Southern Resident Killer Whale Literature Review

Prepared for the Seattle Aquarium

March 20, 2019

Prepared by

Ally Arnold -- allyjean@uw.edu

Kristina Foltz -- klfoltz@uw.edu
Tyler Fung -- tfung1@uw.edu
Dale Simmons -- dales2@uw.edu
Riley Tindell -- monroe23@uw.edu

University of Washington
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Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary……………………………………………………………………... 2
2. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………… 3
3. Methods……………………………………………………………………………….. 3-4
4. Southern Resident Killer Whale Background Information……………………………... 4
4.1. Current Status…………………………………………………………………. 4-5
4.2. Ecological Inexchangeability……………………………………………………. 5
4.3. Distribution & Habitat………………………………………………………… 5-6
5. Oil Spill Effects & Prevention…………………………………………………………... 6
5.1. Harmful Factors of Oil Spills…………………………………………….……... 6
5.2. Tanker Spill Trends…………………………………………………………… 6-7
5.3. Federal Offshore Drilling Policies………………………………………………. 7
5.4. Offshore Drilling Policies in Washington………………………………………7-8
5.5. Offshore Drilling Policies in Other States………………………………...…... 8-9
5.6. Trans Mountain Pipeline………………………………………………...….... 9-10
5.7. Oil Spill Prevention Recommendations………………………………...…........ 10
6. Lower Snake River Dams………………………………………………………………. 11
6.1. Effects of Dams on Salmon & Southern Resident Killer Whales..…………….. 11
6.2. Effects of Dam Breaching…………………………………….....………….. 11-12
6.3. Lower Snake River Dams Recommendations………………………………….. 12
7. Climate Change & Chinook Salmon………………………………………………...…. 13
7.1. Effects of Climate Change on Chinook Salmon………………………...….. 13-14
7.2. Climate Change Recommendations……………………………………...…….. 14
8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...…... 14-15
9. Glossary………………………………………………………………………...….........16
10. Works Cited……………………………………………………………………....…. 17-21
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1. Executive Summary

The purpose of our research was to aid the Seattle Aquarium in taking a science-based

position on specific topics of interest concerning the Southern Resident killer whale (SRKW)

population. By utilizing government sources and the University of Washington’s system of

databases and journal subscriptions, we conducted a scientific literature review of oil spill

prevention related to potential future policies, the effects of breaching the lower Snake River dams,

and the impacts of climate change on Chinook salmon. The subsequent annotated bibliography,

recommendations, and memos produced provide the aquarium and associated entities within vetted

information on these issues and equip them in future decision making.

Our research related to oil spill prevention lead us to several legal protections initiated by

both California and Oregon which Washington would be wise to replicate in the name of SRKW

conservation. Our team also uncovered the Canadian Trans Mountain Pipeline project to be of

notable threat to the killer whale population regarding oil spills and advocate for the rejection of

such a pipeline. After reviewing peer-reviewed literature regarding the removal of the lower Snake

River dams and similar scenarios, evidence points to breaching as the best solution to replenishing

Chinook populations, with our primary recommendation calling for the breaching of all four dams.

Regardless of dam removal however, the salmon and consequently the Southern Residents, will

be at risk of warming temperatures in Puget Sound due to climate change. It is therefore essential

for the Seattle Aquarium to continue public education regarding climate change and financially

support research into the mitigation of its consequences.

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2. Introduction

The U.S. officially recognized Southern Resident killer whales native to the Puget Sound

as a federally listed endangered population in 2005. In an effort to bring awareness to the issue,

engage with stakeholders, and inform relevant policy decisions, our group delved into the

University of Washington’s extensive library to assist the Seattle Aquarium with research

regarding the conservation and threats of Southern Resident killer whales. In collaboration with

Nora Nickum, the aquarium’s Ocean Policy Manager, our focus narrowed to the risks and causes

of tanker oil spills, offshore oil drilling legislature, potential impacts of the removal of four lower

Snake River dams, and the effects that climate change might have on Chinook salmon.

