Professional Documents
Culture Documents
infections
Jon Couriel
Respiratory Unit, Royal Liverpool Children’s Hospital, Liverpool, UK
Aspiration Uncommon
Gastro-oesophageal reflux Uncommon
Incoordinate swallowing Uncommon
Intrabronchial foreign body Uncommon
Mediastinal or pulmonary tumours Very rare
Age
Male sex
Prematurity
Parental smoking
Large family size, overcrowding
Congenital abnormalities
Immunodeficiency
Cellular defences
Lymphocytes (T- and B-cells)
Pulmonary macrophages
Neutrophils
Asthma
Despite recent advances in care, many children referred with ‘recurrent
chest infections’ or a ‘persistent cough’ will be shown to have
undiagnosed asthma. Closer attention to the history reveals that most,
but not all, have recurrent episodes of cough, wheeze and breathlessness,
often with the characteristic trigger factors of URTIs, exercise, cold air,
emotional upset, or exposure to pets and other aero-allergens. There is
often a personal or family history of other atopic conditions such as
eczema or allergic rhinitis. They may have responded to bronchodilators
or anti-inflammatory therapy. Examination is often normal at the time
of consultation, but spirometry may indicate airways narrowing and
bronchodilator responsiveness. There is no agreed clinical definition or
pathognomic test for childhood asthma and making the diagnosis can be
difficult, particularly in children below the age of 3 years20. Further-
more, in some children, asthma co-exists with another disorder, such as
a specific antibody deficiency. Signs which suggest an alternative or
additional diagnosis include asymmetric or focal chest signs, finger
clubbing, failure to thrive or the features of systemic disease. A cough
productive of purulent sputum is not a feature of asthma.
Post-infective cough
Cystic fibrosis
Immunodeficiency disorders
PHAGOCYTE DEFECTS
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) Staph. aureus White cell differential
Familial, cyclical or auto-immune neutropenia Streptococci Chemotaxis, phagocytosis
Leukocyte adhesion defects Candida, Aspergillus Nitroblue tetrazolium test
Hyper IgE syndrome (Job’s syndrome) Enteric Gram-negative bacteria
COMPLEMENT DEFICIENCY
Mannose-binding protein Strep. pneumoniae, H. influenzae C3, C4, CH 50 levels
C3 or C5 deficiency Neisseria meningitidis
This is not an exhaustive or complete classification. The investigations are for disorders of that component of the immune system and
not the specific disorders.
Phagocyte disorders
Primary disorders of phagocyte numbers or function are relatively
uncommon in children36. Recurrent sinopulmonary, gastrointestinal and
soft tissue infections due to Staph. aureus, Burkholderia cepacia, Serratia
marcascens and fungi are the usual mode of presentation. In boys with
chronic granulomatous disease (CGD), the commonest serious phagocytic
disorder, in which there is defective killing of ingested micro-organisms,
cavitating pneumonia which responds poorly to antibiotic therapy is a
common presentation. Severe pneumonias, empyemas and bronchiectasis
are common in children with the hyper-IgE (Job) syndrome, who have a
wide variety of defects of neutrophil, lymphocyte and humoral function as
well as very high levels of serum IgE37.
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis should be considered in any child with a persistent
productive cough, particularly if there are systemic features such as
fever, weight loss or general malaise. Since most tuberculous infections
are transmitted by inhalation, primary lesions occur in the lungs in over
95% of infected children. As with adults, there are several different
clinical and radiological patterns of lung disease that can develop from
the primary complex. These include effusions, cavitation, bronchial
obstruction due to mediastinal lymphadenopathy with atelectasis or
distal emphysema, tuberculous pneumonia, endobronchial tuberculosis,
or miliary disease. Post-tuberculous bronchiectasis is rare nowadays.
Extrapulmonary manifestations, of which meningitis is the most serious,
are more common in children than in adults. The diagnosis depends on
a high index of suspicion, tuberculin skin testing, radiology, and micro-
biology of sputum and gastric washings.
The plain chest X-ray is valuable in assessing the severity and distribution
of lung involvement. Wide-spread changes such as bronchial wall
thickening or inflammation involving several lobes suggests a systemic
disorder such as cystic fibrosis, ciliary dyskinesia or an immunodeficiency
disorder. Focal changes are more common if there is a congenital
abnormality, an inhaled foreign body or bronchial obstruction for some
function tests, and bronchoscopy are often indicated. Plain radiology, CT and
MR scanning can all help define the site and severity of any abnormalities such
as bronchiectasis, atelectasis or congenital anomalies. A multidisciplinary team
approach to the assessment and care of this demanding and complex group of
children has many advantages
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