for resolving the total load.173 RECOMMENDATIONS R7 WELDS These recommendations refer to welded joints in load bearing steel struc— sures. The recommendations are primarily valid for structures loaded with pre- dominantly static loads, The recommendations are valid for weldable structural steels in common use. That is carbon steel, carbon-manganese steel,and fine-grained structural Segel up fo # specified yield strength of 400 N/m. The ratio between yicia and ultimate and yield ultimate strength Oyloy shall not be less than 1.2 and the minimum elongation ¢,,shall not be less than 12%. Regarding classification and weldability reference is made to the IIW do- Serany HW-367-71, Reconmendations for the classification ef steels for use in Weide’ Ettuctures, and to the ECCS Recommendations for the selection of secel qualities for welded structures, ‘The recommendations are primarily valid for parent materials over 4 mm of material thickness. Tae recommendations are primarily valid for are welding, that is manual He welding with coated electrodes, submerged arc welding, gas shielded ane vel ding and £1ux cored arc welding. The electrode material, after deposition, shall be compatibie with the Parent metal. R 7,1 CALcuLaTion AND DESIGN R 7.1.1 GENERAL For general calculation reconmendations reference is made to the IIW Tia Be Rules for Arc-Welded Connections in Steel Subaitte! to Static Losis, ve TIW Design Rules are adopted and approved also by the ECCS. ia order to design a walded joint or a single weld the forces to be bo usaitted by the joint or the eld and the line of action of these forces must pe fetermined by analysis, either elastic or plastic. Sonetines leo the die scribution of the forces algng the length of the weld has to be determined’ Tn iene anes; however, the forces can be considered to be uniformly distribuced along the length of the weld. Ay ftrece distribution vhich is suitable for the calculations may be postu lated provided it is in agreement with equilibrium, continuity, end deformabili ty. The stress in a weld leaded in on arbitrary direction can be resolved Siecsg Ponentes a normal stress 9|, along the axis of the weld, a norest ante of Tepe rPenticular to the axis'of the weld, a shear atress'z) along the exis of “the weld and a shear atress 1 transverse to the axis of!ttha weld.174 COMMENTS C712 rr oP Butt weld made Butt weld from oreatde Pbutt weld t-butt weld made made from From tuo atdes one etde t bad> et and [lle eX3mm or ¢< t/s Slope should not Pbutt weld exceed 1:1 in The veld ta regarded to be of equal butt joints or higher etvergth than the vertical menber Zhe etreosee tn Pellet velds are usually referred to the theough section consisting of the thvoat thiaknesa times the cory length, that is az i,175 RECOMMENDATIONS Stresses not necessary for lead trensmission as well as residual stres ses may be neglected in the caleulation of welds. Especially an overlapped no: wel stress % parallel to the axis of the weld and due to stresses in one of the connected meters vhich are not to be transmitted by the weld need non eye git counted for in the weld calculations. Welded connections shall have adyuate deformation capacity. Where it is apparent that uneven stress distribution will occur in a joint, and whare the design relies upon weld plasticity to redistribute stresses within the joint, than the welds used shall have a defornation capacity adequate to effect such re- distribution. Welds in plastic hinges shall be able to transmit at least the full yield force of the connected parts. Care has to be taken that connected parts have adequate stiffness. Otherwise, for instance, a reduced effective len- gth or width has to be used. Smail eccentricities resulting from the sections of the connected parts may be neglected for calculating the welds. Welded structures and joints that might be exposed to low temperature and brittle fracture conditions shall be designed in such a way that severe stress concentrations and notches are minimized. For these conditions steels with good ductility at low service temperature shall be used. R 7.1.2. BUTT WELDS Butt welds and T-butt welds are calculated in the same manner as the con Rected members. If the weld metel has the same or higher strength than the par ser aetazs the butt veld and the Tbutt weld are presumed to be of the same stron gth as thecconnected sections. Consequently additional celculations are not neces sary for butt welds. Butt welds and T-butt welds may be made from one side, if complete pene- tration can be assured. Joints between parent materiale of different thicknesses shall preferably be made vith a gradual thickness change. A maximum slope of 1:1 is recommended for static loads in highly stressed tensile members. In compression menbers theé TE ff no need for = gradual thickness transition. The difference in thickness may be balanced by 4 slope in the weld metal rather than machining the pareat metal. Zybuct welds are accepted even if they are not completely welded through. An uavelded gap not exceeding 3 mor one fifth of the material thickness ic ac cepted and the weld is still being regarded as a T-butt weld, if the total weld thickness is greater than the parent metal thickness. R7.1.3 FILLET WELDS Uniform stress distribution is generally assumed along the veld length aod over the weld throat section of fillet welds, provided this is in agreement with equilibrius. The offective weld section is equal to the largest triangle which can be fully inscribed between the fusion surfaces and the weld surface, provided thare is @ minimum root penetration and the penetration is not taken inte account. The throat thickness or a-measure is the height of that largest inscribed teian- gle.176 COMMENTS SDS ma es = Throat thickness and throat section for fillet velds a ! i ae lq Ion a es 1 ON te EET Welded bean to aoturm conneczion no Limitation on weld length177 RECOMMENDATIONS she tires distribution being neglected an effective word length shall be used for the strength calculations. Ter pitict welds up to 2m the real weld length may be used as effec give weld length. For longer fillet welds than 2 m theescle length must be re= oeete:, Te is satistactory co reduce the real weld length by a factor n= 1.3-0.151 phere 1 is the weld length inm. This rule for a reduces effective veld lengch is applicable to different cypes of lap joints, qnere is no limitation for the veld length when the stress distribution a2gng the weld corresponds to the stress distribution i tre adjacent parent Tien oe Ok when the weld length does not influence the etroceee and the calcula~ ton oe te weld. Examples of longitudinal fillet welds wien vo length Limita- tion are the web weld in velded bean to colum cooncctamne and the flange to uob Wert Welded plate girders. The minimm weld length chell to times the throat thickness or 50 m, whiche voided as far as possible. ane throat thickness shall not be smaller than 3 mm for parece material thicker than 4m. The thr. hot be made larger chan necessa- ry: However, no thickness limitation is prescribed. there a capacity for joint rotation is required due to the possibilicy PE unexpected excessive straining the welds must hace adequate strength not to pyeak detore general yielding in the adjacent parent weet In general this is satisfied when the weld ic designed for a stecee equal to 70% of the specified yield stress of the parent material. This gives a minimum throat thickness of a poled Fillee weld of 0.35 ¢ tor Fe 360,and 0.40 ¢ for Fe 430, and 0.42 ¢ for Fillet velds shall preferably be made vith equal legs and without « {area convexity. The strength calculation of @ filvee aed may be made accor- €ing to thece recommendations or according to che iin Recommendations presented by the IIW Gomittee XV or the ISO Recommendations an according to simplified ry tes derived from the IIW or ISO Recommendations For a combination of stresses an effective stress value is defined as The comparison stress value shell not exceed ¢ s which shall be the no minal yield stress in load factor design or the maxiaum Allowable tensile stress for the parent metal in allowable stress design. Tho factor g may be choosen as follows or higher. 2 8 = 0.7 for steel with a specified yield stress up to 240 N/am” (Pe 360) 8 = 0.8 for gtdel with a Specified yield stress higher chan 240 and up to 280 N/t (Pe 430) 8 = 0.85 for steel with a specified yield stress higher than 280 and up to 340 N/um? (Fe 510) 8 = 1.0 for gceel with @ specified yield ctress higher than 340 and up to 400 N/om2,178 COMMENTS Tmax * t oo eo Welded plate girder no limitation on weld length — | 1 > 1 be | Ke—_L Lap joints - Uneven stress distribution ee Partly penetrated velda ave caleulated as fillet velde Ps za179 RECOMMENDATIONS A normal stress o), along the €illet veld does not have £0 be accoun- ted for in the couparison ‘stress value. Yo single load or stress component is alloved to exceed the maximum ellovable load or stress. That means that the perpendicular sad Parallel stress components 0, anda), shall not exceed 9. Aca simplification on the safe side of the comparison formula, the arreeeser emitted by @ weld independent of stress and veld orientation can be expressed as °, ae Yad The stress 5, ean be calculated as where T is the force to be transmitted, a the veld size and 1 the weld length. When single sided fillet velds are used, eccentricity effects shel) be Tonge inte consideration, Fillet wields with tensile loads perpendicalan ne the longitudinal direction of the weld shall preferably not be unie single sided. Single sided fillet welds and partly penetrated valde may be seed for static loads. sera cost box sections single sided welds may have to be used also for fatigue loadings. sie vith set fillet welds betveen the flanges and the web in Ingirders shall be gade with a penetration cf at least half the web thickness, unless spe- gist attention is paid to eccentricity effects. Purthernone che Single sided lowable load, where the web is not stiffened by a veb stiffeccr, Partly penetrated welds are regarded and calculated as fillet welds. For strength calculations the real net section shall be wood, Partly penetrated Welds are acceptable only for steels with good ductility,igo COMMENTS Cr. Wen using processes euch as gas shielded are welding or submerged are welding guaranteeing a penetration of euffietent depth, wiiformity and continuity, the Penetration may be taken into acccunt in the otrength calculation. For sulmeryéd arc welding the throat thickness used for calculations may be increased by 20% or 2mm, vhickever ts the enallest. 4 similar or even larger penetration may also be taken into account for thie or other velding processes if it can be shawn by @ procedure teat that the penetration oan be guarantied, For automatic velding processes vith insufficient root penetration, the throat thickness wed for calculations has to be reduced accordingly.181 RECOMMENDATIONS 27.1.4 PENETRATION 87.1.5 INTERMITTENT FILLET WELDS R1.1.6 CONTACT PRESSURE sonbression forces between different parts in welded joints may de tran, pitted by contact pressure provided that the contact surfaces ore Parallel and fit feasonablywell. As-rolled, sav-cut and oxygen-cut surtaces nee generally ac be Eile week soe fit Of uP £0 2 um is permitted. The ait gap docs scr wee ro be filled with veld motal. faces shall be locked against lifting or sliding, unless othervise spacified or in agreement with fepreced practice. Frovision must be made to prevent lateral displacement. and in se doing, iegioe forces may be taken into account. Tensile ant shone torent and forces ghich may be generated by buckling shall be taken by Joiaes designed for these forces. R7.1.7 LAMELLAR TEARING ser heoszamemission of tensile forces in the thickness dixection in the eag2eee), thEouRh Tor cruciform joints, the parent metal ce be stressed in the thickness direction shall be free from’ lamellae tearing or large slag in- Elusions that could reduce the load bearing capacity by more had an insignifi- cletesonut EFeedem from lamellat“ind large slag inclusions cen Le tested by tittasonics. In order to reduce the risk of laneflar tearing, connections tran- Soe EE, Ete peidine, ut materiel shall be selected vhieh nan goed seecme eee capacity in the thickness direction.182 COMMENTS C71! A rough indication of uhen preheating may be necessary to avoid hydrogen eracking ta given by the adjoining diagran as a fwiction of weld pass size, parental thickness, carton equivalent and type of electrode. the wegen equi~ valent may be based upon nominal composition or Ladle ansiases, ree diagran gives only an indication when