‘+ Although good criterion, often difficult to determine, ‘Age at which Pregnancy can Occur without Deleterious Effects Applicable to all domestic animals. Generate highest number of offspring in the shortest time interval without compromising the well being of the dam or the neonate. In biological sense, females cross a “metabolic threshold” before puberty occurs. MECHANISM OF PUBERTY Differences in the LH secretory patterns in the male and female ‘+ There are fundamental differences in the pattern of LH secretion in postbertal male and female. LH does not surge in the male, but maintains a relatively consistent day -in and day-out episodic pattern of secretion with episodes occuring every 2-6 hrs. which in turns results in a steady pulse of LH and in turn testosterone. In contrast LH and Testosterone surge every 21 days in the female. Between these surges, low amplitude repeated LH pulses are present. 20 $ § i 5 : i Relative GnRH Level Changes in hypothalamic secretion of GnRH before and after puberty ‘+ Before puberty in the female, the GnRH neurons in both the tonic and surge center of the hypothalamus release low amplitude and low frequency pulses of GaRH + After puberty, the tonic center controls basal levels of GnRH but they are higher than in the prepubertal female because the pulse frequency increases. The surge center controls the preovulatory surge of GnRH.LH Pulse Frequencey (pulses?24 h) 5-4 3-20 1 2 3 Months Before and After Puberty Mechanism of Puberty The onset of puberty is not affected by the performance of gonads or the anterior lobe of the pituitary ‘The failure of the hypothalamus to produce sufficient quantities of GnRH to cause gonadotropin release is the major factor limiting pubertal onset. Prior to onset of puberty the following events take place The tonic centre of the hypothalamus produces GnRH in a pulsatile fashion. However, the frequency of GnRH pulses are much lower than in the post pubertal female. ‘The low frequency GnRH pulses are not sufficient enough to cause production of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary in high levels. Thus follicle development (even though it occurs before puberty) connot result in high levels of estrogen secretion. Although estrogen production is low, the hypothalamus is highly sensitive to the negative feed back effects of low estrogen. GnRH and gonadotropin levels are low ‘Onset of puberty is characterized by two important events Decrease in sensitivity of the hypothalamus to the negative feed back effects of estrogen © Higher and higher amounts of GnRH and gonadotropins are produced that stimulate the ovary to produce more and more of estrogen When estrogen levels reach a threshold, they exert a positive feedback on the surge center Ovulation can take place and puberty ensues. 62‘+ Thus, the triggering mechanism for onset of puberty in the female is the decrease in sen: of the hypothalamus to negative feed back What stimulates GnRH neurons to change its secretory pattern? ‘+ There isa possible influence of metabolic signals upon GnRH neurons + Adipocytes produce leptin that enters the blood and may stimulate neuropeptide Y neurons or directly stimulate GnRH neurons. Blood leptin reflects the nutritional status of the animal because greater the amount of fat, greater the amount of leptin. Blood glucose levels, another indicator of metaboloic stimulus probably stimulate glucose sensing neurons that in turn stimulate GnRH neurons. Blood fatty acids may stimulate neurons that in turn stimulate the GnRH neurons. Blood fatty acids would be an indicator of nutritional status of the animal. ‘ONSET OF PUBERTY AND OPTIMUM BREEDING AGE (IN MONTHS) IN DIFFERENT SPECIES et Mare | 10-24 (Av.18) 24-36 Cow 6:18 1422 lewe & Dod 6-12 12.18 Sow 58 29 Bitch 6.12 1218 ‘Queen 5.18 1218FACTORS AFFECTING PUBERTY Interaction with the opposite sex. Influence of sex: Female attains puberty at an earlier age. Breed: Small breeds attain puberty at an earlier stage. eg. Nine months in Jersey and 11 months in Holstein Friesian. Climatic influence: Animals in the tropics attain puberty at an early age. Seasonal influence: Breeding season affects onset of puberty. Eg. Ewe lambs born in early spring attain puberty in the fall i, within 180 days. But ewe lambs born in late spring and early summer attain puberty only in the fall of the next breeding season i.e, only after 400 days. Plane of nutrition: High plane of nutrition leads to early puberty and undernourishment delays onset of puberty. Body weight: Sheep attain puberty after reaching a body weight of 40 ke. DELAYED PUBERTY AND SEXUAL MATURITY IN CATTLE With good nutritional management, most cattle reach puberty