CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Though humans can't create our own light, some animals do, in a process called
bioluminescence. Fireflies are perhaps the best known example, though many other
species are bioluminescent, including glow worms, anglerfish, and octopus.
Even some plants, such as mushrooms and other fungi are bioluminescent.
Bioluminescence, or the ability of an organism to create light, is one of nature’s most
amazing phenomena, seemingly drawn more from science fiction than science and
natural history. While only a few land dwellers, like fireflies and some fungi, can make
their own light, bioluminescence is very common in the deep sea. Bacteria, jellyfish,
starfish, clams, worms, crustaceans, squid, fish, and sharks are just some of the groups
of marine animals that have bioluminescent members.
Bioluminescent organisms can glow in complete darkness. Bioluminescence is
light produced by a chemical reaction within a living organism. It is a type
of chemiluminescence, which is simply the term for a chemical reaction where light is
produced. (Bioluminescence is chemiluminescence that takes place inside a living
organism.) They contain a unique compound called luciferin. Bioluminescence is not the
same thing as fluorescence. However, florescence does not involve a chemical
reaction. In fluorescence, a stimulating light is absorbed and re-emitted. The fluorescing
light is only visible in the presence of the stimulating light. The ink used in highlighter
pens is fluorescent. Phosphorescence is similar to florescence, except the
phosphorescent light is able to re-emit light for much longer periods of time. Glow-in-
the-dark stickers are phosphorescent.
The chemical reaction that results in bioluminescence requires two unique
chemicals: luciferin and either luciferase or photoprotein. Luciferin is the compound that
actually produces light. In a chemical reaction, luciferin is called the substrate.
Luciferase is an enzyme. An enzyme is a chemical (called a catalyst) that interacts with
a substrate to affect the rate of a chemical reaction. The interaction of the luciferase
with oxidized (oxygen-added) luciferin creates a byproduct, called oxyluciferin. More
importantly, the chemical reaction creates light.
Most bioluminescent reactions involve luciferin and luciferase. Some reactions,
however, do not involve an enzyme (luciferase). These reactions involve a chemical
called a photoprotein. Photoproteins combine with luciferins and oxygen, but need
another agent, often an ion of the element calcium, to produce light. The bioluminescent
color (yellow in fireflies, greenish in lantern fish) is a result of the arrangement of
luciferin molecules.
Bioluminescence is a "cold light." Cold light means less than 20% of the light
generates thermal radiation or heat. These organisms are found in the ocean and
bioluminescent marine species include fish, bacteria, and jellies. Some bioluminescent
organisms, including fireflies and fungi are found on land. There are almost no
bioluminescent organisms native to freshwater habitats. Some bioluminescent
organisms produce (synthesize) luciferin on their own. Dinoflagellates, for instance,
bioluminesce in a bluish-green color. Bioluminescent dinoflagellates are a type
of plankton—tiny marine organisms that can sometimes cause the surface of the ocean
to sparkle at night.
Some bioluminescent organisms do not synthesize luciferin. Instead, they absorb it
through other organisms, either as food or in a symbiotic relationship. Some species of
midshipman fish, for instance, obtain luciferin through the "seed shrimp" they consume.
Many marine animals, such as squid, house bioluminescent bacteria in their light
organs. The bacteria and squid have a symbiotic relationship.
The appearance of bioluminescent light varies greatly, depending on
the habitat and organism in which it is found. Most marine bioluminescence, for
instance, is expressed in the blue-green part of the visible light spectrum. These colours
are more easily visible in the deep ocean. Also, most marine organisms are sensitive
only to blue-green colours. They are physically unable to process yellow, red, or violet
colours.
Most organisms, however, use their light organs to flash for periods of less than a
second to about 10 seconds. These flashes can occur in specific spots, such as the
dots on a squid. Other flashes can illuminate the organism's entire body.
Deep-ocean environments are almost completely dark; yet light is still important
in these environments. Thus, bioluminescence may provide a survival advantage in the
darkness of the deep sea, helping organisms find food, assisting in reproductive
processes, and providing defensive mechanisms.
 CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND

All bioluminescent organisms use a reaction between an enzyme and a substrate

to make light, but different species use different chemicals in the process. This suggests
that the ability to make light evolved many times throughout the ages. In fact, it is
estimated that luminescence has evolved independently at least 40 times. However,
although many marine species are able to produce this “living light,” very little is known
about specific ways that deep-sea organisms use this ability. Part of the problem is that
these organisms are difficult to observe: turning on bright lights can cause mobile
animals to move away and may permanently blind light-sensitive sight organs. In
addition, transparent and camouflaged organisms may be virtually invisible even with
strong lights, and many types of bioluminescence can’t be seen under ordinary visible
light. Additionally, collecting samples of these organisms is incredibly difficult.
Bioluminescence 2009 will use advanced optical techniques to observe animals
under extremely dim light that may reveal organisms and behaviours that have never
been seen before. In addition, these techniques will allow scientists to study animals
whose vision is based on processes that are very different from human vision. These
techniques are based on a number of basic concepts related to the production of light
by chemical reactions, a process known as chemiluminescence. When these reactions
occur in living organisms, the process is called bioluminescence. A familiar example is
the bioluminescence of fireflies; another is “foxfire,” which is caused by bioluminescence
in fungi growing on wood. Bioluminescence is relatively rare in terrestrial ecosystems,
but is much more common.
The fundamental chemiluminescent reaction occurs when an electron in a
chemical molecule receives sufficient energy from an external source to drive the
electron into a higher-energy orbital. This is typically an unstable condition, and when
the electron returns to the original lower-energy state, energy is emitted from the
molecule as a photon. Lightning is an example of gas-phase chemiluminescence: an
electrical discharge in the atmosphere drives electrons in gas molecules (such as
nitrogen and oxygen) to higher-energy orbitals. When the electrons return to their
original lower-energy orbitals, energy is released in the form of visible light. The
production of light in bioluminescent organisms results from the conversion of chemical
energy to light energy.
The energy for bioluminescent reactions is typically provided by an exothermic
chemical reaction. Bioluminescence typically requires at least three components: a light-
emitting organic molecule known as a luciferin; a source of oxygen (may be O2 , but
could also be hydrogen peroxide or a similar compound); and a protein catalyst known
as a luciferase. In some organisms, these three components are bound together in a
complex called a photoprotein. Light production may be triggered by the presence of
ions (often calcium) or other chemicals. Some bioluminescent systems also contain a
fluorescent protein that absorbs the light energy produced by the photoprotein, and
reemits this energy as light at a longer wavelength.
Several different luciferins have been found in marine organisms, suggesting that
bioluminescence may have evolved many times in the sea among different taxonomic
groups. Despite these differences, almost all marine bioluminescence is green to blue in
colour. These colours travel farther through seawater than warmer colours. In fact, most
marine organisms are sensitive only to blue light. An interesting exception is a fish
known as the black loose jaw, which can see a variety of colours including red. The
loose jaw has a red light-emitting organ beneath its eyes, and is able to use this light to
locate prey animals that cannot see red. This lesson guides student inquiry into
bioluminescence in deepsea organisms, and provides practical experience in
constructing scientific posters.
Bioluminescent dinoflagellates produce light using a luciferin-luciferase reaction.
The luciferase found in dinoflagellates is related to the green chemicalchlorophyll found
in plants. Bioluminescent dinoflagellate ecosystems are rare, mostly forming in warm-
water lagoons with narrow openings to the open sea. It gather these lagoons or bays,
and the narrow opening prevents them from escaping. The whole lagoon can be
illuminated at night. Biologists identified a new bioluminescent dinoflagellate
ecosystem in the Humacao Natural Reserve, Puerto Rico, in 2010.
Photoproteins were only recently identified, and biologists and chemists are still
studying their unusual chemical properties. Photoproteins were first studied in
bioluminescent crystal jellies found off the west coast of North America. The
photoprotein in crystal jellies is called "green fluorescent protein" or GFP.
Bioluminescence is used by living things to hunt prey, defend against predators,
find mates, and execute other vital activities. Some species luminescence to confuse
attackers. Many species of squid, for instance, flash to startle predators, such as fish.
With the startled fish caught off guard, the squid tries to quickly escape.
The vampire squid exhibits a variation of this defensive behaviour. Like many
deep-sea squid, the vampire squid lacks ink sacs. (Squid that live near the ocean
surface eject dark ink to leave their predators in the dark.) Instead, the vampire squid
ejects sticky bioluminescent mucus, which can startle, confuse, and delay predators,
allowing the squid to escape.