preheating can be avoided ae @ guideline for the designer. The final decision about pre eating mst be made by the fabricate taking into consideration shop or site eonditions, material quali iy, deeisn configuration ete. CE = 0.50 Other electrodes 0.35 tow hydrogen electrodes 0.55 Other electrodes (on) Preheating might be necessary CE = 0.48 Lew hydrogen ——______ electrodes 100 #8 CE = 0.49 Other electrodes 4 a 6 7 a Held pass size a, (rm) tat, 12,183 RECOMMENDATIONS R 7.1.8 PREHEATING Preheating way be desirable or necessar; 'y when joining thick parent pla tes or large members, or when applying small welds with little heat input to large material thicknesses.184 COMMENTS Indication of when preheating might be necessary aa a function of weld pass size, material thickness, carbon equivalent and type of electrode to noord Fy drogen cracking =o, ort tot+V | wa MER EVACE sa Preheating generatly not necessary below the carbon equivalent and eleatrode type line in question, Above that line preheating might be deetrable or reccs, sary. Steel Fe 360 and Fe 430 generally do not require any preheating when welded with low hydrogen electrodes. C719 @ ~ Longitudinal fillet welds Jn @ longitudinal fillet weld loaded by a parallel force the only atress con, vonen, + @ Parallel shear stress t,,, provided there are no eccentricity ef feeta, ! eP 2 gmt t | wd The force P can be written With only @ longitudinal shear the comparison etress becomes lege 8 VFS oy Therefore: ato, FP Be) ete Bw ip > = Pransveree fitlet welds in a double transverse fillet dotnt or af fillet joint loaded by @ normal force P there are w30 equal otvess components.o, and yi fe185 RECOMMENDATIONS R 7.1.9 CALCULATION EXAMPLES For the calculation of veld sizes, a simplified load distribution within the joint ic normally aseumed. This is usually the only satisfactory approach to design, since the real situation is commonly complex, and the elastic distribution Of loeds between the velds highly indeterminate. The assumptions made are normal— ly justified by the capacity of the welds to redistribute load by plastic yielding. Care must be taken to ensure that the wélds are capable of the plastic straining which is implied by the design assumptions. In comments examples are included to illustrate the way in which these design recommendations may be interpreted in particular cases. Other simplified assumption might also be made for calculating these or other details.186 COMMENTS force P can be uritten as & t P= aq —> + qr —2 ve a P=2 ato, B oft,= tL” 28 at The comparison stress is er Lae ee s vagy = OE = D0, £F B 4B te, Equalising the maximun destgn foree in the weld and in the member gives the mnimum wold vise, vhich ts of equal strength as the menber a= ft a For ateel Fe 360 the weld atze shall be at least a = 0.5 t, for steel Fe 430 at least and for steel Fe §10 at least 0.61 t. a> Lap jotnte lap joints om be made with two longitutinal etde fillet welds and one, to or none end fillet welde. The eane weld eize is often chosen for all welds. Hornally the side fillet welda are of approwinately equal Length and shorter tha 2m Then the load can be untformly distributed along the length of the velds and in-plane load eccentricities neglected. For @ short lap Joint betuoen comparatively stiff menbers Loaded by a longity dinal force the weld size can be doterminod by Pa a(l, + ly) xy, + (8 aft, + 1) op The comparison stress is “erp = B51, By for the longitudinal welde Sepp = 2 Ba, £9, for the transverse welds Therefore: ag Pe* (1, + tyl82, of 1); @ Be Ps et 7 (1, +t, +8 1,21) Ta ge ae gn18: RECOMMENDATIONS188 COMMENTS This representation assumes both donne length to be short, that te ali weld length ty, 1 menbere to be comparatively stiff and the Ie bz eid Ly to be of about the sane order of magnitude. a, hy as/y AS —.P ele Often all welds ane assured to carry the same force per unit length. That means that the Factonl S tn fron: tof the veld length 1; and L, of the tran sveree welds ts approximated by wity. This givee veld dimensions on the safe side, a a2,—84P (ty +1, 425 + Lo, Thia formila te alec valid when the welds have arbitrary directions. Regi fo transverse weld at ono or both of the ends the Uength L, or Ly ov both are zero. lap joints loaded also by shear or moment or both ean be caleulated with the same method aa demonstrated for web splices. For members with large eccentricities, like a non-symmetrical angle connected on its ehort Leg, the Load eccen: tvielty might not be neglected. In this ca~ se 2 larger veld wize may have to be chosen for the end félle: weld at she free ond of the connected menber and also for the side fillet velde. Theoe larger weld thicknesses can be calculated from the eccentricity moment. d - Web aplices Bean web eplices welded to one dean end and bolted to the other are used to imanefen transverse loads. The web eplice might be welded along three or few gides. Due to eccentricity of the transverse load there {8 also a monent in the web sptice. One approach to calculate the ve ‘lds in a web eplice is to ascwne the plate to rotate as a rigid body. The centre of rotation can be chosen quite ardi= trary within a considerable range 23 demostrated by experimental results. Each part of the weld can earry a load which ie perpendicular to the radius from that part of the weld to the centre of rotation. The nazimin stress transmitted by ay part of the weld regardless of ueld and stress orientation can be expressed as:189 RECOMMENDATIONS190 COMMENTS For a splice plate welded to ons eide only the velde can be calculated as follous assuming for simplicity the centre of rotation to be situated at the middle of the only transverse veld. That means that the transverse load te assigned entirely to the two horizontal welds and the eccentricity moment ia assigned to both the horizontal and vertical welds. Wo axial load is assumed. Wetd 1 = 2 P< Gy 2a, "8 10 1F 1 Sp i The oane weld atze equal to the maximum of the calowlated values a, ond a, shall be choven for alt uelds. If one calculated veld size ts more than tutee the other, a new eentze of rotation should be chosen and a new calcu lation made. @ - Flange to web welds Flange to web welds in velded I-gindere chall be designed to transmit shear forces between the flanges and the web. A longitudinal normal streae tn the Slange due to bending can be negiected when calculating tho flange to veb191 RECOMMENDATIONS192 COMMENTS veld. Traneverse Loads can normally be aasumed to be carmied by contact preseure. At supports and under concentrated heavy Loads a double fillet veld or 2 P-butt weld shall be used. Otherviee a single fillet weld is al- 80 permasible. GEA N N RN N Double fillet weld single fillet uel ZA ZZ Ya An upper bound to the weld size can be ealeulated as foilous. The shear flow between flange ard web te approximated by the average shear in the web. For a double fillet weld in a double symmetrical I-section the shear atrece ia = 7 = Bah ise With o,p¢= 813 12 9, the throat thickness becomes: a > =@ aS where a, ia the deetgn strese in che veb plate material. Asewnin§ the wed tc be devigned for the full permissible shear stress gives 8 a>5 t For otocl Fe 380 the weld aize shall be at Least a = 0.35 t, for eteel Fe 430 at least 0.40 t and for steel Fe $10 at least 0.42 t. For a single flange to web fillet veld the weld size shall be twice the abo~ ve values, A Tbutt ueld between flange and web needs no calculation. f - Bean to_colum connections In a velded beam-to-colwin connection the most common and natural way of de~ atgn is to allocate the shear force to the veb and the moment ae a couple of forces to the flanges. The flange eonmection can be made ae a T-butt veld or a double fitlet vald. the web connection ts usually made as a double fil let veld, Streeses in the colum need not to be taken into account when de= signing the welds. A welded beam ta column connection may be made pith or without attffenere, depending upon the load and dimensions. For an un-atiffened conmection a re duced effective width has to be used for the calculations as in the ease with brackets.193 RECOMMENDATIONS94 COMMENTS The shear foree T is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the web veld 1, The tension foree due to moment can generally be assumed to be carried by the tension flange veld 2, made as double fillet weld or a f-butt weld. The compression force in the other flange can be assumed to be carried by contact preoure. Tension forces in the compression flange due to wexpected move- ments or straining may be carried by a double fillet weld designed for rota~ tional capacity. Stiffeners are generally welded to the columm flange vith: @ weld designed for the sane load as the bean flange weld. Upper bounds for the veld sises can be caleulated as follows. Weld 1 (Longitudinal double fillet weld) = * Bay (-Bey Bs 7 *1 2 20r207 a” Weld 2 and weld 4 ae fillet velds u 2 ¥8 ab -t) Bu a for a double fillet veld ¥@ b(h-t)195 RECOMMENDATIONS196 COMMENTS For an unstiffened connection a reduced effective flange width shali be u- sed. The calculated throat thicmmess shall be applied over the vhole flan- ge width, Weld 2 and weld ¢ as butt velde For a butt weld no caleulation te needed. Weld 3 and weld 5 Compression forces are carried by contact pressuve. A wold shall, houever, be made to ensure material continuity. A butt veld needs no calculation, A fillet weld mst have an adequate capacity for angle rotation, In a scatically indeterminate structure all velds mot have adequate rotario ral capacity, This te aseuned to be the case when tho fillet weldo are de signed for a normal stress of at least 70% of the nominal yield strees in the adjacent parent material. Thie gives the veld etze 0.35 & for Fe 360 0.40 % for Fe #30 for a double fillet veld 0.42 & for Fe 510 Base plates Base plates might besides axtal loads be subsected to transverse Loads and moments. The pune azial compression due to axial loads and moment can be carried by contact pressure. Witk only axial compression carried by contact pressure, a weld to the base plate to avilt needed. This fillet weld around the colum section can be calculated fer one third of the compression force.197 RECOMMENDATIONS198 COMMENTS A resulting tension force die to 2 large moment is assumed to be carried by the flange-to-plate welds, A traneveree force parallel to the web is car ried by the veb~to-plate weld and a transverse force parallel to the flanges ts carried by the flange to plate valds. Any risk of excessive teneton for cca due to lateral instability ts taken care of by an enlargement factor con taining the allovable mean compression atrese in the colum in allowable ~ stress design. With a monent only in the etrong direction of the colum the tension force in the tension flange eam be written as = XN aor p= -§ +3 gy apy? a, P= bay vig, = 2 B With no transverse force parallel to the flawes the flange to plate weld stze becomes Where opis the y Lum buckling. Tha veld size ay is valid yhon ¥ te a compression force (positive). Special care must be taken when estimating the variations in M and N. Other wise, a safe value, of the weld size ap ta generally obtained if N is ingen ted with half ita calculated value. For the veb-to-plate veld carrying a transverse force parallel to the web weld size te: B V5 7 2th — Bt) an ‘stress and ois 'tielimit compression stress dus to co~199 RECOMMENDATIONS200 COMMENTS C 7.22 Freheating may be necessary to avoid the heat affected zone evacking when doining thick plates or large members, or when appluing small velds with Lov heat tmput. Repair welding with omall epot velds in thick work pieces may need preheating to avoid rapid heat dissipation. Heavy restraint conditions shall be limited as far as possible. If heat treatment after uelding ie presoribed it shall be done in such a way that the structure does not crack or deform in an wacceptable manner. Exceptionally, tf required by the purchaser, the fabricator shall demonstra te by means of epeetmen welds of adequate Length, width and quality of steel ré resentative of those to be used that he can make eatisfactory welds with the welding procedures to be used on the contract. The test velde shall include specimen weld details from the actual construction and these shall be ve lded in a manner stmlating the most unfavowable instance of fit-up, joint design, ele trode condition, postion etc. which are anticipated to oceur on the partieular fabrication. After welding the teet welds shall be held as long as possible at Toom temperature, but in ary case not less than ?2 hows. Then they shall be examined for cracking followed by sectioning and macrographie examination.201 