between & and 13 months of age. Failure to exhibit estrus beyond this time is called prepubertal anestrus. To begin with, the history of the individual or the group of heifers will provide the key to the etiology. If the problem exists in a single heifer of the same age as rest of the cycling heifers in the group it is probably related to abnormal reproductive tract such as © freemartinism, hermaphrodite © aplasia of the mullerian duct. Cyclicity in rest of the herd mates indicates that the problem has not affected the entire group. ‘Similarly, any debilitating disease such as chronic pneumonia can delay puberty by decreasing rate of gain, which appears to be a functional dietary problem. If delayed puberty occurs in a group of heifers of the same ages or a group of mixed ages then the problem is one of management. Since, the onset of puberty is influenced by the available nutrition heifers of the same age that are fed a suboptimal energy diet will show a prolonged prepubertal anestrus period. Similarly, when a group of heifers of different ages are housed together and given a balanced ration, the larger or more aggressive herd mates will consume a greater portion of the available nutrition and tend to attain puberty at an earlier age while others may remain acyclic. However, in due course the entire population begins to cycle. The inherent danger of breeding these late heifers before they have developed adequate body size must be borne in mind as they tend to have more dystocia problems and long postpartum anestrus periods Infectious diseases like blue tongue, and bovine diarrhoea virus may result in acute ovaritis and subsequently ovarian atrophy thus causing anestrus. Animals may respond to hormonal therapy but promptly return to anestrus once therapy is withdrawn.The use of growth stimulation implants in prepubertal heifers can delay pubertal estrus and affect future fertility. DELAYED PUBERTY AND SEXUAL MATURITY IN GILTS In hybrid gilts, puberty usually occurs at around 160 days or age but itis breed dependent. Puberty may be delayed by poor environmental conditions, cold, sunburn and poor light. Overcrowding and the associated bullying and stress may result in delayed puberty. Poor nutrition acts by reducing growth rates or by causing deficiencies in particular nutrients. Disease may affect the gilt by reducing body condition or by causing pain. Lameness reduces bodily condition and precludes behaviour associated with estrus. Finally, poor management of peer group contacts may delay puberty. Puberty may be delayed by housing with young boars or by contact with old boars too early. As the expected time of first estrus approaches, inadequate boar contact or contact with board with low levels of boar odour may delay puberty. Clinical signs of delayed puberty consist simply of the failure of gilts to show estrus (enlargement of the vulva, reddening of the vulva, remaining still for back pressure, clustering round a boar) by the time they would be expected to have reached puberty based on previous experience with the breed or hybrid on the farm concerned, or industry norms. For this to be ascertained, records of the chronological age of the animals must be available, or an estimate of their age made based on weight, size for age, or time since selection for the breeding pool. Anatomical evidence of hermaphroditism may be obvious Delayed puberty may occur in individual animals in a group or in whole groups of animals. If estrus has not occurred or been noted by 240 days of age, itis unlikely that it will occur. For the accurate diagnosis, the age of the animals under examination must be known and individual animals must be identified or removed from the group when estrus is first detected. Daily inspection of the group in adequate light for physical signs of estrus, signs of mounting and should include behaviour towards boars. Prevention of delayed puberty depends upon correcting the management factors. © Gilts should be reared to 5-6 months of age in groups of 6-30, isolated from boars, with 12-16 hours light of adequate intensity at a temperature of about 20°C and given food. Disease should be controlled. Gilts which have reached 160-210 days of age should be exposed to vasectomised boars ‘or housed in sight, smell and touch of a smelly older boar. Estrus should then be observed, If not, then gilts can be tested with another boar daily, taking the gilt to the. boars. Treatment with gonadotrophic hormones induces estrus in pre-pubertal gilts. Gilts should be reared to 5-6 months of age in isolation from boars, injected with gonadotrophic hormone preparations and then allowed contact with boars for 15-20 minutes per day. Ninety percent of gilts will develop estrus within 5-7 days. They should not be mated at this estrus.EARLY SEXUAL MATURITY IN NONDESCRIPT PIGS IS THIS POSSIBLE??? Do you think that a 3 month old male piglet impregnating a sow is impossible? Here is something to prove that sometimes the impossible is also possible! ‘The tribal population of North Eastern India follow a unique practice of mating the sow with a male pig from its own litter to avoid maintenance of boar for breeding. In this system, it is claimed that the nondescript local male pigs, at very young age (around 3 months), impregnate the sow. Here are some pictures to prove it! 