Many marine species use a technique called counter illumination to protect
themselves. Many predators, such as sharks, hunt from below. They look above, where
sunlight creates shadows beneath prey. Counter illumination is a type of camouflage
against this predatory behaviour. Hatchet fish use counter illumination. Hatchet fish
have light-producing organs that point downward. They adjust the amount of light
coming from their undersides to match the light coming from above. By adjusting their
bioluminescence, they disguise their shadows and become virtually invisible to
predators looking up.
Some bioluminescent animals, such as brittle stars, can detach body parts to
distract predators. The predator follows the glowing arm of the brittle star, while the rest
of the animal crawls away in the dark. (Brittle stars, like all sea stars, can re-grow their
arms). When some animals detach body parts, they detach them on other animals.
When threatened, some species of sea cucumber can break off the luminescent parts of
their bodies onto nearby fish. The predator will follow the glow on the fish, while the sea
cucumber crawls away.
Biologists think that some species of sharks and whales may take advantage of
defensive bioluminescence, even though they are not bioluminescent themselves. A
sperm whale, for instance, may seek out a habitat with large communities of
bioluminescent plankton, which are not part of the whale's diet. As the plankton's
predators (fish) approach the plankton, however, their glowing alerts the whale. The
whale eats the fish. The plankton then turn out their lights.
Bioluminescence may be used to lure prey or search for prey. The most famous
predator to use bioluminescence may be the anglerfish, which uses bioluminescence to
lure prey. The anglerfish has a huge head, sharp teeth, and a long, thin, fleshy growth
(called a filament) on the top of its head. On the end of the filament is a ball (called
the esca) that the anglerfish can light up. Smaller fish, curious about the spot of light,
swim in for a closer look. By the time the prey sees the enormous, dark jaws of the
anglerfish behind the bright esca, it may be too late. Other fish, such as a type of
dragon fish called loose jaws, use bioluminescence to search for prey. Loose jaws
have adapted to emit red light; most fish can only see blue light, so loose jaws have an
enormous advantage when they light up a surrounding area. They can see their prey,
but their prey can't see them.
Adult fireflies, also called lightning bugs, are bioluminescent. They light up to
attract mates. Although both male and female fireflies can luminescence, in North
America most flashing fireflies are male. The pattern of their flashes tells nearby
females what species of firefly they are and that they're interested in mating.
 CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Bioluminescence has many uses in the natural world; it is found in organisms

such as bacteria, protozoa, fungi, molds, jellies, insects, squid, fishes, worms,
crustaceans and more. They use it for a variety of purposes, including communication,
camouflage, illumination, defense, luring and capturing prey, sexual attraction, warning,
and more.
Symbiotic luminous bacteria may also use it to propagate themselves. In many fishes,
such bacteria live in the gut so that fecal pellets continue to glow as they fall to the
bottom of the ocean; their luminescence may attract animals that eat them, thus
dispersing the bacteria and in the process helping recycle carbon.
Humans are beginning to harness the power of bioluminescence. It's being used
in genetic research, to tag genes of interest; for medical purposes (to detect Alzheimer's
disease or cancer, for instance); in dentistry, to determine the risk of dental decay; in
warfare, to detect and track vessels in the water; in examining drug-resistant pathogens;
in the development of nanomaterials; to understand ocean ecology by measuring the
distribution of bioluminescent organisms; to evaluate toxicity and in developing
screening assays; and more. A few specific uses are listed below.
GFP – Green Fluorescent Protein – was first discovered and extracted from the
jelly Aequorea. It is used as a biomarker in many ways today, because its DNA can be
cloned and even a tiny amount fused into cells of many other organisms. GFP and
similar fluorescent proteins can induce glowing in bacteria, protozoa, plants,
nematodes, birds, mammals, fish and many more organisms. Other fluorescent proteins
such as Yellow Fluorescent Protein (YFP) have also been developed.
Bioluminescent imaging – or BLI – allows for non-invasive imaging of biological
processes in living animals. Among other uses, this makes it possible to study the
processes of various diseases and of treatments for those diseases. It can also be used
to locate tumors.
Bioluminescent Resonance Energy Transfer, or BRET, is used to map neuronal
circuits in order to understand brain function.