3. Methods

Our team synthesized a three part annotated bibliography coupled with three sets of

recommendations regarding oil spill prevention, the breaching of the lower Snake River dams, and

the effects of climate change on Chinook salmon habitat. The annotated bibliography was created

to convey peer-reviewed, scientific information in the most organized way possible for the Seattle

Aquarium. By including brief summaries and describing how the aquarium could find the source

useful, our client can easily decide which sources to access for continued research (King, 2010).

Each source referenced in the bibliography has been downloaded as a PDF and stored in a digital

file accompanying this project so that further access may be possible for personal use.

This bibliography and digital folder pair is by far the fullest and most meaningful

component of this project. Access to the university library served as the primary reason our client

requested a literature review; without this resource, a similar bibliography would not have been

possible. We attempted to limit our search peer-reviewed articles to sources written within the last
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ten years wherever possible but several relevant sources had earlier dates, none prior to 2000,

amounting to a total of 25 annotated entries. In addition to peer-reviewed literature, relevant

legislative documents were included as well. These are available to the general public, and

therefore did not require the use of the University of Washington’s library databases or journal

subscriptions, but were essential to evaluating state protections and future policy

recommendations.

Recommendations for all three topics were also included for our client related to future

policy ideas and attitudes on current events regarding Southern Resident killer whales and Chinook

salmon.

For additional convenience, our research and recommendations on oil spill prevention and

dam breaches have been condensed into memos to emphasize main takeaways from the literature

review. They were written in an office friendly format with no scientific jargon and are ready to

be circulated around desired departments of the aquarium.

4. Southern Resident Killer

Whale Background Information

4.1 Current Status

Southern Resident killer

whales (Orcinus orca) are listed as

critically endangered, with a current

population of 74 individuals (Figure

Figure 1: Southern Resident killer whales have shown few signs of
recovery since they were listed as Endangered under the Canadian
1). Their small population size Species At Risk Act in 2003 and the US Endangered Species Act in
2005.

decreases their chance of

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reproductive success compared to larger populations. If the effective population continues to

dwindle, Southern Resident killer whales will no longer be able to respond to challenges in their

environment.

4.2 Ecological Inexchangeability

Although Southern Resident killer whales look similar to other populations of killer

whales, they are ecologically distinct due to their cultural behavior and feeding patterns. Killer

whales learn behavior from their parents and develop social behaviors that reflect their specific

group. Because of this specialized rearing, each population of killer whale are on unique

evolutionary tracks, making them significantly different from one another (Foote, 2016). Feeding

behaviors also differ between populations of killer whales; while some hunt seal, Southern

Residents primarily eat Chinook salmon. Thus, conservation of these salmon is integral to these

whales’ survival.

The lack of ecological exchangeability between Southern Residents and other whale

populations demonstrates the need for conservation plans specific to this geographical location.

Although killer whales are plentiful in the world, the variation

in ecology of each group makes the specific populations worth

protecting.

4.3 Distribution & Habitat

Critical habitat can be defined as occupied or

unoccupied areas with physical or biological features essential

to conservation that may require special management

(Marzluff, 2019). This habitat for Southern Residents as seen

Figure 2: SRKW critical habitat and associated

activities.
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in Figure 2 is based on extensive sighting records and has no exclusions based on economic impact

or tribal land conflict (Marzluff, 2019).

The Southern Residents which inhabit these areas are broken up into three pods: J, K, and

L. The latter pod being the largest with calves being born as recently as 2019, while pods J and K

show little reproductive growth (Center for Whale Research). Although the three pods do migrate

to open waters following the salmon supply, they tend to focus near the San Juan Islands, Georgia

Strait, Southern Gulf Islands, and lower Puget Sound (Figure 2).

5. Oil Spill Effects & Prevention

5.1 Harmful Factors of Oil Spills

Humans and marine environments have a long history of interaction which has inevitably

led to pollution. Accidents involving barges and other vessels used in the transportation of crude

oil and other water pollutants have been named as primary sources of said pollution. According to

Burgher (2007), oil spills often happen in ecologically sensitive areas that fall along transportation

routes. These accidents can cause oil to float on the surface of the water or clog respiratory surfaces

of marine plants and animals, ultimately suffocating them. As a result, the marine animals tend to

migrate from the toxified water to more conducive areas, causing an ecological imbalance since

specific areas will have more fish than others.

