Running head: JUXTAPOSITION OF CHINESE AND INDIAN CULTURE 1

The Relationship of Chinese and Indian Culture Through Shamanistic Roots and Traditions

Darina Urathu

King’s University College

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The Relationship of Chinese and Indian Culture Through Shamanistic Roots and Traditions

When looking at the current global state, two of the largest and most powerful countries

in Asia are China and India. Although these two countries are relatively close to one another

geographically, their cultures appear to be very different when looking through a superficial lens.

Not only is there a difference in culture between these two global powerhouses, but differences

are also apparent within each country due to their large size, population, and long history.

However, the purpose of this report is to evaluate Chinese and Indian culture from a deep and

historically-rooted lens, and to find the underlying mechanisms that create the cultures we see

today. There are many different philosophies across both nations including but not limited to:

Taoism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Shamanism, and hybridity/philosophical dualism.

By examining all the different ways of thinking behind Chinese and Indian philosophical

thought, a connection can be made with some their philosophies to a shared, shamanistic root,

such as en-static meditation, yoga, and animism, karma and yin and yang, and akasha and

harmony.

The heart of Indian spirituality can be expressed through Hinduism, one of the oldest

living religions in the world.1 The most notable Hindu spiritual practice is Yoga, which is now

practiced all over the world, even by non-Hindus. Yoga has gained popularity due to its relaxing

nature and euphoric effects. Many people have reported having out-of-body experiences like that

of a shamanistic journey through yoga. However, one large difference between yoga and a

shamanistic liminal experience is the idea of en-stasis and using meditation as a vessel to reach

ecstasy without having to achieve out of body encounters through ex-stasis. A person using yoga

as a spiritual vessel may appear to be sitting still with no expression but could be entering a

different mental state in search of seeing beyond maya (the illusion seen as reality). Therefore,
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although yoga may be a passive, spiritual dharma in Hinduism, it is used as a way to reach

different metaphysical platforms and communicate with the Brahman to realize the ultimate

truth.

Furthermore, this idea of meditation and visualization can also be seen in Taoism and

Chinese spirituality. Taoist experts believe they can journey in spirit to higher realms of being –

in much the same way that shamans can journey out of body. Those who follow Taoism can

make these journeys through ritual meditation and visualization which separate them from this

world and harmonize them with the energy flows of the universe. In Taoism, this journey is done

not for oneself, but to bring themselves closer to the Tao and the understanding of its ultimate

presence in our reality.2 This search for deeper understanding is revealed through meditation in

gnosis. Since reflection of spiritual mysteries is a way of discovering unconventional knowledge

beyond scientific explanations or informational knowledge, having a deeper understanding of

things unexplained through conventional thinking provides a basis for the creation of many

religions. In continuation, the philosophy of a union with nature is a key aspect in Taoism, this

connection may be seen as complementary to the animals that shamans would use as spiritual

helpers when undergoing ritualistic journeys. Therefore, the metaphysical connection of Taoism

with nature may be interpreted as a continuation of the shamanistic tradition.

Another concept seen in all cultures around the world is mind and body dualism, and the

idea of our soul and consciousness as being a separate entity from our physical bodies. However,

what is determined as conscious may vary according to culture or religious beliefs. In Hinduism,

the perception of akasha says that even the space around us is conscious. This is often interpreted

in Western society as the “vibes” surrounding us. It is proven through modern physics that

energy travels through waves in space, and that energy information is encoded in space and time.
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The concept of akasha makes sense of these energy vibrations as consciousness travelling

through space and providing information. The accuracy of these religious beliefs is intriguing as

they are intuitive and cohesive with modern science but were determined before scientific means

were available. Furthermore, it is historically proven that one fundamental ritual practice of the

shaman is feeling the nature of the space surrounding them or the people they are trying to help

and using the energy vibrations of an entity to foresee an outcome. This idea of invisible or latent

energy is very difficult to explain, but as humans everyone can feel powerful energy forces or

vibrations through a natural and autonomic process. This demonstrates that all people are capable

of perceiving energy vibrations but interpret them in different ways based on their current

situations. These changes in individuals’ situations helps to account for changing philosophies as

cultures change as well.

Equally, the concept of animism in shamanism can be further attributed to both Chinese

and Indian philosophy. Animism says that everything is alive, and everything has a soul through

animating the entire world. In Hinduism, animism can be seen through the symbolism of the

lotus which plays a pivotal role in the Hindu identity. The lotus is a symbol of rebirth,

enlightenment, and purity, which is related to the Hindu belief of the cycle of reincarnation.