Quorum sensing. Studies on bioluminescence in bacteria in sea water led to the
discovery of what is known as quorum sensing. J. W. Hastings and E. P. Greenberg
reported in the Journal of Bacteriologyin May 1999 that at low cell densities, the
luciferase gene was not transcribed, but luminescent genes do activate at high cell
densities when the light emitted is bright enough to serve a purpose. It is now accepted
that cell-cell communication in bacteria is common.
Tools have been developed that use bioluminescence in many ways. Since
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy storing molecule found in all living cells, is
required for emission of light, the amount of light is directly proportional to the amount of
ATP. Measurements of ATP can therefore detect contamination far more quickly and
accurately than traditional culturing. An example of a tool that does this is the BioScan
made by GE; there was one on display in the exhibit. This small instrument measures
bacteria in water simply and almost immediately.
 There seems to be very little doubt but that luciferase is a protein or so closely
associated with proteins that their removal destroys its characteristic properties. The
particular group of proteins to which it belongs may be arrived at by a process of
exclusion, and only the group of albumins has properties which agree completely with
those of luciferase.

Benjamin Radford, Live Science Contributor | June 16, 2010 09:44am ET

Bioluminescent jellyfish can glow in complete darkness.
Wouldn't it be cool to have a flashlight at your fingertips whenever you need one? No
more fumbling for your car keys in the dark, or trying to navigate over uneven terrain at
dusk.
Though humans can't create our own light, some animals do, in a process called
bioluminescence. Fireflies are perhaps the best known example, though many other
species are bioluminescent, including glow worms, anglerfish, and octopus. Even some
plants, such as mushrooms and other fungi, are bioluminescent.
What allows some plants and animals to create their own light? It's all about energy.
Most people know that chemical energy can be released as heat that's how the food we
eat gets transformed into body heat. In bioluminescent organisms, that chemical energy
can also be released in the form of light.
Bioluminescent organisms can glow in complete darkness. They contain a unique
compound called luciferin, according to scientists who study bioluminescence at the
University of California at Santa Barbara. When luciferin is exposed to oxygen, a
chemical reaction (aided along by an enzyme called luciferase) emits light.
Bioluminescence is different from fluorescence. Fluorescent organisms, such as
butterflies that have fluorescent markings on their wings, would not glow in complete
darkness. Fluorescent pigments only glow in the presence of an external light source,
according to the UCSB scientists.
For humans, that ability to glow in the dark might be fun, but body heat may be a bit
more practical.
Another safe source of illumination in mines was bottles containing fireflies. In
1920, the American zoologist E. Newton Harvey published a monograph, The Nature of
Animal Light, summarizing early work on bioluminescence. Harvey notes that Aristotle
mentions light produced by dead fish and flesh, and that both Aristotle and Pliny the
Elder (in his Natural History) mention light from damp wood. He also records that Robert
Boyle experimented on these light sources, and showed that both they and the glow-
worm require air for light to be produced. Harvey notes that in 1753, J. Baker identified
the flagellate Noctiluca "as a luminous animal" "just visible to the naked eye", and in
1854 Johann Florian Heller (1813-1871) identified strands (hyphae) of fungi as the
source of light in dead wood.
Tuckey, in his posthumous 1818 Narrative of the Expedition to the Zaire,
described catching the animals responsible for luminescence. He mentions pellucids,
crustaceans (to which he ascribes the milky whiteness of the water), and cancers
(shrimps and crabs). Under the microscope he described the "luminous property" to be
in the brain, resembling "a most brilliant amethyst about the size of a large pin's head".
Charles Darwin noticed bioluminescence in the sea, describing it in his Journal:
While sailing in these latitudes on one very dark night, the sea presented a wonderful
and most beautiful spectacle. There was a fresh breeze, and every part of the surface,
which during the day is seen as foam, now glwed with a pale light. The vessel drove
before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her wake she was followed by
a milky train. As far as the eye reached, the crest of every wave was bright, and the sky
above the horizon, from the reflected glare of these livid flames, was not so utterly
obscure, as over the rest of the heavens.
Darwin also observed a luminous "jelly-fish of the genus Dianaea" and noted that "When
the waves scintillate with bright green sparks, I believe it is generally owing to minute
crustacea. But there can be no doubt that very many other pelagic animals, when alive,
are phosphorescent." He guessed that "a disturbed electrical condition of the
atmosphere" was probably responsible. Daniel Pauly comments that Darwin "was lucky
with most of his guesses, but not here", noting that biochemistry was too little known,
and that the complex evolution of the marine animals involved "would have been too
much for comfort".