5.2 Tanker Spill Trends

Chen et al. (2018) asserts that in addition to oil spills that happen at drilling sites, many

accidents occur during transportation. Tanker oil spills have significantly decreased since single-

hull tankers have been phased out and replaced with double-hulled tankers (Burgherr, 2007).
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Analysis of global data on oil spills shows that the most common causes of tanker oil spills are fire

or explosion during refueling and collisions during anchoring and sailing (Chen, 2018).

5.3 Federal Offshore Drilling Policies

In addition to the federal government phasing out single-hull tankers, numerous laws have

been issued dealing with the legalities of offshore drilling and oil spill prevention. The Outer

Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) attributes offshore lands within three nautical miles of a

state’s coast as the individual state’s jurisdiction. All other submerged lands are controlled by the

Secretary of the Department of the Interior (DOI) with few exceptions. The 1978 OCSLA

amendment requires that an Environmental Impact Statement subject to public scrutiny be

included in the Five Year Outer Continental Shelf Leasing Program. Section 18 of the OCSLA

requires that the DOI consider the economic, social, and environmental effects of oil drilling along

with its impact on affected ecosystems and incorporate this information into the aforementioned

leasing program detailed in Section 18 prior to all resource extraction.

Although some protections are in place, oil drilling has remained a priority over

environmental security during the Obama and Trump administrations. Both presidents increased

federal offshore drilling allowances in order to decrease foreign dependency on oil (Broder, 2010;

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management). The tradeoff between marine conservation and economic

benefit has been a debate in the United States for years and will continue to be a hot topic until we

dramatically decrease our demand for oil in favor of alternative energy sources.

5.4 Offshore Drilling Policies in Washington

Washington State currently has legislation in place to protect marine waters from offshore

drilling. The Ocean Resources Management Act of 1977 strictly prohibits the leasing of tidal

regions within three nautical miles of Washington’s coastline. Closely related to the Ocean
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Resource Management Act is the Shoreline Management Act of 1971 which specifies prohibitions

on surface drilling in designated Washington marine regions. Additionally, the Marine Waters

Planning and Management Act (2012) requires marine spatial planning to be included in all

Washington state agency plans involving marine management.

However, despite Washington’s anti-drilling legislation, the Washington coastline is still

at risk under the DOI’s 2019-2024 Five Year Leasing Plan draft, which would open up areas near

the Washington coastline to leasing. Washington governor Jay Inslee has been an advocate for

banning oil extraction throughout his term and has written letters to Secretary Ryan Zinke in

collaboration with Oregon and California governors Kate Brown and Jerry Brown (Inslee, 2018).

5.5 Offshore Drilling Policies in Other States

Strict California legislation on offshore drilling was implemented in response to the

devastating Santa Barbara oil spill in 1994 (California Anti-Offshore Drillings Pass Committee,

2018). The state has banned offshore drilling within its jurisdiction which includes submerged

lands within three nautical miles of the coast (Senate Bill 834 & Assembly Bill 1775). Senate Bill

834, approved in September 2018, prohibits the State Lands Commission from entering any new

leases for oil-related infrastructure on tidal lands. It also prohibits lease renewals that would

increase the transport of oil in coastal waters, as does Assembly Bill 1775. These Senate and

Assembly bills make the offshore drilling of California’s coastlines essentially impossible

regardless of whether or not the regions become legally accessible to federal drilling under the

new leasing plan.

Oregon has initiated a similar counter to the 2019-2024 draft. Although the state has

enjoyed a moratorium on offshore drilling since the year 2000, the temporary ban expires every

ten years. Oregon was able to renew the moratorium in 2010 but it will be up for expiration again
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in 2020. Senate Bill 256 would effectively dissolve the temporary nature of the ban and

permanently prohibit all federal exploration, development, or production of oil, gar, or sulfur

within its state’s territory. Although not yet passed through the House, the bill has significant

support and is on route to be incorporated into domestic law (“Tracking Senate Bill 256”, 2019).