'The nondescript male pig along with sow mated The some sow with litter by himVGO 411: VETERINARY GYNAECOLOGY (2+1) MODULE-3 ESTRUS DETECTION IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS The single most important problem limiting high reproductive efficiency in a herd is poor detection of estrus. Thus, effective estrus detection is the key to maximize reproductive efficiency through Al. Herds, with poor estrus detection efficiency, are characterized by one or more of the following: + Prolonged calving to first service interval. The interval should be no more than 15 to 18 days longer than the farmer's goal and/or average no more than 70 days. Prolonged intervals. between _breedings, especially when many are multiples of a normal 18 to 24 -day when many are multiples of a normal 18 - to 24- day cycle. ‘+ Veterinary examinations confirming that cows are cycling normally, although estrus is not observed. More than 10 to 15 per cent of the cows confirmed to be open at a 35 ~ to 50- day pregnancy check. Heat detection index less than 0.05 or less than 50 per cent of the eligible cows observed in estrus within a period of 3 to 4 weeks. There are several aids to detect the heat in animals however they cannot substitute visual observation, LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this module the learner will be able to + understand the economic importance of estrus detection + outline the problems associated with improper heat detection + describe improved estrus detection practices to salve the problem of estrus detection ‘+ know the proper use of estrus detection aids.EVALUATING ESTRUS DETECTION EFFICIENCY Complete and accurate herd records are essential for evaluating the efficiency and accuracy of estrus detection. Calving dates, heat and breeding dates and the results of prebreeding and pregnancy examinations Hare needed. From these data the following measures of reproductive efficiency relating to estrus detection can be determined. Percentage of cows observed in estrus within 60, days after calving. Interval from calving to first breeding. Intervals between breeding. Estrus detection index, which is defined as the average number of breeding per cow. ESTRUS DETECTION PROBLEMS AND THEIR CAUSES. Basically, there are two estrus detection problems: © Missed or unobserved estrous periods © Estrus detection errors, The latter results in the insemination of cows that are not in the proper stage of the estrous cycle for conception to occur. Some are near estrus but are bred 1 to 2 days too early or too late, some are open but in the luteal phase of the cycle and some are pregnant. 68UNOBSERVED ESTRUS If in most herds essentially all cows are cycling normally, why does the dairy farmer have difficulty “catching the cycling cow"? There are several reasons: some represent “people problems,” but there are several “cow factors” that make estrus detection difficult. The major factors contributing to poor heat detection efficiency are: © Failure to spend sufficient time on a daily basis for estrus detection. Most mounting activity occurs at night in loosely-oused herds. Heat periods are short. Low levels of estrus activity when few cows are in heat. This can be a significant problem in small herds and in groups of cows in large herds in which many cows are either ‘i pregnant, not cycling or in the luteal phase of their estrous cycles. ‘Mounts last 10 seconds or less. Farmers must concentrate on estrus detection and should avoid combining it with other activities. Feet and leg problems, slippery floors, summer heat, winter cold and other environmental factors reduce estrus activity. ‘+ Heat detection programs that limit the effects of these “people” and “cow” factors must be developed in order to maximize heat detection efficiency. ESTRUS DETECTION ERRORS Estrus detection errors must be avoided. Breeding pregnant cows can cause abortion. Breeding nonestrus, open cows wastes time, semen and money. In order to reduce the number of errors, potential causes of the problem