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
. Bioluminescence is light produced by a chemical reaction within a living
organism. The energy for bioluminescent reactions is typically provided by an
exothermic chemical reaction. Bioluminescence typically requires at least three
components: a light-emitting organic molecule known as a luciferin; a source of oxygen
(may be O2 , but could also be hydrogen peroxide or a similar compound); and a
protein catalyst known as a luciferase. In some organisms, these three components are
bound together in a complex called a photoprotein.

All bioluminescent organisms use a reaction between an enzyme and a

substrate to make light, but different species use different chemicals in the process.
Bioluminescence used to lure prey or search for prey. Some bioluminescent animals,
such as brittle stars, can detach body parts to distract predators. Bioluminescence has
many uses in the natural world; it is found in organisms such as bacteria, protozoa,
fungi, molds, jellies, insects, squid, fishes, worms, crustaceans and more. They use it
for a variety of purposes, including communication, camouflage, illumination, defense,
luring and capturing prey, sexual attraction, warning, and more.

Though humans can't create our own light, some animals do, in a process called
bioluminescence. Fireflies are perhaps the best known example, though many other
species are bioluminescent, including glow worms, anglerfish, and octopus. Even some
plants, such as mushrooms and other fungi, are bioluminescent.
CHAPTER VI
REFERENCE

1. Jump up^ Callaway, E. 2013. Glowing plants spark debate.Nature, 498:15-16,

04 June 2013.http://www.nature.com/news/glowing-plants-spark-debate-1.13131
2. Jump up^ Smiles, Samuel (1862). Lives of the Engineers. Volume III (George and
Robert Stephenson). London: John Murray. p. 107. ISBN 0-7153-4281-9. (ISBN
refers to the David & Charles reprint of 1968 with an introduction by L. T. C. Rolt)
3. Jump up^ Freese, Barbara (2006). Coal: A Human History. Arrow. p. 51. ISBN 978-
0-09-947884-3.
4. Jump up^ Fordyce, William (20 July 1973). A history of coal, coke and coal fields
and the manufacture of iron in the North of England. Graham.
5. Jump up^ Harvey cites this as Baker, J.: 1743-1753, The Microscope Made Easy
and Employment for the Microscope.
6. Jump up^ Harvey, E. Newton (1920). The Nature of Animal Light. Philadelphia &
London: J. B. Lippencott. Page 1.
7. Jump up^ Tuckey, James Hingston (May 1818). Thomson, Thomas, ed. Narrative
of the Expedition to the Zaire.Annals of Philosophy. volume XI. p. 392. Retrieved22
April 2015.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Darwin, Charles (1839). Narrative of the surveying voyages of
His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836,
describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the
Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Journal and remarks. 1832-1836. Henry
Colburn. pp. 190–192.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b c Pauly, Daniel (13 May 2004). Darwin's Fishes: An Encyclopedia of
Ichthyology, Ecology, and Evolution. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–
16. ISBN 978-1-139-45181-9.
10. Jump up^ Shimomura O. (August 1995). "A short story of aequorin". The Biological
bulletin. 189 (1): 1–5.doi:10.2307/1542194. JSTOR 1542194.PMID 7654844.