RECOMMENDATIONS R 7.2 MANUFACTURING R 7.2.1 GENERAL For all welded structures and details, drawings shall be made showing dimensions, positions, type of joints, weld size, quality of welds ete as well a5 post treatment, if any. Ic is the responsibility of the designer to prepara the general velding drawing. For nore important structural details and for structures vhere the pur chaser, authorities or ccde rules so require, a detailed welding plan shall be made showing joint details and geometry, veld sizes, preparation of fusion fa~ ces and, if necessary, welding position (horizontal, vertical or overhead), wel- ding process ,welding sequences, number of runs, type of electrode and electrode dimensions, preheating ani post treatment. The welding shall be arranged so that welding residual stresses and welding deformations are limited as far as possible. Attention shall de paid to the requirements of ovement in the joint during walding. For members transferring tensile loads in the thickness direc tion the risk of lamellar tearing shall be duly observed. It is the responsa~ bility of the fabricator to prepare the detailed welding plan in accordance with the welding drawings and the general principles of these recommendations. Only competent welders are to be used for the fabrication of welded Structures covered by these recommendations. A competent welder means someone who has passed a competence test for the welding procedure to be used or who has beea doing this type of vork for a long period and whose work during that pe Tiod has been subjected to adequate quality control. The fabricator shall be prepared to demonstrate bis coupetence and his facilities for the type of fabrication and welding involved. The fabricator shall have competent welders and competent supervisors for the work. & 7.2.2 WELDING PROCEDURES The welding process and procedure shall be arranged to cuit the joints and details as indicated on the drawings. The welding procedure shall ensure that veld metal can be fully and satisfactory deposited chroughout che length and thickness of all joints and that the quality of the weld meets the require- ments of these reconmendations. Parts to be welded togecher shall be assembied and kept together euring the welding operation so that the required shape is obtained after welding. ‘The welding arc shall not be struck against ourfaces of the struc- ture other than the fusion faces. Stray arching shall be avoided as this can leave lecal hard spots or cause cracking which may need to be removed. All slag shall be removed from each rund of weld metal and from the fusion faces before a further run is superimposed, Peening of intermediate weld runs is permissible. Chipping and grinding after welding shall be made in such a way that local cavities, sharp and large notches, cracks and hard spots do not occur. Straightening after welding shall be made in such a way that the strength characteristics do not significantly deteriorate or cracking does not eccur, Straightening by heat is allowed as vell as forced cocling from 500 C or below by compressed air or gently water spraying.202 COMMENTS € 7.2.3 An ili-fitting backing plate ts likely to cause a bad weld. Backing material need not be removed, unless it tc specifically stated that tt has to be removed. 3 3 <3 rm (1.5 rm with no sealing run) 4<0.25 t (0.12 t with no sealing mm)203 RECOMMENDATIONS R 7.2.3 BUTT WELDS The details of butt welds, i.e. form of joint, angle between fusion fa ces, gap between parts, etc., shall be arranged to permit the use of a satisfac~ tory welding procedure, and the combination of the veld detail and the welding procedure shall be such that the resultant joint will comply with the require= ments of the design. ‘The ends of butt joints shall be welded so as to provide the full veld thickness. This may be done by the use of extension pieces or other equivalent means. ta the as-velded condition the veld face may have a general depression bf 5% or a lecal depression of up to 10% of the weld thickness shown on the dra~ vings. When no grinding is to be carried out the maximum weld oversize shall be 25% of the thickness, or 5 um, whichever is the smallest. Where grinding of the weld face is required it must be clearly shown on the drawing. Full penetration single V, U, J, bevel or square butt welds shall be com pleted, either by depositing a sealing run of weld metal on the back of the joint, dr where these or other butt velds are to be welded from one sida only with the aid of backing material, except where by the adoption of a suitable method of welding, full penetration will be ebtained without the use of backing material. One case where a sealing run cannct be made is in small size closed box sections. Waere backing muterial is employed the joint shall be arranged in such a way as fo ensure that complete fusion of the parts to be joined is readily obtained. In butt welds, welded from both sides, the back of the first run shall be gouged out by suitable means to clean sound metal before welding is started on the gouged out side, unless a welding procedure is adopted which gives = com plete penetration without back gouging. The root edges or root faces of butt joints shall not be out of aligné ment by more then 25% of the thickness of the thinner material for material up to and including 12 mm thick, or by more than 3 m for thicker material velded from both sides, If welding is to be done from one side only, the misalignment shall be not more then 12% or 1,5 um respectively. R 7-2-4 FILLET WELDS In the as-welded condition the throat thickness may locally be 102 less than prescribed, provided that the average throat thickness is at least as thick as shown on the dravinge. There is no limitation on the maximum size of a fil. Jet veld. A high weld oversize over the specified weld section shall be avoided. ‘The edges and surfaces to be joined by fillet welds shall be in as clo~ se contact as possible. If the gap between the surfaces to be joined exceeds 2 um special care and precautions shall be taken to guarantee a suitable welding procedure and an adequate weld. R 7.2.5 PARTLY PENETRATED WELDS Partly penetrated welds shall have a throat thickness and a weld section nor less than that specified. Evidence shall be produced to show that the vel~ ding procedure used will give the required weld section.208 COMMENTS C728 Certain protective coatings are specially formilated vith the intention that they should not interfere with subsequent velding and the use of such coatings te nor excluded by the requirenenta of this elause. The fusion face and immo~ diate surrounding area ghould be dry.205 RECOMMENDATIONS R7.2.6 FUSION FACES ‘The preparation of fusion faces for butt welds shall be such that the required quality and accuracy can be achieved. For manual are welding the to- lerances on root faces shall be + 1 mm. The tolerances on gap shall be + 2 mm, vith a minimum gap of 1 mm. The tolerances on thé included angle between the fusion faces shall be + 5° for V-joints and + 5 - 0° for U- and J-joints. Wne- re a joint is out of colerances, the welding procedure has to be modified or changed, For automatic processes close limits might be necessary and particular requirements depend on the characteristics of the process. Fusion faces way ba formed by edge planing, thermal cutting or cold shearing. Fusion and adjacent faces shall be free from cracks, notches or o ther irregularities which might te the cause of defects or would interfere with the deposition of the weld metal. Such defects may be ground away or repair welded and ground. Repair of Laminated material forming the fusion faces or adjacent to the fusion faces is permitted. Fusion faces shall be free from heavy scale, moisture, oil, paint or any other substance which might affect the quality of the weld or impede the progress of welding. This is particularly important when a weld with a low hy- drogen content is required. R 7.2.7 TACK WELDS Tack welds shall generally be of the same throat thickness and leg len gth as the root run to be used for the joint, The tack weld shall be subjected to the same welding conditions as those specified for the root run. The length of the tack weld shall not be less than 50 mm. Sound tack welds do not have to be taken away before making che root run. Where a tack weld is incorporated in the final weld,the shape of the tack shall be suitable for that and iree fromcracks end other deposition faults. Tacks welds with cracks shall be cut out before incorporation in the main veld or completely melted down by the following weld process. R 7.2.8 TEMPORARY AND SECONDARY ATTACHMENTS Welded temporary attachments shall be avoided, if not necessary. When used, welded temporary and secondary attachments shall be made in accordance with these recoumendations and welding procedures. Generally there are no re~ strictions on the place for attachuents. The risk of cold cracking at tempera~ ry attachments shall be observed Ié temporary attachments are to be used they may be left or removed in a manner which vill not tear the surface of the plate.206 COMMENTS CP.37 The following information shall be supplied by the purchaser or agreed wen by the purchaser and the fabricator before signing the contract. 7. The application standards and building codes to be applied together with ay supplementary requirements. 28. Drawings showing general. dimensions and important details. 3. Specifications of parent metal and of required weld metal properties. 4. Dimensions, locattons and type of welds and form of joints. For nonetandan’ veld joint detatls shalt be given. 5S. Restrictions, tf any, agatnat ette welding, open-air ueldings, erection vel- ding, location of site welds and erection welds etc. 8. Specification of post-uelding heat treatment, if required. 7. Spectfication if the structure is to be used wider apecifie environmental conditions such as very lou temperatures, highly corrosive atmosphere, high aulphile environment, cocasional impact loads etc. Special requirenents, if any, which are not normal and not covered by accepted fabrication etandards for that type of structures. Tnspection and teating requirements including radiographic inspection, ultre- onic inopection and other testing methods, if ary, all together with accep tance requinements. Specification if inspection ts to be made by an indepen dent inspection agency. 10.Specifications for velding procedure testa, if ary.207 RECOMMENDATIONS 27.2.9 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS Surfaces to be welded shall be dry and protected from high wind. Ne~ cessary precautions shall be taken to protect the welding area. Where gas-shielded welding processes are being used, low air currents can remove the shielding gas, and therefore sufficient screening shall be used to keep vinds and draughts away from the welding area. In conditions of high humidity and at low temperature condensation may form on the fusion faces. This must be removed before welding commences. For manual arc welding during cold weather conditions care shall be ta ken to avoid bad welding quality duo to the discomfort of the welder. R 7.2.10 WELDING CONSUMABLES The type of welding consumables shall be chosen vith regard to the grade of materiel being welded, joint design, welding position, and service con ditions. The deposited weld metal shall give properties equal to, or better, than the minimum specified. Before welding the electrodes or welding powder shall be dry. The storage, drying and re-drying of electrodes shall be in ac- cordance with the electrode manufacture. instructions. R 7.3 CONTROL AND INSPECTION R7.3.1 GENERAL It is the responsibility of the fabricator to ensure that all welding is carried our in accordance with the terms of these reconmendations. The fabricator shall provide the necessary supervision to fulfill this requirement. It is also the responsibility of the fabricator to ensure that the completed welds satisfy the quality requirements of these recommendations. Welds and the edjacant paren: metal shall not be painted or otherwise subjected to protective treatment until they have been inspected and approved. This requirement does not prohibit priming before welding. When the purchaser requires inspection and testing by an independent inspection and testing agency it shell be agreed upon by the fabricator and the purchaser in the contract.208 COMMENTS 07.5.2 Supervision and inopection of welding may comprise = enouring that the right welding consumables are used and that they are atored and treated in a correct way = control of fusion faces and joint preparation = control of fitting, avaenbling and temporary joining = control of preheating or other heat treatment, if any - ensuring that the weiding draving and the we Iding plan ts followed = visuzl inspection of the welds and control of weld dimensione = radiographic and ultrasonic control = dye penetrante ad magna flux, for special application, For prodominantly static stmuctwes visual inspection ts the main inspection method and this will generally be sufficient. 