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LIGHT MICROSCOPY
A sharp image is produced by the flexible lens, the focal length of which is
changed by another set of muscles so that focusing is possible on any object at a
distance between approximately 20 centimeters and infinity.
1 1 1
Focal Length Object distance Image distance
Lens Magnification
A converging lens is characterized by collecting parallel light rays in a focal point F
This limit is set by the wave nature of light imposed on the objective
by diffraction.
The limit up to which two small objects are still seen as separate
entities is used as a measure of the resolving power of a microscope.
dmin ~ 0.3m for a mid-spectrum of 0.55m
Common Optical Defects in Lens Systems
(Aberrations)
Spherical Aberration
Peripheral rays and axial rays have different focal points (caused by
spherical shape of the lens surfaces.
Causes the image to appear hazy or blurred and slightly out of focus.
Very important in terms of the resolution of the lens because it affects
the coincident imaging of points along the optical axis and degrade
the performance of the lens.
Chromatic Aberration
When the electric field vectors of light are restricted to a single plane by
filtration, then the the light is said to be polarized with respect to the direction
of propagation and all waves vibrate in the same plane.
Bright field
Only direct
light falls on
the sample
surface,
where it is
absorbed or
reflected. The
quality
parameters of
the image are
brightness,
resolution,
contrast and
field depth.
Dark field
Only refracted,
diffracted or
reflected light falls
on the sample
surface. Dark field is
suitable for all
samples with
structured surfaces
and can also be
used to visualize
structures below the
resolution limit. The
surface structures
appear bright on a
dark background.
Typical examples of
applications
Cutting
Mounting
Polishing
Microscopy
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Grain Size Examination
Objective Lens
x100
Optical Emission Spectroscopy
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Sample
Electrode
The peak wavelength identifies the element, and its peak area or
intensity gives an indication of its quantity in the sample.
Advantages
•It’s fast and relatively easy to use.
•It measures a wide range of elements and concentrations in many
different types of materials, including important elements such as
carbon, sulfur, phosphorous, boron and nitrogen.
•It’s extremely accurate when measuring low levels of trace and
tramp elements.
•It’s fairly low-cost compared to other techniques.
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
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X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
X-rays are on the high energy side of ultraviolet, and are expressed in terms of
their energy in kilo electron volts (keV), or wavelength in nanometers (nm).
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) can typically analyse elements from sodium
to uranium, in concentrations ranging from parts per million to high
percents, in solids, liquids, and powders.
How does
X-ray fluorescence work?
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Primary x-rays are generated by the source and directed at the
sample’s surface, sometimes passing through a filter to modify the x-
ray beam.
When the beam hits the atoms in the sample, they react by
generating secondary x-rays that are collected and processed by a
detector.
The x-rays emitted by the atoms in the sample are collected by a
detector, and processed in the analyser to generate a spectrum
showing the x-rays intensity peaks versus their energy.
The peak energy identifies the element and its peak area (or
intensity) gives an indication of its amount in the sample.
What happens to the atoms in the
sample during the analysis?
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A stable atom is made
of a nucleus and
electrons orbiting it. The
electrons are arranged
in energy levels or shells
(K, L, M, N) and different
energy levels can hold
different numbers of
electrons.
When a high energy
primary X-ray collides
with an atom, it disturbs
its equilibrium.
An electron is ejected from
a low energy level, and a
vacancy is created,
making the atom unstable.
To restore stability, an electron
from a higher energy level falls
into this vacancy and the
excess energy released as the
electron moves between the
two levels is emitted in the
form of a secondary X-ray.
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
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The atomic force
microscope (AFM)
is one kind of
scanning probe
microscopes (SPM).
SPMs are designed
to measure local
properties, such as
height, friction,
magnetism, with a
probe. To acquire
an image, the SPM
raster-scans the
probe over a small
area of the
sample, measuring
the local property
simultaneously.
Imaging Mode in AFM
Imaging Modes in AFM
Contact Mode:
Feedback: Lever deflection
The feedback system adjusts the height of the
cantilever base to keep this deflection constant as
the tip moves over the surface.
(Friction force microscopy, conductive probe AFM)
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Raman Scattering
Radiation scattered by molecules
contains photons with the same
frequency as the incident radiation, but
may also contain photons with changed
or shifted frequency. This effect is very
weak—approximately one photon out of
a million (0.0001%) will scatter from that
sample at a wavelength slightly shifted
from the original wavelengths.
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Principle and Applications
When light meets particles that are
smaller than the light's wavelength,
the light spreads in different directions.
This occurs, for example, when light
packets - photons - encounter
molecules in a gas. In 1928 Venkata
Raman discovered that a small portion
of the scattered light acquires other
wavelengths than that of the original
light. This is because some of the
incoming photons' energy can be
transferred to a molecule, giving it a
higher level of energy. Among other
things, the phenomenon is used to
analyze different types of material.
Source:
https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1930/raman-
facts.html
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Raman Energy Levels
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Functional groups present in the molecules.
Wagging
Stretching
vibration
Formaldehyde
Covalent bonds behave like a spring
A functional group will absorb light if the frequency of the light matches the frequency of
stretching, bending or wagging.
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1-Propanol
Principle and Applications
Infrared Spectroscopy is the analysis of infrared light interacting
with a molecule.
This can be analyzed in three ways by measuring absorption,
emission and reflection.
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Mass Spectrometry
CH3CH2CH3
What is this substance/molecule?
Mass Spectrometer
CH3CH2CH3
Electron Beam
Core Electrons
Bonding Electron
Bonding Electron
Bonding Electron
Bonding Electron
Thermal Analysis
DSC measures the difference between the heat flows from the
sample and reference sides of a sensor as a function of temperature
or time.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
Steel Material — Phase Transitions
Melting
Amorphousness
Crystallanity
Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
In this technique, it is the heat flow to the sample and reference that
remains the same rather than the temperature. When the sample and
reference are heated identically, phase changes and other thermal
processes cause a difference in temperature between the sample
and reference.
DSC v/s DTA
DSC measures the energy required to keep both the reference and
the sample at the same temperature whereas
Evaporation of humidity
burn-up of organic content
dehydration of kaolin
solid-solid transition
Dolomite — Thermal Decomposition