Similarly, people who follow Taoism believe that if you live in harmony with Tao, you will live

in harmony with nature. Taoists believe that nature is alive and must be harmoniously

incorporated with the universe through the Tao. One example of animism in Chinese culture can

be seen in the portrayal of the dragon and phoenix. Traditionally in Western culture, a dragon is

perceived with a negative connotation, but in Chinese culture this dragon is brought to life and

represents invisible energy and the idea that space is not empty; like akasha in Hinduism. Also,

the phoenix is often pictured as a liminal entity and are used as ancient shamanistic animals in
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many ceremonies since they can travel between different (mental) worlds. Animism is a key

concept in Taoism and has been strongly incorporated into its conceptualization. Animistic

tendencies of shamanistic cultures have since grown from the shamanistic, animistic tradition,

and adapted to match the changing cultural landscape in China. This also brings back the idea of

shamanistic animal spirit helpers used when entering different mental states. The idea that

everything is alive is prevalent in the shamanistic tradition, and this thought process carries

through to Chinese and Indian philosophy.

Additionally, in Taoism the concept that every action has an equal reaction is observed.

One example of this can be seen in the yin and yang. Yin and yang emphasize the principle of

natural and complementary forces, patterns, and things that depend on one another and do not

make sense without the other.2 These opposites work together seamlessly and produce perfect

harmony and function as a dynamic dualism. Therefore, you can not have the good without the

bad and the bad without the good, and the borders for these realities are ever-changing and

dynamic. The concept of yin and yang can be applied to all aspects of life, such as female and

male energy for example. Therefore, the concept of dependence in opposite forces, and seeing

the larger picture is ingrained in Chinese culture and perceived as a universal truth. Likewise, the

doctrine of every action having a reaction can be regarded similarly to the Hindu belief of

Karma. Karma says that what you do in this life will be rewarded or punished in the next life

through reincarnation. Therefore, any good action in this life will allow change in the next life to

occur, and our understanding of reality to change with our experiences. In other words, what we

do in this life cannot be understood without the natural and complementary forces of our next

life.
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In continuation, when further examining the notion of rebirth it is realized that this

philosophy is not distinctive to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Chinese philosophy, but also can be

seen in primordial shamanistic wisdom. Mircea Eliade wrote about a hunted or domesticated

animal being reborn from its bones in regions outside Siberia in his novel Shamanism: Archaic

Techniques of Ecstasy. These Siberian communities practiced shamanistic spirituality and

believed in reincarnation as a vessel for new life.3 This demonstrates the direct correlation of

shamanism with Hinduism and Buddhism, and further its secondary connection with Chinese

philosophy through the ideology that every action has an equal reaction, and that death paves the

way for new life.

Moreover, one reoccurring thought in Chinese philosophy is that you must change your

thinking processes depending on the situation you are in. Taking external factors into account is

very important when making decisions as opposed to following a clear scripture or law. This is

further proven in the text we examined in class from Confucius; Analetics 13:18. In this passage

it says that the way in which we understand the Tao around us, and in this case the way to act

uprightly depends on time and circumstance, and changes as time and circumstance create

different realities in which to perform our actions in. Confucianism says that moral standards

differ from law, and these standards change depending on our situational attributions to the

environment around us.

Comparatively, when looking at Confucianism and Chinese philosophy there is a

reoccurring theme of harmony. As opposed to having a subject-object divide and striving

towards the sameness seen in Western society, Chinese philosophy emphasizes the importance of

a harmony and all the pieces of nature working together to make a whole. The Confucian saying

“tianren heyi” means that heaven and humans are one. (J. Heng) This reiterates the root of
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harmony in Chinese philosophy. Uniquely, Hinduism and the Indian tradition also incorporate

the idea of harmony of separate parts, however just in a different fashion. A cohesiveness of

parts, like that of the nature of harmony in Chinese culture, can be realized through the chakras.

The chakras are 7 energy centres on different parts of your spine that are brought up from the

bottom of your spine to the top of your head. Hindus claim that when you open the chakra on the

top of your head, you will experience a unified connection of self and the universe through the

harmonious incorporation of all the parts of a chakra together. Different chakras represent

different things such as career, sense of belonging, sexuality, self-esteem, love, self-expression,

and intuition.4 These many factors combine to become one with the universe itself. Not to

mention, the thought process of different energy channels coincides with concept of akasha as

well as shamanistic rituals involving energy channels discussed earlier in this report.

The abstraction of chakras is not something unique to Hinduism. When researching the

shamanistic culture of the Tamang people of Nepal, the notion of chakras and their connection

with yoga became omnipresent. Firstly, the Tamang tribe believe that the 7 chakras make up

centres of spiritual power in the human body, beginning with kundalini (latent female energy) at

the base of the spine.5 The Tamang people also follow traditional meditation and yoga practices

for spiritual pathways to reach samadhi. The Tamang people believe that through intense

concentration (samadhi), they will be able to reach the final stage of union with the divine via an

en-static route and contemplation in one’s self. Therefore, the Tamang tribe has many similar

incorporations in their system of beliefs and practices like that of traditional Hindu or Buddhist

spirituality. In addition, the shamanistic culture of this tribe incorporates other spiritual systems

that are unique to their society, Indian, and Chinese philosophy, such as the calling to becoming
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a shaman through a near death experience, possession, gaining power (shakti) through the guru,

and reaching enlightenment.