5.6 Trans Mountain Pipeline

Houston-based Kinder Morgan, formerly Enron Liquid Pipelines LLP, intends to build a

new export pipeline for diluted bitumen -- a thick, sticky form of crude oil, sand, water and clay -

- that would be along the route of the Trans Mountain Pipeline. This new pipeline would extend

approximately 1100 km between Edmonton, Alberta, and the Westridge Marine Terminal in

Burnaby on the south shore of the Burrard Inlet in the Vancouver harbor. The proposed pipeline

would increase the amount of crude oil through British Columbia from 60 tankers a year to over

400. If the pipeline is implemented, the likelihood of a spill in the Burrard Inlet over fifty years is

79-87% for any size spill. Despite the associated environmental risks, the Canadian government

decided to approve the project.

Senior scientist Christopher Clark used a population viability analysis (PVA) of the risks

associated with aspects of the proposed Trans Mountain Expansion Project on Southern Resident

killer whales. Although the probability of Southern Resident killer whales being exposed to an oil

spill is low, the impact of an event is potentially catastrophic. Overall mortality due to a large spill

in the critical habitat would be 50%, and overall mortality due to a smaller spill would be 12.5%.

The probability of the population dropping to a quasi-extinction (i.e. below 30 whales) due to an

oil spill is more substantial, with a possibility of complete extinction within 100 years due to the

potential of a small and unrecoverable number. The noise pollution from this project will also

affect Southern Resident killer whales in the area. Ship noises that are between 135-165 decibels
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will impede communication and feeding. With the increased shipping traffic associated with the

Trans Mountain Pipeline, Southern Residents could be exposed to boats up to 100% of the time,

which means feeding could potentially be reduced by up to 19.5% (Clark, 2015).

Washington state governor Jay Inslee has shared concern about the Trans Mountain

pipeline project and will continue his attempts to influence Canadian policy makers (Kane, 2019).

Southern Resident killer whales will most likely suffer from the Trans Mountain pipeline project,

so it is in Washington’s best interest to increase marine spill response and reduce emissions from

marine vessels.

5.7 Oil Spill Prevention Recommendations

● Demand tanker crew education on the most common causes of oil spills, namely

fires or explosions during refueling and collision during anchoring to mitigate the

risks associated with fuel carrying (Chen, 2018).

● Demand a protection similar to California Senate Bill 834 be introduced in

Washington state to prevent offshore drilling near its coasts regardless of whether

the activity is federally legalized.

● Support governor Jay Inslee’s anti-offshore drilling stance (Inslee, 2018).

● Support governor Jay Inslee’s efforts to bring awareness to the issues associated

with the Trans Mountain Pipeline (Kane, 2019; Inslee 2018).

● Support International Maritime Organization committee voluntary guidelines that

attempt to cut down noise from big ships. Also support the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration revision of guidelines for what it considers acceptable

noise levels (Welch 2013).

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6. Lower Snake River Dams

6.1 Effects of Dams on Salmon & Southern Resident Killer Whales

High infant mortality and low population momentum have been attributed to a lack of

available food for Southern Resident killer whales (Marine Mammal Commission). Therefore,

SRKW conservation must concern the species they depend on as well. The Southern Resident

killer population consumes an estimated 400,000 salmon per year (Ford, 2009), an amount that

has become increasingly difficult to obtain considering the significant impacts of the lower Snake

River dams on Chinook salmon. Dams have been observed to not only cut salmon off from their

spawning grounds, but directly kill those that swim through the turbines claiming as much as 10%

of the smolt population (Budy, 2002). Because of the direct impacts of traveling through a dam,

intense conservation efforts can include the capture and transportation of salmon on barges around

the entire hydrosystem so they can avoid death or extreme stress. Past research has observed

survival rates 25-50% lower in salmon that pass through dams instead of being transported around

them (Gregory, 2002). Dams in northwestern rivers also change water velocities essential to

migration rates, alter currents, and increase river temperatures as the sun more efficiently heats the

slower moving water (Gregory, 2002). This increase in temperature subjects the salmon to thermal

stress and allows diseases to spread more easily, which could be devastating for the salmon and

potentially lead to a coextinction event of Chinook salmon and Southern Resident killer whales

(Battin, 2007).