7.5.3 Butt welds in very thick parent materiale, where the avatlable radtographic equipment camo: penetrate the full veld thickness, mey be tested by stepwise radiography or ultrasonies. C78e qbutt welds are tested by ultrasonte, if necessary. o7ae It should be observed thav repair welding is more difficult and demanding than ordinary welding. If there are any doubte that a repair weld will not be better than the original faulty vald and give a aafer over-all construction, then tt io worthwhile considering whether a slightly faulty weld can be tole pated. It mat be emphasized that for the quality of steed and for the loadin conditions to which these recommendations are limited rather large defects mi be accepted and still provide adequate service and safety.RECOMMENDATIONS 27.3.2 SUPERVISION AND INSPECTION 27.3.3 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION Lf radiographic inspection is to be applied it shall be performed in ac~ cordance with the recommendations giver by the IIW. Radiographic filas shall be marked according to the IIW Collection of Reference Radiographs of Welds in Steel For static losd the mark shall be in general green or better for approval. Filns with the mark broun or red may be passed depending upon type of faults, position, loading conditions, and importence of the weld. For important, highly stressed tensile welds the mark should be preferably green or better. Other quality requi- venents shall be agreed upon by the purchaser and che fabricator in the contract. ‘The extent of radiographic inspection shdl be agreed upon between purchas ser and fabricator in the contract, vhere this extent is not covered by compulsc— ry code rules. If radiographic inspection is not prescribed a statistical radiogra phic quality control of the tensile load bearing butt welds is recommended. The — extent of thie statistical quality control might be 2-5%. 7.3.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION If ultrasonic inspections are prescribed it shall be agreed upon between the purchaser and the Eabricater in the contract together with the extent and the quality requirements. The results of any ultrasonic testing shall be documented Radiographic inspection of butt welds may be substituted by ultrasonic testing. R 7.3.5 OTHER INSPECTION AND TESTING METHODS If other methods of inspection and testing, like dye penetrants or magna flux, are to be prescribed theri they shall be agreed upon between the purchaser and the fabricator in the contract together with the extent and the quality requi- renents. The result of the inspection and testing shall be documented. R 7.3.6 CORRECTION OF FAULTY WELDS Welds vhich do not comply with the requirements of the drawings and spe- cifications or with these recommendations shall as 2 rule be corrected. Defective portions of the weld shall be removed, revelded and then rein spected in accordance with these recommendations. Unacceptable surface faults and under-cutting shall be made good by grinding or, exceptionally, by the deposi tion of additional weld metal. Under-size welds may also be made good by the deposition of additional veld metal.210 COMMENTS C744 Generally the cost of a welded deteil or structure constate of labour and nx terial ecota. For the whole structure the material cost is often less than the total la~ bour cost. For details the labour cost ia normally over 90% of the total cost. detail or structure vith the most effective strength exploitation and the le uest material weight is often more expenoive than a ices sophiaticated design which is simpler to fabricate. Generally the simplest and moat straigta-for- ward design is the Teast expensive even if the material weight ts somewhat lar ger. ‘The material costs include the cost of parent metal and the coat of wold me- tal, bolts and nuts etc. were the parent metal ta quite dominating. For welded steel atructures the veight of weld mezal amounts, as an average, to about 0.6% of the vetght of parent metal. For velded details the weight of ueld metal ts between 1 and 10% of the parent metal. The material cost of de- postted veld metal per kg anowite to approzimately 4 vimes the oost of the pa- vent metal. The cost of veld metal oan, far practical estimation purposes, be negleated for all typea and dimensions of welds. ‘The cost per kg of bolts, ruta and similar accessories ts approzimately $ times the cost of the parent metal. The material cost ty dependant ion steel quality, shape and dimensions. Furthermore, ateel prices vary with the market conditions. The ateel prices ehow only minor variations betueen different countries. The Labour costs for welded details and structures consist of direct paynent to the vorkers, socicl costs, administration and other overheads, auciliary nan power, welding, workehop and ercotion equipment ete. Here the costs for design nay aleo be incorporated. ‘Por erection work the working tine and the total labour cost ta generally higher than for shop fabrication, tn many cases considerably higher. For enec— ton welding the cost of temporary ecaffolding can alec add considerably to the total aot. The total labour eost is often expressed as man hours including alt kinds of overheads and additional costs. The direct man hour payment and the total la bour cost varies between different combries. The labour ocat te also constar tly increasing. The total Labour ocet per hou can be obtained by dividing the total annual fabrication cost, excluding material costs, by the total number of man hours expended during the year.RECOMMENDATIONS R 7.4 GooD ECONOMICAL DESIGN PRACTICE R7.4.1 GENERAL For a given application there are many different joint configurations that will meet the service requirements and the technical standards. When designing 2 welded joint or a welded detail there are severel fac~ tors to take into account. First the joint or detail must have adequate strength and safety so that it will not fail or suffer unacceptable deformations during service conditions. ‘Second the joint must be designed so that it can be fabricated using a~ vailable fabrication techniques, and also readily inspected. ‘A third requirement is that the joint or detail must be coupatible with the rast of the structure and the whole building construction. Maintenance, space and aesthetical requirements need attention. Finally cost and economy mist be considered.22 COMMENTS A relationship betueen material and Labour costs including all overhead du ping a pericd of time is shown in the diagram. One man hour inaluding all o- vemead ts today equivalent to 35-60 kg steel. Thte means that one has to sa- de ger50 kg of steel in order to pay for one additional shop man how due to more complicated fabrication, on that one can use 30-60 kg more steet of ane tan save I etop man hour, Tae actual value varies between different cowitrics Gnd with the steel qualdty and the steel prices. For high payment countries a5 kg steel per shop man hour is a representative value, and for Low payment countries 36 kg steel per shop man hou is a more representative value. ‘9 steel/ man hour 1960 1965 1070 W975 Year Relationship between ateel cost and Labour cost inctuding overhead the total cost of deposited weld metal consists mainly of material and icbow costs. Of these the labour cost is quite dominating. The pure electrode nate pial sost anounte to somevkere between 3 ard 20% of the total cost, the Lover percentage for small butt veids ai the higher percentage for large fillet uelis. Dther costs for consunables, energy and equipment ane generally included in the total shop overhead. For estimating uelding costs generally the shop labour time only te eonside- ved. The shop labour time multiplied by the total shop labour cost per hour, including all overheads, gives the cot for making the weld. Fusion face pre- aration aud handling is normally tnaluded in the shop labour time. Electrode material costs may be added or neglected.or even higher, ‘The cost of fusion face preparation is often negligible if it is done when the parent material ts beiyg cut to ate. For other fusion face preparations and for oblique or epectally shaped fusion faces the extra cost adds to the o ther costs, ‘The cost of fusion face preparation can be of the sane orden of ms gnitude as the cost for the electrode material. Special requirenents for poet welding treatment as vell as special control requirenentecdd additional amounts to the total cost for a uelded joint or de- tail.213 RECOMMENDATIONS214 COMMENTS For manual are welding the following appromimate figures for the shop hows based upon long welds can be used ae a very rough eotinate of the ohop labour cost. The time eatinates incluie velding, slagging, ohipping, and all normal Fusion face preparations, normal hardling and post treatment. Non-productive ‘time, as waiting for cranes, ts not included. For small welds used to connect fittings and small connections the times might be increased by as much as 100%. For automatic and semi-automatic velding processes and for processes like gra- vity uelding the productivity te eigntficantly higher and the times shorter. Type of weld Sam fillet veld, downhard 0.8 - 0.3 how/m pee vertical 1620.2-03 " overhead os 8 JOm fillet veld, domhand og Pigaeaee vertieat og overhead og” Onn V-butt veld, downhand neo APRA horizontal ne 0” vertical neo! 25mm X-butt weld dowmband ae 0" A paneie hortaontal 2a vertical ag 8 1/2 domhand, 1/2 overhead aa The shop labour oct ta obtained by multiplying with the total shop labo hour cost ineluding overhead. To this the cost of electrode matertal and extra handling should be added. As an examle the shop Labour cost of a 10 mm Y-buttweld is roughly 0.7 h/n times the total ehop labour cost por hour tneluding overhead. 70 thie an elec trode material cost of 10% em be added. The design of welded atructures and welded detatis must be constdered in oor dwietion with the fabrication and erection facilities to ensure that a ravional and economical fabrication is obtained. ‘A great part of the total chop time for fabrication of steel etructures ts internal trasportation, lifting, and handling. For a rational fabrication tt ie necessary to reduce the internal transportation and handling and to adapt the design to the fabrication facilities. For short welds preparation vork ad eet-up time can become a considerable part of the total welding work, sonetine as high as the actual welding. Welding, sasing ard drilling fon atructural joints are often made in diffe rent fabrication tines and eometimes in different shops. Therefore, to reduce ‘internal transportation velded and bolted connections should be separated ina ratdonal manner. de a general rule one shall, if possible, try to avoid both welding and bolted jointa in the same vork pieces. Furthermore, fuston face preparation shall be nade together vith cutting the matertal to size. Changing of dimension often introduces additional welding and other fabrism tion work, Here, it should be checked that the veight gaina are not eroded aicy by additional fabrication ecete, which to often the ease.RECOMMENDATIONS216 COMMENTS Froction velding ta often much more complicated ard expensive than ehop vel- ding. For erection welding the coet of oranes, temporary scaffolding and other Groction toole must be taken into account. Por erection joints bolted connec~ tions are often preferred to velded joints. A bolted connection ta often fa- ater, simpler ani less expensive to erect than a comparable welded connection. The mone time te vavally mich amatler for bolted connections than for erection nelds, and the need for temporary scaffolding or vorking platforms and proves tion againat weather conditions are usually non-existent for bolted connections. Even with a atte welded atructure,bolted connections are often necessary at a temporary erection measure. Consequently the use of ette velding doce not completely eliminate shop fabrication. 