Attraction[edit]
A fungus gnat from New Zealand, Arachnocampa luminosa, lives in the predator-free
environment of caves and its larvae emit bluish-green light. They dangle silken threads that
glow and attract flying insects, and wind in their fishing-lines when prey becomes
entangled.[30] The bioluminescence of the larvae of another fungus gnat from North America
which lives on streambanks and under overhangs has a similar function. Orfelia fultoni builds
sticky little webs and emits light of a deep blue colour. It has an inbuilt biological clock and, even
when kept in total darkness, turns its light on and off in a circadian rhythm.[31]
Fireflies use light to attract mates. Two systems are involved according to species; in one,
females emit light from their abdomens to attract males; in the other, flying males emit signals to
which the sometimes sedentary females respond.[27][32] Click beetles emit an orange light from
the abdomen when flying and a green light from the thorax when they are disturbed or moving
about on the ground. The former is probably a sexual attractant but the latter may be
defensive.[27] Larvae of the click beetle Pyrophorus nyctophanus live in the surface layers of
termite mounds in Brazil. They light up the mounds by emitting a bright greenish glow which
attracts the flying insects on which they feed.[27]
In the marine environment, use of luminescence for mate attraction is chiefly known
among ostracods, small shrimplike crustaceans, especially in
the Cyprididae family.Pheromones may be used for long-distance communication, with
bioluminescence used at close range to enable mates to "home in". [20] A polychaete worm,
the Bermuda fireworm creates a brief display, a few nights after the full moon, when the female
lights up to attract males.[33]
Defense[edit]
Many cephalopods, including at least 70 genera of squid, are bioluminescent.[20] Some squid
and small crustaceans use bioluminescent chemical mixtures or bacterial slurries in the same
way as many squid use ink. A cloud of luminescent material is expelled, distracting or repelling
a potential predator, while the animal escapes to safety.[20] The deep sea squid Octopoteuthis
deletron may autotomise portions of its arms which are luminous and continue to twitch and
flash, thus distracting a predator while the animal flees.[20]
Dinoflagellates may use bioluminescence for defence against predators. They shine when they
detect a predator, possibly making the predator itself more vulnerable by attracting the attention
of predators from higher trophic levels.[20] Grazing copepods release any phytoplankton cells that
flash, unharmed; if they were eaten they would make the copepods glow, attracting predators,
so the phytoplankton's bioluminescence is defensive. The problem of shining stomach contents
is solved (and the explanation corroborated) in predatory deep-sea fishes: their stomachs have
a black lining able to keep the light from any bioluminescent fish prey which they have
swallowed from attracting larger predators.[9]
The sea-firefly is a small crustacean living in sediment. At rest it emits a dull glow but when
disturbed it darts away leaving a cloud of shimmering blue light to confuse the predator. During
World War II it was gathered and dried for use by the Japanese military as a source of light
during clandestine operations.[16]
The larvae of railroad worms (Phrixothrix) have paired photic organs on each body segment,
able to glow with green light; these are thought to have a defensive purpose. [34]They also have
organs on the head which produce red light; they are the only terrestrial organisms to emit light
of this colour.[35]
Warning[edit]
Aposematism is a widely used function of bioluminescence, providing a warning that the
creature concerned is unpalatable. It is suggested that many firefly larvae glow to repel
predators; millipedes glow for the same purpose.[36] Some marine organisms are believed to
emit light for a similar reason. These include scale worms, jellyfish and brittle starsbut further
research is needed to fully establish the function of the luminescence. Such a mechanism would
be of particular advantage to soft-bodied cnidarians if they were able to deter predation in this
way.[20] The limpet Latia neritoides is the only known freshwater gastropod that emits light. It
produces greenish luminescent mucus which may have an anti-predator function.[37] The marine
snail Hinea brasiliana uses flashes of light, probably to deter predators. The blue-green light is
emitted through the translucent shell, which functions as an efficient diffuser of light.[38]
Communication[edit]
Pyrosoma, a colonial tunicate; each individual zooid in the colony flashes a blue-green light.
Communication in the form of quorum sensing plays a role in the regulation of luminescence in
many species of bacteria. Small extracellularly secreted molecules stimulate the bacteria to turn
on genes for light production when cell density, measured by concentration of the secreted
molecules, is high.[20]
Pyrosomes are colonial tunicates and each zooid has a pair of luminescent organs on either
side of the inlet siphon. When stimulated by light, these turn on and off, causing rhythmic
flashing. No neural pathway runs between the zooids, but each responds to the light produced
by other individuals, and even to light from other nearby colonies.[39] Communication by light
emission between the zooids enables coordination of colony effort, for example in swimming
where each zooid provides part of the propulsive force.[40]
Some bioluminous bacteria infect nematodes that parasitize Lepidoptera larvae. When
these caterpillars die, their luminosity may attract predators to the dead insect thus assisting in
the dispersal of both bacteria and nematodes.[27] A similar reason may account for the many
species of fungi that emit light. Species in the
genera Armillaria, Mycena, Omphalotus, Panellus, Pleurotus and others do this, emitting usually
greenish light from the mycelium, cap and gills. This may attract night-flying insects and aid in
spore dispersal, but other functions may also be involved.[27]
Quantula striata is the only known bioluminescent terrestrial mollusc. Pulses of light are emitted
from a gland near the front of the foot and may have a communicative function, although the
adaptive significance is not fully understood.[41]
Mimicry[edit]
A deep sea anglerfish, Bufoceratias wedli, showing the esca (lure)
Bioluminescence is used by a variety of animals to mimic other species. Many species of deep
sea fish such as the anglerfish anddragonfish make use of aggressive mimicry to attract prey.