6.2 Effects of Dam Breaching

There is widely-supported evidence that dam removal results in an increase of healthy

salmon. Although dams and hydropower operations in the Columbia River Basin have been shown
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to negatively affect rearing and spawning habitats, migration rates, and populations of Chinook

salmon (Hatten, 2015), dam breachings have the potential to restore river temperatures, current

patterns, and reconnect the river to spawning sites (Gregory, 2002). Breaching the four lower

Snake River dams is ultimately projected to be the most effective solution to Chinook salmon

recovery. It would reduce the mortality rates of smolt-to-adult stage salmon by decreasing the

stress associated with barrier passage and eliminating all deaths due to barge transportation

(Wilson, 2003).

Dam removal is a dramatic event, however, and can come with its own consequences. As

dams block sediment, the material accumulates in deep pockets in the ground. After the dam is

removed, flood waters can easily erode these pockets and create a landslide, destroying

surrounding habitats (Gregory, 2002). Careful planning is required to minimize any possibility of

this happening. Although breaching the four lower Snake River dams would likely decrease

Chinook salmon’s chance of extinction, additional action must be taken to promote this salmon

population including but not limited to sustainable fishing practices and habitat restoration of the

river systems they spawn in. Once measures are taken to properly conserve Chinook salmon,

Southern Resident killer whales will have a much greater, although still small, chance of survival.

6.3 Lower Snakes River Dams Recommendations

● Support breaching of the lower Snake River dams to promote Chinook salmon

populations.

● Financially support the research of sustainable energy alternatives to replace those

lost by dam removal.

● Advocate for habitat restoration in rivers where salmon spawn.

● Promote sustainable fishing practices.

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7. Climate Change & Chinook Salmon

7.1 Effects of Climate Change on Chinook Salmon

In the midst of the 21st century, global temperatures are expected to rise by 1.5°-3.2°C

inevitably increasing water temperatures (Battin, 2007). In Washington, this rise in temperature is

predicted to decrease the total snowfall in the upper basins and cause the snowpack to melt earlier

in the year (Battin, 2007). This will relay a host of consequences to local salmon populations.

Rainfall will alter the flow of streams more dramatically throughout the annual cycle as the

effects of climate change increase. Firstly, we can expect lower flows in the summer because there

will be no snowpack to fuel the river (Mantua, 2010). This could result in the salmon losing access

to many of their habitats until precipitation increases. Secondly, we can expect frequent flooding

in the winter because most of the precipitation will directly add to the rivers (Crozier, 2008).

Increased flows have the potential to damage salmon eggs and strip them off rocks, which reduces

potential spawning grounds (Battin, 2007).

In many places in Washington, stream temperatures already reach lethal limits for adult

salmon during the hottest part of the year. By 2080, it is projected that under current conditions,

the temperature of water in Washington will rise by 2° to 5° C (Mantua, 2010). Not only can this

heat directly kill salmon, but it can also create favorable conditions for pathogens as disease

spreads more easily in elevated temperatures, which could further damage salmon populations

(Budy, 2002).

The thermal cues necessary for spawning migration could also be altered due to increased

temperatures. Not only would migration cues be delayed, but the time elapsed to migrate would
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be increased as spawning salmon would need to rest in cooler pools. This would have the greatest

impact on salmon that spawn in the summertime, including Chinook salmon (Crozier, 2008).

7.2 Climate Change Recommendations

● Continue public education about the effects of climate change on salmon and the

secondary effects on Southern Resident killer whales.

● Support hatcheries in order to maintain current salmon populations.

● Support legislation and actions that promote restoration of riparian areas, estuaries,

and other features important to salmon survival.

● Aid the funding of scientific research into climate change mitigation in the Pacific

Northwest.

8. Conclusion

This research has provided the Seattle Aquarium with peer-reviewed sources and

recommendations enabling them to take public, science-based stances on future decision making

regarding the impact of oil spill prevention, dam removal, and climate change on Chinook Salmon

and Southern Resident killer whales. Being that their mission is to influence the conservation of

marine species, we felt that the Seattle Aquarium would be a powerful stakeholder that could pass

this information to other influential figures and have significant sway on the public.