07.4.2 Examples of good economical design of typteal velded connections are given in the following detail design sheets. For each type of connection tuo or more solutions are giver arvaiged primarly according to cost of fabrication. ‘Bootdes fabrication coat many other factors such as space,requirements nate- rial dimensions, Loading type, stiffeners, hidden connections ete influence the choice of detatt design. BASES PLATES rs Thick plate without etiffensra ° ° Alwaya at least four ground bole In generat the most economical type of base plate. Base plate with atiffenere Thie type te used to avoid a very thick plate, for instance vhen a wide plate has to be used to distribute the grows toad.2u7 RECOMMENDATIONS R 7.4.2 EXAMPLES OF GOOD ECONOMICAL DETAIL DESIGN28 COMMENTS FLEXIBLE BEAN TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS | Connection on bracket without end plate Tt can only be wed for beane vith thick webs and small shear forces. Usually the most economical sotu- tton when tt can be used. Hidden connection on bracket If the wper part of the web adja- —_h cent to the half ond plate canoe carry the shear force an extra stiffening plate has to be inserced between the half endplate and the Beam end, In that case this cannes tion becomes more expensive than the next one. Connection on bracket with end pli te Standard solution in many caseo. Conneation betyeen colum 1e8 This conection ts only to be used if beans are cormectad from tuo om ty thogonal directions or if the colum has to be oriented with the open veb against the bean. This aolution ia more expensive than | those above.219 RECOMMENDATIONS220 COMMENTS RIGID BEAM TO COLUMY CONNECTIONS Kelded connection without atiffenen This connection can carry the fi plastic moment only tf the colum te heavy and the bean flanges not too wide. Bolted end plate connection This connection can often carry the fult plastic moment without stifje ners. If 20 and tf the moment co be carried by only tio nous of bolts this solution is less expensive thm the next type. The bolted connection te euttable fer erection joints. Welded connection vith etiffone: This type might be less expensive than the former tf tt can be shop welded before erection.22. RECOMMENDATIONS222 BEAN TO BEAM COWNECTIONS COMMENTS Beans on different levels This type of bean to beam connec- tion ie generally the most eccro- mical The solution vith beans on diffe- rent levels requires extra buil- ding height, vhich might be a li- nitation or lead to extra costa. Beam on the same level The first three solutions vary only little in cost. The first solution is to prefer if there are two cross beams, one from each side, which balance each other. The last solution is generaliy the most expensive.223, RECOMMENDATIONS224 BEAM SPLICES COMMENTS Welded and botved beam eptice The flanges are velded and the wit doint bolted by friction bolts. This joint ta favourable for lays hetghte. Welded beam eplice This ali welded bean eplice is fa- vourable for analler and modiun etze bean. Welding shall be mde in moat faucurable position, vhic depends won if the beam can be tamed or not. End plate heam aplice This type of bean splice ie econc- mical tf the joint te situated at a ridge on other place uhere verti- eal etiffenera are needed anyhov.225 RECOMMENDATIONS226 COMMENTS PURLIN JOINTS Hinged joints The three alternatives for hinged The | joints are all very similar and the coste vary very little. The all bolted joint has the advan tage that the beam ends reed only @rilling and not welding, uhtoh may reduce internal shop handling. ‘Tuo bolte shall be used even tf one bolt te enough to carry the shear forces. = Wel | We tdec joint The velded joint is used when a hinged joint ts not adequate. The cost to about tice aa high as for the hinged joints.22 RECOMMENDATIONSCOMMENTS The expertence provided by completed butlding structures shove, however, that the dimeneional accuracy of steel france which have been fabricated and erected in a workmanlike manner is generally adequate in order to enaure that construc tion and function of the building will be satisfactory. In view of the above, iz ia juetifiable in epecifying dimensional tolerances for miltistcrey conatrustion to base the minim requirement on the "normal tole vances" applicable to eteel construction. Essentially, the normal. tolerances specified are to be regarded as baste va- luce of the aoouracy requirements which can be complied vith in the eouree of fa brication and erection without epecial expenditure. It must be emphasised that check measurements should ae a rule be confined to componente for which compliance vith dimenatonal accuracy requiremonta ie of real importance, or te eases where there are justified doubts on the quality of vork- manship. CaBi These recommendationa are based on extensive field measurementa relating to in perfeetiona in completed mltistorey and hall buildings and on the experience of reputable eteel eonatrustion firms in various Zuropean countries. Statistical processing of the readinga has shoum that individual deviations are generally characterized by a nomal curve, and that the permiestble tolerancn can be approxinately described by twice the otandard deviation of the readings. 4.1.2 Special tolerance requirements uhich are necessary with respect to safety or fimctional requirements for connecting atructural elements, should be prescribed on drawings.229 RECOMMENDATIONS R8, TOLERANCES IN BUILDINGS AND COMPONENTS Owing to the assembly of building components of different materiels, spe- cification of dimensional tolerances in multistorey construction often necessi- tates an adjustment of the eccuracy requirements in view.of the dimensional accu racies of the componente to be connected. The permissible dimensional tolerances sust be specified in each individual case in the course of the design process. Establishment of permissible dimensional deviations is also significant in assessing the real safety of the structure in comparison with theoretical assumptions conceraing the geometry of the leadbearing structure and safety of parts of the loadbearing structure. Furthermore, this recommendation delineates the areas of responsibility between different parts of the work relating to the structure, for instance bet veen fabrication and erection and between structural components of stee! and other materials. These normal tolerances relate to the permissible dimensional devistions in the completed steel structure. Compliance with the recommended tolerance limits should in normal circumstances guarantee the intended function of the building structure and the unhindered erection of secondary elements such as floor slab and wall components. Unless there are particular specifications for tolerance limits, the normal tolerances are to be regarded as the basis of the contract between the steel supplier and the client and as binding for the other suppliers. More stringent tolerance requirements are to be specified in the form of particular specifications for the structure in question. Special tolerances warrant 2 general increase in price. Compliance with the specified tolerances is ascertained by means of check neasurements. Because dimensional deviations have aa approximately normel stati- stical distribution, control has the character of sampling on the basis of a control schedule (R'8.3.2). The scope of control is to be determined in each individual case. R8,1 THE BASIS OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS R 8.1.1 SCOPE OF VALIDITY ‘These recommendations apply primarily to steel structures in single~ storey and multiscorey residential, office, hospital and achool buildings and department stores. In principle, the recommendations may also be applied to hall structures; an assessment is houever to be made in each case to ascertain whe- ther compliance with the tolerance limits is of general necessity. R 8.1.2 DOCUMENTS OF OVERRIDING IMPORTANCE aq Tt, Provisions of the following are to be given precedence to these re commendations: 2) Codes or structural calculations which lay down:maximum deviations from the ideal geometry of the structural frame on the basis of safety or dimensional considerations.230 COMMENTS 08.1.3 If on the basis of a special agreenent more stringent tolerances are required the expenditure entatled will be greater than that tn the cane of the normal. tolerances. 08.14 Move stringent toleraices relate to a standard of tolerances vhich involves special expenditure in fabrication and erection and should be specified only in cases where the building components connected with the eteel etructure neceasi- tate such additional expenditure. 08.2.2 The tolerance requirementa here indicated (normal tolerances) describe the most important tolerances Limits which eam be attained at present. In individual cases, depending on the construction of the building structure, further require ment are to be specified for special tolerance types not listed in the table.231 RECOMMENDATIONS b) Tolerance requirements of a compulsory nature specified on the basis of spe cial conditions applicable to individual cases, e.g. teats. - tolerances Unless there are special agreements, the steel structure is to comply with normal tolerance requirements. The costs of compliance with the tolerance limits and control measurements according to Control Class 1 are covered by the tender sum. Any costs incurred in rectifying dimensional deviations are to be borne by the supplier. Additional costs for control measures according to Control Class 2 are to be borne by the client. b) Special tolerances Special tolerances implying a restriction or an extension of the normal tole Frances and also the associated check measurenents necessitate a special agree ment between the client and che supplier. = R 8.1.4 DEFINITIONS Normal tolerances are basic requirements to be satisfied by the steel structy “—~”~—*«re with reference to the geometry of the structural frame and the dimensional accuracy of the frame components: these are generally guaranteed by the supplier. Specisl tolerances relate to extraordinary limitation of dimensional deviations, to be specified in each individual case. Gontrol Class 1 denotes check measurements necessary for compliance with the > = specified tolerances. These are performed by the supplier as @ matter of course on the basis of the control schedule refer ved to 88.3.2, The results of check measurements are to be noted in a journal and ade available to the client on request. Control Class 2_ denotes check measurements stipulated in the agreement bet- ween the client and the supplier. The control schedule accor ding to R 8.3.3 is the basis for the assessment of the results of these measurenents. The results of check measurements are to be noted in a journal and made available to the parties to the agreement. Scope of control denotes the selection of component imperfections for which evidence of compliance with permissible dimensional devia- tions is to be provided. R 8.2 TOLERANCE REQUIREMENTS R 8,2,1 PERMISSIBLE DEVIATIONS AFTER ERECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES The tolerance limits specified in Table 1 refer to the completed steel Structure, the assumption being that the corresponding tolerances in adjacent areas, ¢.g. the foundations or the concrete components which provide stability, comply with R 6.2.2.232 COMMENTS The nominal sizes are in principle to be shown on the fabrication docunents. C 8.2.2 Compliance with tolermece by the completed steel etructure according to RP ,2.1 necessitates a corresponding limitation of the tolerances applicable to parts of the structure ukich influence the dimensional accuracy of the steel structure. The requirenente aa for R 8.2.2 chould be specified in the tender for the steel structure and form an integral part of the contract. It ts reconmended ether to decide upon the tolerances with adjacent con- crete structures before starting the conerete work or to check actual devia~ tions before manufacturing the steel structure.233 RECOMMENDATIONS ‘The tolerance requirements relate to the steel structure in the unloa~ ded state. The influence ou deformations of external loads or temperature varia tions is to be taken into account during control. c The Listed tolerance values should be considered ingle deviations; an addition of maximum values in junctions with several connecting elenonte is normally incompatible with the funetional requirements. R 8.2.2, PERMISSIBLE DEVIATIONS IN ADJACENT PARTS OF THE STRUCTURE Tolerance requirements to be specified for adjacent concrete or brick work components must be agreed on and confirmed at the design state by the par~ ties involved in the construction process. a) Column y_the requirement eel structure, given in R 8.2.1 the following maximum deviations regarding the position of anchor bolts at the base of columns have to be observed. 1. The deviation of the centerline for anchor bolts with any column shall not exceed a, = 15 am in any direction. 