must be identified. In most herds errors result from © misidentification of cows, © misinterpretation of the signs of heat, misuse or misinterpretation of the signs of heat misuse or misinterpretation of heat detection aids cows transmitting the wrong signals (up to 10 per cent of pregnant cows may stand to be mounted).ESTRUS DETECTION AIDS Estrus detection is difficult, so estrus detection aids are needed in many herds to identify effectively all the cows that must be inseminated. The most important consideration for farmers is to remember that they are only aids. For best results aids must be used in conjunction with good visual detection programs, not as a substitute for visual detection. The various estrus detection aids are as follows © Wall charts, Breeding wheels, Herd monitors and Indi © Secondary signs of estrus © Palpation of reproductive organs Mount detection Heat detector animals + Lateral deviation of penis + Caudal epididymectomy + Dorsal ligament resection ‘Vaginal electrical resistance Heat check report system Prostaglandins Pedometers Tricks of the trade WALL CHARTS,BREEDING WHEELS, HERD MONITORS AND INDIVIDUAL COW RECORDS. These systems are the least expensive and aim at detection of the next heat period. If the farm workers know when the next possible heat period is they could closely observe individual cows for signs of estrus. Thus, more short-or weak-heat periods can be identified. The key to successful use of these management aids are 70© The accurate recording of every heat beginning with the first after calving. © Their dally use to identify those cows that are due to return to estrus. SECONDARY SIGNS OF ESTRUS + Secondary signs indicate that a cow is in or near heat. * They should be used primarily to identify cows that need careful observation for standing estrus. ‘+A twice-daily walk behind the cows when most of them are lying down provides a good ‘opportunity to check for the secondary signs of estrus. PALPATION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS ‘+ Routine rectal examination of all cows between 30 and 40 days after calving and of individual problem cows that have not been inseminated within 70 days after calving should be encouraged to confirm that the reproductive tract is normal and to predict when the next estrus will occur or to identify cows for prostaglandin treatment when estrous cycles are occurring, but estrus has not been detected tion for Palpation of Reproductive Organs nMOUNT DETECTION + Two methods are widely used for mount detection © pressure~ sensitive devices + paint stick, chalk or paint on the tail head. ae Kamar Heat Mount Close-up of Dye Capsule! PaintonTailHead | Chalk on Tail Head Detector Red dye is contained in a| Tail head painting as an | Tail head painting with A pressure sensitive heat|soft compressible capsule| aid to estrus detection. | an oil based paint as an mount detector patch | that is connected by a | Oil based paint is used, | aid to estrus detection. (KaMar) is glued to the | hairline channel viaa | subsequently tobe | Subsequently a second tailhead of the cow | hard cylindrical tube to |covered with a layer, of a| layer of a different color an outer compartment | different color, of chalk. | is applied with a crayon. (not shown). ‘When animals are in estrus, mounting activity changes the color of the detector or erases the chalk or paint stick markings. With good management and proper interpretation, pressure- sensitive mount detectors provide excellent results. However, care must be taken to position the detectors properly and to minimize the opportunities for false activation of the devices. False activation of mount detectors can be reduced by removing cows that are in estrus from the herd. The disadvantage of this practice is that it removes sexually active cows that stimulate increased mounting behavior in others that may be in estrus but are less active, Recent studies show that the accuracy of mount detectors, when used as the sole method of heat detection, may be as low as 30 to 50 per cent. These results strongly suggest that mount detectors should be used only to identify cows that require additional observation. Breeding on the basis of activated mount detectors without additional signs to confirm that cows are in estrus should be discouraged. Chalking the tail head is a less expensive alternative for mount detection. False-positive are sometimes a problem, and animals must be restrained and marked every few days, since mud and manure may obscure the chalk or paint stick marking. Paint can be used instead of chalk or paint stick. When the paint dries, it becomes brittle and flakes off when the cow is mounted,