Our research on oil spill prevention lead us to recommend that Washington state pass a

protection similar to California’s SB 834. This can come about through the aggressive support of

governor Jay Inslee anti-offshore drilling stance. In addition, it is recommended that the Trans

Mountain Pipeline project be rejected to protect Southern Resident killer whales from potentially

catastrophic oil spills and increased transportation. If the Seattle Aquarium follows these

recommendations, the whale population will be better protected from future offshore drilling.
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Every peer-reviewed source found for this research suggested the breaching of dams

increases salmon populations. As is evident in past cases of dam removal and projected impacts

of the four lower Snake River dam breachings specifically, salmon populations are likely to

increase with the removal of these dams. Because of this apparent scientific consensus, it is our

recommendation that the Seattle Aquarium support the breaching of the lower Snake River dams

in order to increase the Chinook salmon populations needed to replenish the Southern Resident

killer whales. Furthermore, it is critical for the aquarium to support sustainable fishing practices

and the conservation of specific habitats needed for salmon spawning in the Puget Sound so that

these fish populations are maintained.

Climate change is a threat much greater to ecosystems than oil spills and dam construction,

causing our research to result in broad recommendations. The most notable consequence of climate

change is the increase in global temperature which will consequently increase water temperatures.

This is a significant threat to Chinook salmon as they cannot thrive in warmer water, as is already

evident in some Pacific Northwest areas. The Seattle Aquarium should continue its public

education regarding the effects of climate change on marine life. It should support legislation that

promotes restoration of riparian zones and salmon habitats.

Additionally, further research must be conducted on alternative sustainable energy sources

to replace the lower Snake River dams so that the needs of both humans and the affected animals

can be met. Other research should also be done on the compounding effects of dams and climate

change on salmon and other marine ecosystems. Based on the research in this literature review,

the Seattle Aquarium will have sufficient information to promote actions that benefit the

conservation of Southern Resident killer whales and Chinook salmon.

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9. Glossary

Anthropogenic: Environmental pollution and pollutants due to human activity.

Barges: A flat-bottomed boat for carrying freight, typically on canals and rivers, either by its own

power or towed by another.

Catastrophes: Events assumed to occur infrequently and at random which affect survival or

reproduction when they occur.

Coextinction: Loss or decline of a host species resulting in the loss or endangerment of other

species that depend on it, potentially leading to cascading effects across trophic levels.

Demographic stochasticity: By chance alone population changes in growth rate and hence change

in size from one year to the next.

Effective population: The individuals in a population contributing to reproduction.

Environmental exchangeability: The adaption to the same local conditions.

Environmental stochasticity: Random series of environmental changes that affect all members of

a population similarly.

Population Viability Analysis: A risk management tool which models the risk to a population over

time using demographic modeling to assess risks to wildlife populations and evaluate the

likely efficacy of protection, recovery, or restoration options.

Thermal stress: Stress created by any change in temperature to a species.

Quasi-extinction: Threshold is the minimum number below which extinction is very likely due to

genetic or demographic risks.

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10. Works Cited

Assembly Bill 1775. Retrieved from

http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB1775

Battin, J., Wiley, M. W., Ruckelshaus, M. H., Palmer, R. N., Korb, E., Bartz, K. K., & Imaki, H.

(2007). Projected impacts of climate change on salmon habitat restoration. Proceedings

of the National Academy of Sciences,104(16), 6720-6725. doi:10.1073/pnas.0701685104

Broder, J (2010). Obama to Open Offshore Areas of Oil Drilling for First Time. The New York

Times. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (n.d.). Oil and Gas Leasing on the Outer

Continental Shelf. BOEM. Retrieved from

https://www.boem.gov/uploadedFiles/BOEM/Oil_and_Gas_Energy_Program/Leasing/5B

OEMRE_Leasing101.pdf

Burgherr, Peter. (2007). In-depth analysis of accidental oil spills from tankers in the context of

global spill trends from all sources. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 140, 245-256.

Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.07.030

California Anti-Offshore Drilling Bills Pass Committee. (2018). Journal of Protective Coatings

& Linings, 35(9), 5–6. Retrieved from

http://offcampus.lib.washington.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?di

rect=true&db=bth&AN=132142787&site=ehost-live

Southern Resident Killer Whale Population. (2019). Center for Whale Research. Retrieved from

https://www.whaleresearch.com/orca-population

Chen, J., Zhang, W., Li, S., Zhang, F., Zhu, Y., & Huang, X. (2018). Identifying critical factors

of oil spill in the tanker shipping industry worldwide. Journal of Cleaner Production,

180, 1-10. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.238

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Clark, C. (2015). Potential Acoustic Impacts of Vessel Traffic from the Trans Mountain

Expansion Project on Southern Resident Killer Whales. Retrieved from

http://www.raincoast.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/RCF-SRKW-Acoustics-NEB-

Clark-May-2015.pdf

Foote, A. D., Vijay, N., Avila-Arcos, M. C., Baird, R. W., Durban, J. W., Fumagalli, M., …

Wolf, J. B.W. (2016) Genome-culture coevolution promotes rapid divergence of killer whale

ecotypes. Nature Communications, 7. Retrieved from

https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms11693#conclusions

Gregory, S., Li, H., & Li, J. (2002). The Conceptual Basis for Ecological Responses to Dam

Removal. BioScience,52(8), 713. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0713:tcbfer]2.0.co;2

Inslee, Jay (January 2018). Letter to Secretary Ryan Zinke. Retrieved from

https://www.governor.wa.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2018_01_11_Inslee_Zinke_L

etter.pdf

Kane, L. (2019, February 07). Washington governor says state will try to influence Trans

Mountain pipeline decisions 'every way' it can. Retrieved from

https://globalnews.ca/news/4937761/washington-governor-inslee-trans-mountain-

pipeline-february/

King, J. (2010). How to write an annotated bibliography. Access (10300155), 24(4), 34–37.

Retrieved from

http://offcampus.lib.washington.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?di

rect=true&db=lls&AN=56443699&site=ehost-live
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Knight, M. (2013). Water and Oil. Southern Review. Retrieved from http://ezp-

prod1.hul.harvard.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db

=aph&AN=91815446&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Lacy, R. C., Balcomb III, K. C., Brent, L. J. N., Croft, D. P., Clark, C. W., & Paquet, P. C. (2015

June 20). Population Viability Analysis of Southern Resident Killer Whales. Retrieved

from https://www.raincoast.org/2015/06/pva-on-srkws/

Mantua, N., Tohver, I., & Hamlet, A. (2010). Climate change impacts on streamflow extremes

and summertime stream temperature and their possible consequences for freshwater

salmon habitat in Washington State. Climatic Change, 102(1-2), 187-223.

Marine Mammal Commission (2019). Southern Resident Killer Whale. Marine Mammal

Commission. Retrieved from https://www.mmc.gov/priority-topics/species-of-

concern/southern-resident-killer-whale

Marine Spatial Plan for Washington’s Pacific Coast (October 2017). Revised June 2018.

Washington Department of Ecology. Retrieved from http://msp.wa.gov/wp-

content/uploads/2018/06/WA_final_MSP.pdf

Marine Waters Planning and Management Act (RCW 43.372.030). (2012).Washington State

Legislature. Marine spatial data and marine spatial planning elements--Inclusion in

planning--Joint plans and planning frameworks--Integration with comprehensive marine

management plan.

Marzluff, J. M. (2019). ESA Basics 2 [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://fs-

web.sefs.uw.edu/classes.esrm.458/scheduleWi12.htm

McCarthy, S. (2019, February 25). NEB says Trans Mountain pipeline expansion in public

interest despite 'adverse' impact on whale population. Retrieved from

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https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-neb-says-trans-mountain-pipeline-

expansion-in-public-interest-despite

Ocean Resources Management Act (RCW 43.143.010). (1997). Washington State Legislature.

Legislative policy and intent—Moratorium on leases for oil and gas exploration,

development, or production—Appeals from regulation of recreational uses—Participation

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