2, The distance between two adjacent columns, measured at the base of the steel structure, shall not exceed the value a, =~ 10 mn of the nominal distan- 3. With column rows the sum of single deviations «. > Teferred to the Length of the row Z [m] shall not exceed the value 302 Jag] 415 mm for 2 aj] £15 +0.25 (1- 30)mm for 30m<% < Zilog sh = = b) Junction of the steel structure with @ concrete structure Connection of the eteal structure to @ previously constructed concrete struc ture is to be such that the tolerances stated in X 8.2.1 can be complied with.234 Deviation COMMENTS Figure Overall dimensions of the butlding Level of top of floor slab Floor bearing on colum Inclination of eolum a) between adjacent floor elabs (height h,) b) maximon deviation for the vertical Line through the colum base Deflection of colwm bet- ween floor slabs (height ky) = Lateral dofleotion of girder (span L,) Unintentional eccentricity oF ginder bearing Distance between adjacent steel colums at every section Distance between adjacent steel girdore at every section Welded girdere and columa (depth of web h,, width of Flange b): Deflection of web Inelination of veb between upper and Lower flange Eccentricity of the web in relation to the centre of Fig. Fig. Fég. Feg, Fig. either flange With colum rows observe the requirements al, < 15 mm. Concerning the height of building the valua of h ie to be used instead of 1 With floor elements having no topping for levelling out deviations from nominal height tt may be adequate to preseribe th= +0/-l0m The maximen permissible colum deviation at Floor 'n" depends on the height hy and on the number n of the storeys With beans providing support of prefabrica ted concrete plates, the minimen depth of support hae to be observed (sce also tt,) The value of », refers to the overall deflection of the web. Local deflections shall not exceed the value f= 6 mn, referred to 1000 nm measuring length,235 RECOMMENDATIONS Permissible normal to. Deviation 4 ‘nax Overall dimensions of the = ah |= 20 m for t< 20m Heetaine rai [220+ 0.25 (2-30) m for 30m «24 210m Level of top of floor slab 4 Floor bearing on column de Inclination of columns a) between adjacent floor slabs. (height h,) wy, | 90085 >) maximum deviation for the vertical line through the colunn base “1 | 9-0035 (Zh) 3/(m + 2) Deflection of coluna bet~ ween floor slabs (height h,) f,, | 9-0015 hy Lateral deflection of hecised: girder (span 2,) igo a < 40 m Unintentional eccentricity of girder bearing | Sm Distance between adjacent % steel coluuns at every at, [215 om ction Distance between adjacent steel girders at every ay section Welded girders and columns (depth of veb hy, width of Flange b): Deflection of web £, | ay/t50 Inclination of web between upper and lover flange vy [ays 75 Eccentricity of the web in relation co the centre of yy, | b/ 40 either flange |< 10m236 COMMENTS C8.2.3 Compliance with the tolerance limite in R 8.2.1 presupposes that the dimen- sional tolerances set out in Table 2, applicable to uorkshop fabrication, are not exceeded. The specifieationa in Table 2 serve to delineate the divieton of reaponsibi- lity between fabrication and erection. Deviation Positional deviation of parts connected to a girder or colum, e.g. cover plate, base plate, eto| Positional deviation of a colum Lase in relation to the column azie through the head of the colum below (applied aleo in the case of indirect load transmis- ston) Positional deviation of adjacent cover plates on girders (corresponding to colunis) Deviation in Level of bearing surfaces on ateel colums Positional deviation of bearing surfaces on steel colums Unevenness of plates in the case of contact bearing surfaces Deftactton of rolwm (storey height h,) or of girder (span 1, Length of prefabricated compo- nenta to be fitted between other components Pigure Fig. 7 Pig. 8 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig.10 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 2 In individual cases unsymmetrical tolerance requirements are sbacified in relation to the nominal dimension. Thia is meant to emphasize that plus tolerance should be avoided as far a posetbie.237 RECOMMENDATIONS R 8.2.3 PERMISSIBLE DEVIATIONS IN WORKSHOP FABRICATION Table 2: Tolerance requirements for vorkshop fabr: a Deviation Positional deviation of parts connected to a girder or column, e.g. cover plate, e, base plate, etc. Positional deviation of a column bage in relation to the column axis through the head of the column below (applied aleo in the case of indirect load trans nission) Positional deviation of adjacent cover plates on girders 8, (corresponding to columns) Deviation in level of bearing 4h, surfaces on steel columns Positional deviation of bearing surfaces on steel columns Unevenneas of plates in the case of contact bearing surfaces Deflection of column (storey height hy) or of girder (span 1,) Length of prefabricated compo- Al nents to be fitted between cther components ah, 5 um in eny direction Sm in any direction 3m in any direction + Om - 10m + Sum 1 mm over a gauge length of 300 mm 0.001 hy or 0.001 2, - Sm238 COMMENTS s Al, : z= ', 1 E(ls+Als) b a as BUT al, Fig. 1 Deviation in Length (Vertical sectton) | hy Z(h,+Ah) Ah he Ahe Ny Aly Distance between columns Deviation from |, Length of building Girder length Deviation fi eviation from A Level of top of floor slab floor bearing on column Deviation from h Column length with intermediate components Deviation from he Distance betw girders x adjacent! Deviation from ly239 RECOMMENDATIONS242 COMMENT cas Te ts to be a fundamental rule vith regard 20 control that check measurenente should be confined to dimensional deviations virich are important from the point of vieu of function, safety and construction process. CB.5.2 The control spectfication te based on the assumptions that a) the dimensional deviations have a normal statistical distribution and the otandard deviation 2, for an actual deviation a te known b) the permissible tolerance limit is Saee 2 Hy. (see section 8.2) c) the tolerance limit a, with aprobability of 90% not being in the whole population, tf the sample is examined in the decortbed ucy. With tolerance Limite that are umoyrmetrical in relation to the spectfted di- mension the latter minus half the tolerance margin has to be introduced as refé- rence value. Tp the condition @ 8, £ dng, witha Lintted cample te not filled up, the extent of the sample should be inereased and the condition be tested with the nw value of o Wa ccrtain conditions, e.g. with judging the inclination of eolume, it tt guiteble to consider the direction of tnelination. In cuch case the formila for determining the standard deviation to written 2 eb eB /tn ~ 1) the mean value of the eamle = 1 a/n the single value of the sample the extent of the sample However suck an assesement ts of actual relevance only in exceptional cases ad ahould be clearly marked in the fabrication decumenta. where xR203 RECOMMENDATIONS R 8,3 CONTROL MEASURES Examination of dimensional deviations in the building structure is to be performed on the basis of sampling. In sampling for the assessment of quality, selection of the items to be measured is to be such that they provide a compre- hensive measure of the dimensional deviatious in the building structure. Individual deviations shall not exceed 1.5 times the permissible toleran ) specified in Table 1. = cos (ay IE actual deviations exceed permissible tolerances it should be decided between the parties to the contract, whether the deviations are acceptable from the point of functional requirements or if it is necessary to eliminate the de- viations. R 8.3.1 CONTROL CLASSES Check measurements may be carried out either as 2 matter of course by the supplier (Control Class 1) or, on the basis of a special agreement between the parties to the contract and according to the control schedule, by an inde~ pendent inspector (Control Class 2). In selecting Control Class 2, the agreement between the parties affacted by the dimensional deviations, has to specify the scope of control with regard to the imperfections important from the point of view of the construction process. The results of the check measurements are to be recorded in a journal. R 8.3.2 CONTROL SCHEDULE In sampling as the basis of assessment with regard to acceptance of the steel structure, the condition applicable is that as, ) temporary situations, the durations of which are much less than the referen ce period, or life, of the structure, These may be either: (i) trangiont situations, the probsbility of occurrence being high with their duration being often random; or (ii) accidental situations the probsbility of occurrence being very low with their duration being, generally, very short.266 COMMENTS267 RECOMMENDATIONS A 5 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS The properties of the materials and their statistical variations should be obtained from tests on appropriate standard test specimens. These proper- ties, related to the standard test specimen, should be converted to the rele~ vant properties of the actual material in the structure by the use of conver~ sion Factors or functions. The uncertainty of the properties of the material in the structure way be derived from the uncertainties of the standard test results and of the conversion factor or function. If the strength of the material can be assessed prior to its being incor porated in the structure, the characteristic strength can be evaluated on the basis of an adequate statistical evaluation of the results availeble. Where this is not possible, because the material will be produced on si- te, the achievewent of the characteristic strength specified should be ensured by adquate production control and acceptance procedures. In certain cases, it may be necessary to stipulate upper and lower characteristic strength values.268 COMMENTS269 RECOMMENDATIONS A 6 GEOMETRICAL DATA In design, sccount should be taken of the possible variation of the geo- metrical data. In most cases, the variability of the geometrical data may be considered to be small, or negligible, in comparison with the veriebilicy as~ sociated with the actions snd the material properties. Hence, in general, the geometrical data may be assumed to be non-random specified in the design. Where the deviation of certain of the geometrical data from the prescribed values may have a significant effect on the structural behaviour and the resi- stance of the structure, these should be considered as random variable; the pa rameters of their variability being determined from the prescribed tolerance Limits. and270 COMMENTS C72 For certain non-linear problems, the level of the actions at which analysis ts performed (so-called level of linearisation) may need to be adjusted to en- sure a more accurate assesement of the reaponse of the atructure and, hence, of the action effects. 07.4 In interpreving the results from model teste and in predicting the behaviour of the prototype etructure care should be exercised to ensure that all the rele vant aspects of safety and serviceability are treated. where, in the model test, some particular phenomenon ie not covered directly, it will be necessary to deal with it Ey some procedure involving calculation on judgement. 