Correspondingly, one common feature in many shamanistic and oral cultures is the

concept of 7 heavens or 7 layers of the sky. Some cultural anthropologists may see the idea of 7

heavens analogous with 7 chakras of the spine and the trip of the shaman to different mental

states as analogous to the trip after the death of the soul. Chakras are used during meditation to

open different energy pockets of the spine and allows the person opening the chakras to enter

higher states of consciousness as the energy and knowledge contained in each chakra is released.

When the final chakra is opened and the soul is enlightened, this could be seen as comparable to

entering the mental state of heaven, and breaking through its seven layers as is commonly

believed in many shamanistic conventions.

Nevertheless, though some aspects may be similar, China and India do have different

cultures that have evolved to be even more different overtime, despite many shared roots. The

interpretations of religious and cultural philosophies between these two countries certainly

differs. To examine these different interpretations, it is key to analyze how a shared feature

between these two cultures is perceived differently, one example of this can be Buddhism.

Buddhism originally arose from Hinduism in India, but has overtime grown to become one of the

most popular religions in China as well. However, within this same religion the Buddha is

understood completely differently in India than in China. In India, the Buddha is seen as skinny,

peaceful, expressionless, and pictured as being in deep mediation and thought. However, in

China, Buddha idols are pictured as fat and smiling, and rubbings its belly becomes a sign of

good luck and fortune. The differences in the expressions of these idols represents the

differences in en-static as well as ex-static reflection. Also, it shows that how these two different
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cultures interpret their religion matches their own cultural beliefs and exemplifies how Buddhism

in China has been changed to match different cultural beliefs and practices within its unique

collectivistic environment. This also reiterates the idea of Confucianism which says that our

perceptions change according to our situations. This could explain why Buddhism evolved in

China to adapt to its changing circumstances.

In addition, another difference in Chinese and Indian philosophy, particularly between

Hinduism and Confucianism, is the concept of a subject/object dichotomy and the idea that

reality is external to the mind. (J. Heng) In Hinduism, meditation and en-static reflection is often

practiced producing change either within oneself or their environment. This way of thinking is

not seen in Confucianism, rather, thinking is seen as doing or enacting through the Tao. Taoism

strongly holds the belief that to make changes in the world you need to be the change you wish

to see in the world and stresses the unity of thought and action as opposed to seeing them as two

different processes.

Finally, when examining the deautomization of Chinese and Indian philosophy, it is

important to look through a spiritual lens and evaluate life as more than meets the eye. In

shamanism during ex-stasis, a shaman feels as though their inner self leaves their body and sees

earthly reality from a different perspective. Hinduism achieves this through the practice of yoga,

and Buddhism and Taoism achieve this through meditation and reflection. All these methods of

changing mental state are undergone to see the world from a different lens and understand the

reasons why things are the way they appear. When taking a more symbolic approach to Indian

and Chinese spirituality, and having a metaphorical understanding of these traditions, scholars

can find the roots of these traditions in shamanism through a found reality with unique

perceptions.
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In conclusion, gaining insight into Chinese and Indian culture, and understanding the

sacred basis of spirituality provides a connection between these two global leaders and their

shamanistic roots. Understanding the descent of these cultures and their structure provides an

appreciation for the depth of meaning of their philosophies, as well as how they have changed

over time to meet the needs of current society. By examining the pattern of yoga, meditation,

harmony, karma, yin and yang, and all the other many pieces that make up these traditions, the

correlation of these practices are revealed, and provide guidance for changes that have occurred,

will occur, and are still occurring today. Gnosis-based knowledge beyond a scientific approach

can answer questions not answered through common logic. Just as the shaman enters modified

mental states to answer questions unavailable in a sober mental state, maybe writing this paper

can also be considered a form of answering questions through looking at these traditions from a

different point of view. Overall, there are many similarities within these rituals that lead to a

common way of thought, but this may be an oversimplification. There are many aspects of

Indian and Chinese culture that have changed over time to produce two equally remarkably

beautiful and powerful cultures. Every culture acknowledged through this report gives its own

totality and is independent. Nevertheless, it is important to note the deep-rooted relationship of

these two cultures and how we can see shamanistic practices around us all over the world today.
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References

(2009, September 29). Religions - Hinduism: At a Glance. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk

(2009, September 29). Religions - Taoism: At a Glance. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk

Mircea, E. (1951). Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Paris, France: Payot.

(2018, May 9). A Guide to the Seven Chakras and Their Meanings. Retrieved from

https://www.onetribeapparel.com

Peters, L. (2009). The Tamang Shamanism of Nepal. Los Angeles, California: Nirala.