They have an appendage on their heads called an esca that contains bioluminescent bacteria
able to produce a long-lasting glow which the fish can control. The glowing esca is dangled or
waved about to lure small animals to within striking distance of the fish.[20][42]
The cookiecutter shark uses bioluminescence to camouflage its underside by
counterillumination, but a small patch near its pectoral fins remains dark, appearing as a small
fish to large predatory fish like tuna and mackerel swimming beneath it. When such fish
approach the lure, they are bitten by the shark.[43][44]
Female Photuris fireflies sometimes mimic the light pattern of another firefly, Photinus, to attract
its males as prey. In this way they obtain both food and the defensive chemicals named
lucibufagins, which Photuris cannot synthesize.[45]
South American giant cockroaches of the genus Lucihormetica were believed to be the first
known example of defensive mimicry, emitting light in imitation of bioluminescent, poisonous
click beetles.[46] However, doubt has been cast on this assertion, and there is no conclusive
evidence that the cockroaches are bioluminescent.[47][48]

Flashing of photophores of black dragonfish,Malacosteus niger, showing red fluorescence

Illumination[edit]
While most marine bioluminescence is green to blue, some deep sea barbeled dragonfishes in
the genera Aristostomias,Pachystomias and Malacosteus emit a red glow. This adaptation
allows the fish to see red-pigmented prey, which are normally invisible in the deep ocean
environment where red light has been filtered out by the water column.[49]
The black dragonfish (also called the northern stoplight loosejaw) Malacosteus niger is believed
to be one of the only fish to produce a red glow. Its eyes, however, are insensitive to this
wavelength; it has an additional retinal pigment which fluoresces blue-green when illuminated.
This alerts the fish to the presence of its prey. The additional pigment is thought to be
assimilated from chlorophyll derivatives found in the copepods which form part of its diet.[50]
Biotechnology[edit]
Biology and medicine[edit]
Bioluminescent organisms are a target for many areas of research. Luciferase systems are
widely used in genetic engineering as reporter genes, each producing a different colour by
fluorescence,[51][52] and for biomedical research using bioluminescence imaging.[53][54][55] For
example, the firefly luciferase gene was used as early as 1986 for research using transgenic
tobacco plants.[56] Vibrio bacteria symbiose with marine invertebrates such as the Hawaiian
bobtail squid (Euprymna scolopes), are key experimental models for
bioluminescence.[57][58] Bioluminescent activated destruction is an experimental cancer
treatment.[59] See also optogenetics which involves the use of light to control cells in living tissue,
typically neurons, that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels,
and also see biophoton, a photon of non-thermal origin in the visible and ultraviolet spectrum
emitted from a biological system.
Light production[edit]
The structures of photophores, the light producing organs in bioluminescent organisms, are
being investigated by industrial designers. Engineered bioluminescence could perhaps one day
be used to reduce the need for street lighting, or for decorative purposes if it becomes possible
to produce light that is both bright enough and can be sustained for long periods at a workable
price.[11][60][61] The gene that makes the tails of fireflies glow has been added to mustard plants.
The plants glow faintly for an hour when touched, but a sensitive camera is needed to see the
glow.[62] University of Wisconsin–Madison is researching the use of genetically engineered
bioluminescent E. coli bacteria, for use asbioluminescent bacteria in a light bulb.[63] In June 2013
the Glowing Plant project raised nearly $500,000 on the crowdfunding site Kickstarter to create
a bioluminescent plant.[64]An iGEM team from Cambridge (England) has started to address the
problem that luciferin is consumed in the light-producing reaction by developing a genetic
biotechnology part that codes for a luciferin regenerating enzyme from the North American
firefly; this enzyme "helps to strengthen and sustain light output".[65] In 2016, Glowee, a French
company started selling bioluminescent lights, tageting shop fronts and municipal street signs
as their main markets.[66] France has a law that forbids retailers and offices from illumunating
their windows between 1 and 7 in the morning in order to minimise energy consumption and
pollution.[67] Glowee hoped their product would get round this ban. They used bacteria
called Aliivibrio fischeri which glow in the dark but the maximum lifetime of their product was
three days.[66]