025 In thie type of teating it is tmportant to ensure that the likely vartabili- ty of all relevant effects ie covered in the testing programe so that the rreatment of the safety ia consistent with that defired for the conventional ovocedures set out in thie code.RECOMMENDATIONS A7 METHODS OF ANALYSIS A7.1 GENERAL The mathods of analysis used in assessing compliance with the require ments of the various limit states should be based on as accurate a representa~ tion of the behaviour of the structure as is practicable. ‘A simple method of calculation ispreferred to a very complicated one to avoid mistakes. Consideration of the range of possible combinations and configurations of actions is necessary to ensure that the most unfavourable action effects are treated. A7.2 ANALYSIS ~ ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE Plastic, non-linear and linear elastic theory may be applied depending on the response of the structural material and the structure to load and imposed deformations. A7.3 ANALYSIS - SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES Normally elastic methods of analysis will be appropriate for these 1i- nit states having due regard to the properties of the constructional material A7,4 MODEL ANALYSIS AND TESTING A design may be deemed satisfactory on the basis of results from an ap- propriate model test coupled with the use of model analysis to predict the be- haviour of the actual structure, provided the work is carried out by Engineers vith relevant experience using suitable equipment. A7,5 EXPERIMENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES ‘A design may be deemed satisfactory if the analytical or empirical basis of the design has been justified by development testing of prototype units and structures relevant to the particular design under consideration.272 COMMENTSRECOMMENDATIONS AB GENERAL CONDITION FOR USE OF MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS AQ CONTROL AND ACCEPTANCE OF MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS 273278 COMMENTS C101 The partial safety factors, y,, ad yp, while relevant to all Yimic staves, are primarily relevant to the ultimate limit state. Since it is the safety aspect chat ia being treated, the design process involves the cheoking of tha structure to ensure that the deaign actiona or action effects can be sustained by the strug ture when, at critical sections, the deaign strength of the materials is availa- ble. In certain cases, either in defining an action or in deriving the resista ce of a member or struature, it may be necessary to define geometrical paranctere ard tolerance limits (4) on them. This will only ariee when the partioular para neter te of major significance eince normal variations in dimensions should be covered by the Y, and y,, Partial safety factors.RECOMMENDATIONS A 10 THE METHOD OF PARTIAL COEFFICIENTS (LEVEL 1) A 10.1 GENERAL The variability of the actions on a structure is taken into account by defining these in terms of characteristic values; where the necessary data are available these characteristic values are based on a statistical interpretation of those datajwhere data are not available they are based on an appraisal of ex- perience and, possibly, forecasts of the implications of future developments. The variability of the strengths and other properties of the construc tion materials are treated by defining characteristic strengths (and, hence, pro perties), related to some standard test specimens and procedures, ona statist cal basis. ‘Two types of partial safety factors are introduced, one for the stren- gth of materials and/or elements and the other for the actions or action effects; these partial safety factors ¥,, ani y, vary depending upos the materials, the ty pe of action, the nature of the structure, and its use, and the importance and the consequences, both in human and eccnomic terms, of the limit state being con sidered. Thus, the deaign actions or action effects are taken as, or derived from, YF), where Fy is the characteristic action, while in the analysis of sec~ tions within the structure the design strength is obtained by dividing the charac teristic strength by ¥, ive, design action (or action affect) = ¥,F,( or S(r,F,)) design strength of sections + funetion (£,/y,) and, possibly, certain geonetrical design parameters s, = a, * &.276 COMMENTS the breaking dom of the partial safety factor yp te clearly necessary to enable rational and consiatent vatues for the individual factors to be defined. Further, wince Y, @d Ypp are related epectfioally to the Loads or actions, ad their combinations, the valuea derived should be ebtained correspective of ths constructional material. Ypy takes the value ¥q for the ultimate linie etate and 94 0" py for the serviceability Limit states (oes 10.3). Y¢3 + however, 18 clearly related to the conatruction matorial, the design and construczton prow Cee wd the etgnificance of the partioular limit atate for the material and the structure involved. MY alec has to take account of the response of the otrueture to loads on actions and the posatbility or redistribution of action effects artaing from that response. Yy may alao be broken dom into Yq, and Yqgy OF further factors, where this procese oan be of assintance in srecting the various aapeote of safety for aif ferent raterials. This factor, yyy takes account of the inherent structural behaviour 2-9. structures on parts of structures in ukich partial or complete collapse ca 00 cur without warning, and the sertousness of the consequences of fatiure. re should be aegumed that the normal eituation implicit in existing codee te probably that aseceiated with Serious consequences and Ductile fat iune~ Y, should not, haievenr, be used explicttlystt merely eerveo a3 8 rational vay of modifying ¥,, Of Vp appropriately. C 10.3 tthe definitions are in principle limited to cations vhose statistical varia tion con be represented by a single random variable.Hovever, tt ts often pe bible to represent a complex situation by one vardon variable and determint site correction factore,by tuo or more independent random variables, or by e- stablishing rulea for the use of influence surfaces. Tt may also be convenient to dietingutsh representative values during con struction from those in eorvica. Por indirect actions the representative values are related to deformations; these may be transferred into forces within the structure. Yominal valuea should be associated with the epecifie representative values whieh they replace. They are normally obtained from regulations, etandande, odes or sontract documenta and should be stipulated explicitly; for example, the user may asaume responsibility for ensuring that certain vorking loads Will not be exceeded.RECOMMENDATIONS The partial safety factor 7, should be considered as a function of three Eactors yey Yzq1 amd Yq, where: takes aécount of the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the actions y. #1 from the characteristic values; (Wo takes eccount of the reduced probability of combinations of actions all Yeg(¥y etheix characteristic value; it is thus a combination factor for action (yj and not a safety factor; and Yp, takes account of possible inaccurate assessment of the action effects and their significance on safety and variations in the dimensional accu- racy achieved in construction, as they affect the action effects. The partial safety factor y_, should be considered as taking account of: - the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the strengths of materials or elements from the specified characteristic values; ~ the possibility of differences between the strength of the material or eloment in the structure from that derived from control test specimens; the possible local weaknesses in the structural material or element arising principally from, ot in, the construction proces — the possible inaccurate assessment of the resistance of elements derived from the strength of the material including the variations of the dimensional ac- curacy achieved in construction as they affect the resistance. In addition to y,, and yg, @ modifying factor, y,, may be introduced to adjust either ¥, or yg} Y, is considered as a function of Yq and typ where: Ypz takes account of the type of structural failure, namely ductile or brit tle takes account of the consequence of failure (see 1.4). al Yaz A 10.2 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF ACTIONS For verification in the Partial Safety Coefficient Method (Level 1), actions are introduced into the calculations by representative values, i.e. by values corresponding to certain levels of intensity. Yor different calculations, one may have to distinguish different representative values of an action, accor~ ding to its variation in time. The complete set of representative values is as follows: characteristic values, Fy service values, F, ser! 5 soubinaiion valueny 2ii evaluated mainly on 4 Frequent values, ¥4F, statistical basis. quasi-permanent values, ¥)F, Maximum values and minimum values, which may be zero, are defined when appropriate.278 COMMENTS whe object of thie sub-claesification is to facilitate the treatment of certain phenomena e.g. creep of concrete, and ts specific to that treatment. However, permanent actions and quast-permanont values of variable actions are treated aa eustained while avcidental actions are treated as transient. If only one nominal value ia given, it is assumed that thts value replaces the character: value, as well a9 P,,4, and chat the usual values of yp for actiona cf the same nature are employed. In the case of a well defined action (for example passage over a bridge of 2 precisely know convey, utth controtted position and speed, vith no other load) the coefficients y. may be reduced slightly, but never below these ap- plicable te the permanent Loads. C 10.2.1 On the baoie of judgement and experience, the maximum and minimm value are assessed as the 0.05 and 0.95 fractiles in a population of stm-lar structures; these two values may be replaced by the mean value when neither differs by no~ ve than 5% from the mean. Exceptions exiat, for exarple thin membere in concrete; in such cases, to values are défined as in (b), by taking into account the single dimensional va niabi lity. The minimum value of the weight of certain non-structural permanent mate- rial is often taken as zero. Those reaponatble for utiliaation of the atructure vill have to ensure that conditions more unfavourable than those foreseen will nov occur. Por many etructures, only the maximun values of vetght of non-structural mazertal and of the active earth presse, and the minimum value of the past ve pressure, are relevant for design. Theoe values are estimated as the 0.15 and 0.85 fractiles since their scat ten, at the eritical sections, is practically always simultaneous vith that of other actions. The action of shrinkage during a certain interval of time may be repreaon- ted by taking into account the neminal values calculated at the beginning and at the end of this interval of time. Support settlement ts generally a composite action representing the global effect of the settlements of various supports. Mining subsidence ia general- ly a eucceaston, oonetimes complex, of several forcss or imposed deformations. Consideration should be given to possible differential settlement which may be positive or negative. © 10.2.2 Some of the values, espectatty the minimum ones, are often aero or negligé. bie. Others car be unified when their difference te nagligthla. The majority of actions are not well known and, hence, it is not possible to consider their idealized distribution ae ouffictently representative for the derivation of characteristic and extreme values; such values defined by a given fractile on given period of return depend matnly on the ie uaehlteation Chosen. These values are mainly associated with ultimate lémtt states.RECOMMENDATIONS Depending on the variation with time of certain actions, their repre- sentative Values are sometimes sub-classified as actions of long duration (or sustained actions) or of short duration (or transient actions). In special cases, certain actions have their representative values divided into sustained and transient components. The above representative values may be replaced by nominal values as- sessed on a non-statistical basis; such nominal values are in principle multi- plied by the same partial safety factors y,. A10.2,1 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF PERMANENT ACTIONS , C They are either characteristic values or nominal values; the other representative values are, in general, assumed equal to chese. (a) The selfweight, G,, of structures is represented by unique nominal velue calculated from tRe drawings of the project and the mean unit weight of the materials. (b) The weight of nou~structural permanent material is represented by two no- minal values,a maxinun and a mirchmum,assessed by taking into account ell variations which are reasonably foreseeable. In the present state of knowledge, the actions of earth pressure are repre sented in the same mamner. (e) The actions of prestress may be represented by tuo characteristic values, a maximum and minimum; these values depend on the time elapsed since pre— stressing. sd) The deformations imposed by the mode of construction of the structure, by shrinkage, and the forces resulting from a practically constant level of water, are normally represented by unique nominal values. However, the shrinkage varies vith time. (e) The actions due to settlement and mining subsidence are represented by two nominal values, a likely maximum and a minimum which is often zero. 4 10.2.2 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF VARIABLE ACTIONS, Q (or Fy.) They may be, in general, all those given in 10.2 (a) Choice of characteristic values Q.; with the current state of knowledge, the characteristic values should Se chosen by a pragmatic method280 COMMENTS Rowever, thie method ts an improvement on previous methods of deriving the desired values. It ta estimated that: for a sealar action, the distribution of which ta well knam and vith a coefficient of variation of the mazimm in 50 years noc much greater thar 0.2, a mean retin period of about 120 years would be appropriate; for a vectorial action in any direction, eatiefying the eane conditions, 2 moon return period of about 50 yeare vould be appropriate. It ia clearly posstble to choose amaller return periods for the characze~ risvic values, Dub the values of 1, vould then nov be uiiform and défficul- tee in assesoment would anise. Noreover, in design it te simpler to ador: uniform Vp Values and charactenistic values, the return periods for vkich, although not well defined, have been fixed in relevant Loading codes. These values are apsoctated vith serviceability limit etates dependent on @ single occurrence of euch values. In any case, nominal values may be laid down by a retevant authority. Usually, one case takes aa combination values theae with a meon period of retwen equal to about 50 years. These values may be taken into account wich a svefficient tz, equal to 1, Depending on’ the form in which the load combinations are presented, adju- stments may be recessary to the V, values to ensure that Y,1¥) ts cone: (see 10.4). x Thece values are mainly associated with serviceability Limit states dep. dant on the repeated cocurrence of on action. They ave not chosen by reference to thetr probability of occurrence but to their frequency on duration of occurrence. However, for simplicity, it ts possible to deviate from such an estincte, provided that the deotgn action-effecte are not in this vay eigniftcantly no ed in the sense contrary to safety. These values ane associated vi performance eriterta deperdent on sustained actions. It is possible to reduce these values during certain phases of short durz tion and in eases where there ts eoxtrol of the values om of the effects of certain actions. The coefficients of concentration can often be taken as 1.4 and the suz- plementary overestimation can often be obtained by multiplying by 1.25. The representative valuce of provisional permanent actione of the sane ty pe as the definitive permanent aeticra, and of provisional eonatmuction, de= fined in size and postition with the same precision as the definitive pernc- nent actions, are as defined in 10.2.1.281 RECOMMENDATIONS (b) Choice of service velues, Q.,. ner as characteristic values. these values are determined in the same man (c) Cheice of nominal values instead of characteristic and service values; for the working loads, when a sufficient statistical basis is lacking, one can take as nominal values the values which the users will be required not to exceed. Nominal values can also be used when an action is bounded. (a) Choice of combination values, ¥. Q,$ these values are those which, in the uv aual most unfavourable cases, associated with a value 7,,Q, of another sc~ tion, lead, for linear functions of the tvo variable actions, to probabili- ties close to those corresponding to the occurrence of the values y, 0, of the other action. (e) Choice of frequent values, y, Q3 these values have to be judged for each type of action and in relation to their significance with respect to the serviceability limitstates. (£) Choice of quasi-permanent values, ¥, Q,3 these values are generally detex- mined as the mean value of the ection in the course of time. The following deals with special problens. (g) Choice of representative values of natural actions in the course of con~ struction (W,,,, aud others); one sormally takes the representative values for a moan period of return 50 tines less than those accepted in the actual design. (h) Choice of representative values of site Loads, ._,3 these loads are gene- rally represented, during each phase of construction, by a unique maximum value applied only where their effect is unfavourable; the minimum repre- sentative values are zero. By means of a suitable suppleuentery overestination, every maximum represen tative value is deduced from the most unfavourable probable loads able to be applied during the phase considered, previously increased by a coeffi-~ cient of concentration and a dynamic coefficient if applicable. Some of them can be represented by nominal values.282 COMMENTS @ 10.2.5 The chotese are made: Bither by a dectaton by competent authorities, determining the Level of sa- fety in terms of various ertteria of a general nature (notably economic) ir by a statenent by the engineer that a higher value could only be the result of a grese error by the user. © 10.3 It should be noted that, in section 10.3, the partial safety coefficient ‘yg 0 not tnelded in the combination rules. € 10.5.1 The combinations ave, in general, relevant to the ultimate limit otates de- fined in 2.2 {a)~(d) although certain modifications may be neocesary (notcble For static equilibrium and buckling). ‘This forma is pregmatio and practical; the values of yp, are valid in the vast majority of cases. Certain modifications may be necessary or useful, tm particular; when a permanent action, with a relatively larga dispersion, dominates in the conbinavion e.g. earth pressure on a retaining wall, tt may be neces- sary to increase 1.2G,,,, 00 1.36, hen the maximum basie action has a coefficient of variation less than 0.1, Ze is possible to reduce the coefficient 1.4; the reduction may be to 1.3 lhen the coefféetent of variation is zero e.g. for water pressure in a full reservoir,283 RECOMMENDATIONS A10.2.3 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS, F_. ‘They are unique nominal values. These values are chosen as those be~ yond which there is no longer an assurance of a probability of survival of the structure, Their service values, their combination values, their frequent values, and all their minimum values are considered negligible or zero. 4 10.3 coMBINATiONS OF ACTIONS Combinations of actions are assemblies of representative values whi, ch, including the coefficients y,, and y, lead to design actions, covering with an acceptable probability the actions resulting from combinations of real values. A distinction is made between "fundamental combinations" and "acci- dental combinations". In the following clauses G_., and G... designate the unfavourable and favourable permanent actions respectively for the limit state considered; Permanent actions represented by a unique value are included in Gand Gs 88 appropriate A 10.3.1 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES The combinations of actions tor the ultimate limit should be taken as: (2) Fundamental Combinations + i L2T Gy tO9EG +1 + Ly vo :Qi 0 where Q, is the basic action in the combination; ¥ 9:93, is the combination value of the accompanying action; When the distributions of @ acd Q do not contain irregularities (multi-mo- dal for example) and their coefficients of variation are not more than those for the common actions y-, can be considered as giving defined frac- tiles of the actions. a ea ava Ta thie case the coefficienty ¢, applied to the combination values may be Teduced to 1.1. In other cases, y,, is an element of the total safety and includes, in effect, part of the uncertainty normally included in ¥,,- In the applicarion of the formule, with or without modifications, diffe- rent basic and accompanying actions should be considered to obt unfavourable combinations for the limit state being studied. only two accompanying actions need be considered. Tt shouldbe noted that the presentation of the combinations is symbolic sin ce the actions may be direct or indirect. When using various methods to define the envelope of a given action effect it may be convenient to provide the envelopes for 1.21 Gand 0.9 2G, a the most In general adding that for the variable actions 0 to whichever is annennvi areCOMMENTS Suggested values for Ww are: ACTION I Associated with Domestic Butldings Office But ldings Os Retail Premises Parking Garage 0.8 2 Associated with wind Snow Wind and Snow 0.55 and 0.4 This combination covers both an accidental aetion in both permanent and sransient ettuatione (i.e. exeluding the accidental stzuation) and permanent and variable actions (.e. excluding acetdental actions) in accidental at- tuations. 0 10.3.8 Tt is not possible to state categorically the member of actions to be con sidered in the vartous combinations since this has to be judged dependent on the type of structure, constructional material and witeh eriterton ts being asseseed. The suggested values of y, and y, are given, for certain actions, in the Table below. Table of suggested values for 4; and Wy Acrrow 4 vs 7 Associated with: Domestic But ldings 0.7 0.¢ Office Butidings 0.8 0.4 Retail Premises 0.9 0.4 Parking Garageo 0.7 0.8 2 Associated with: Wind a2 o Snow Dependent on region285, RECOMMENDATIONS (2) Accidental Combinations B Beg Ga R ae Yi vhere F ..i8 the basic action in the combination or zero. For an accompanying variable action with a quasi-permanent value ¥,0, which is not zero or negligible ¥,,Q, should not be less than ¥).Q,, in Q) or @) 4 10.3.2 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE ‘The combinations of actions for the serviceability limit state should be teken as (1) Infrequent combinations +a. z 1.0 Cog, + LOR, Cor Fo) + 42 Vi aPiy This conbination merely includes all relevant variable actions at their fre quent values together with a single action at ite characteristic, or servi- ce, value. (2) Quasi~permanent coubinations r weg, Snean * ik YoaFie where V,.F,, represents thet value for an action deemed to be of a quasi- permanent nature in relation to the criterion governing the long term per- formance cf the constructional material or structure.286 COMMENTS C1041 Normally the probability adopted will be that associated with the 6% rick level. However, the actual value adopted vill depend on the material and the processes involved in ita manufacture and use as a o¢ructural material and their variability. Clearly, the mean atrongth, and its associated properties, throughout the structs should be used in analysis; this ts, in general, not known and hence ft te necessary to utilise the only avatlable information, nancly, the spec fied characteristic atrength. ¢ 10.4.2 Value for 1, for défferent materiale ave stated in the appropriate values of the model code.287 RECOMMENDATIONS (3) Frequent combinations n M0 Goan * Fix + ike YaiFix where V,P,, Tepresents that value for an action deened to be of frequent gecurance for the assessment of a particular criterion governing the per- formance of @ constructional material or structure. Clearly, this conbination mey include also any relevant quasi-permanent actions. AlO.4 THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 410.4.1 CENERAL The characteristic strength of the material (£,) should be taken as that value of strength below which only a emall percentafe of the population of ail possible strength measurements is expected to fall. In certain cases, it may be necessary to stipulate upper and lover characteristic strength values. When analysing the structure, or part of the structure, to determine the action effects within the structure, the properties of the waterials may be assumed to be those associated with their characterietic strengths, irrespecti- ve of which limit atate is being considered. When analysing ny cross-section within the structure, the properties of the material should be assumed to be those associated with the design stren= ths appropriate to the limit state being considered. 10.4.2 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE The design strengths of the materials, £4, are defined b fa" fle end y,, will always be greater than or equal to unity for this limit state. 4 10.4.3 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT sTaTES The same basic equation relates the design strength to the characteri- stic strengths as in 10.4.2.288 COMMENTS ¢ 10.5 See other Volunes of Model Code for tolerances accommodated by the stated values of y,, ad yp, Where a disowoion te oritical to the reoponse of the struc ture, it may be considered as a paraweter as indicated in 10.1. C 10.6.1 cation process the destgn actions (or loads) may be taken as a funation of yn1 Vo Fy, nd the introduction of yp, allous for the method of as- sessment of the action or loading effecte by sone cmalytical precede; thie, using the notations S for the action effects and R for the resistance of the structure, then Sak ard, depending on the nature of the problem and the associated method of aalysis, this may be revritten as 5 (py Vo 193%)

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