CHEMISTRY

Class notes on
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
By Dr.Ashok K.Koori

Dr.Ashok K. Koori
B.V.Sc & A.H
NDVSU Jabalpur

+91 – 90016 32529

DR.ASHOKKOORI@GMAIL.COM
 Atomic structure
The word atom is derived from Greek root, and it is composed of two words A and TOM.
(ATOM = A + TOM)
The word ATOM was coined by ancient Greek philosophers “Leucippus” and his pupil
“Democritus”
Where A means not and TOM means divided hence ATOM means “not divided”
Many theories have been explained to describe atom such theories are given below

Maaharshi Kanad’s atomic model

He was Indian philosopher so his model was not accepted.

Classical model of atom

Based on Particle behavior of matter (electron)
1. Dalton’s atomic theory
2. Thomson’s atomic model
3. Rutherford’s atomic model
4. Bohr’s atomic model/ quantum model
5. Sommerfeld’s model

Wave mechanics model/ quantum mechanical model

Based on wave nature of matter (electron)
It include
1. De Broglie’s dual nature of matter
2. Uncertainty principle of Heisenberg/ Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
3. Schrodinger’s wave equation

Dalton’s atomic model

→ According to this model atom is a smallest indivisible and indestructible particle of a matter
that can be nether produced and nor destroyed.
→ Properties of a matter are because of atom.
→ Atoms of an element are identical and different elements also have different type of atom.
→ Chemical reactions are rearrangement of atom.
Drawbacks –
→ Atom can be subdivided into sub atomic particles like electron, proton and neutron.
→ This model could not explain about fractional mass of an element
→ Atom can be either produced or destroyed by nuclear fusion and fission.
→ Properties of a matter are because of valence electrons not atom.
Note –
Atom → Molecule (it is a smallest unit of a matter that represents entire properties of a
matter)
Matter can be either elements (same atom) or compound (different atom)
Molecule = Mole (Poly) + cule (Tiny particles)
Sub atomic particles or fundamental particles of an atom
Electron Proton Neutron
Notation e or e- 1 +
1P or H or p
+ 1
on or n
o

Experimented by William Crooke

Discovered by J.J.Thomson Goldstein James Chadwick
Named by Stony Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick
Basis of discovery Cathode ray Anode ray experiment By the following Rxn
9 4 12 1
experiment 4Be + 2He → 6C + on
Charge (-) 1.6 X 10-19Cb(MKS) (+) 1.6 X 10-19Cb(MKS) Charge less
(-) 4.8 X 10-10 esu(CGS)
-1 unit +1 unit
Molar charge 1.6 X 10-19 X Na
= 96500 Cb
= 1 Feradey
Relative mass 1/1840 1 1
Actual Mass 1.9 X 10-28 gm 1.673 X 10-24 gm Mn ≈ Mp
1.9 X 10-28 X Na amu 1.673 X 10-24 X Na amu 1.675 X 10-24 gm
= 5.5 X 10-4 amu ≈ 1 amu
Specific charge (e/m) -1.76 X 108 cb/gm

Position of subatomic particles in nucleus: by Rutherford’s experiment

Cathode ray experiment: The discovery of electron

Cathode ray tube or discharge tube

 Q Low pressure, high voltage should be there.
At low pressure, gases conduct electricity: William Crookes
Q How does electron come from cathode?
Ans

Properties of cathode rays

1. Cathode rays are not visible
2. They are produced by the negative electrode or cathode and travel towards the anode (in
straight way).
3. They come out from cathode perpendicularly (90 degree angle)
4. They produce X ray when strike metals (Mosley’s observation)
Mosley’s determination of atomic number

√υ = a(Z-b)
Atomic number is fundamental property of atom was told by Henry Mosley.
5. They travel in straight lines and produce/ cast sharp shadows of metallic objects placed in
their path; a shadow of the metal object is formed at the end opposite to the cathode.

6. They cause mechanical motion (they rotate) of a small pin-wheel placed in their path. This
shows that cathode rays are a beam of particles (cathode rays compose of material
particles) having mass and possessing kinetic energy.

7. They are deflected by the both electric and magnetic field.

 8. They are beams of tiny, negatively charged particles called electrons.
9. They produce fluorescence when they strike the glass wall of discharge
discharge tube.
10. They produce heat when strike metal foil
11. Velocity of such rays are less than velocity of light
12. They ionize gas particle when they strike gas particles

13. Specific charge of cathode rays is constant.

(Does not depend on gas)

Specific charge measurements

Calculated by Thomson

Magnetic force
Magnitude of magnetic force is F = qVB
Centrifugal force due to circular motion
F = MV2/r
Then qVB = MV2/r
q/M = V/Br
The value of r is obtained from the dimension of the tube and the displacement of the
electron spot on the fluorescent screen.
Electric force

When electric and magnetic field strength are counterbalanced (to calculate velocity),
Magnetic force = electric force
(qVB) = (qE)
Thus V = E/B
V can be calculated if E and B are known
Then we can assume that
Specific charge (q/M) = E/B2r
And value will be – 1.76 X 108 Cb/gm
Where
B = magnetic field strength
E = strength of electric field
V = velocity of electron
m = mass of the electron
e = charge on electron
r = radius of the circular path of the electron in the magnetic field
Specific charge (q/m) of electron:-
electron:
Mass of electron = 9.1 X 10-28
28
gm
Charge of electron = 1.6 X 10-19 C
Specific charge = 1.6 X 10-19/ 9.1 X 10-28 Coulomb per gm
Specific charge = 1.76 X 108 Cb/gm
Q Calculate the specific charge for deuterium in Cb/gm?
Ans –
(q/M)D = 1.6 X 10-19/2amu
1 gm = NA X amu
(q/M)D = 4.8 X 104 Cb/gm
Q Determine ratio of specific charge for isotopes of hydrogen?
Ans –
Protium (1H1) = 1/1
Deuterium (1D2) = 1/2
Tritium (1T3) = 1/3
 Q Calculate specific charge for proton, neutron, and electron and α particle and
arrange in increasing order of specific charge?
Ans –
(q/M)P = 1/1
(q/M)n = 0
(q/M)e = 1/1/1887 = 1887
(q/M)α = 2/4
(q/M)e > (q/M)P > (q/M)α > (q/M)n

Determination of the charge on an electron: Milikan’s oil drop experiment

Magnetic field was uniform

At equilibrium
mg = qE
q = mg/E = n(1.6 X 10-19)
Note:
X ray ionize air, and oil droplet become ionized after capturing of released electrons
Charge was calculated by Milikan’s oil drop experiment
 First discovered subatomic particle = electron
Last discovered sub atomic particle = neutron (because of zero charge)
Universal subatomic particle = electron and proton (neutron is absent in Protium)
Unstable subatomic particle is neutron
1 1 0
0n → 1P + - e
Heaviest subatomic particle is neutron
Order = Mn > Mp > Me
Me ≈ 0
Mp ≈ Mn
Specific charge for electron was calculated by Thomson
Velocity order = EMV/ light > Cathode rays > anode rays
Specific charge for cathode rays is constant but for anode rays depends on nature
of gas in discharge tube.

Note –
Charge of specie is integral multiplication of charge of electron
Charge of species = ne-; where n = 1, 2, 3…. Whole number
For example
Charge of A+2 = 2 X 1.6 X 10-19 Cb
Q Calculate charge of O2-
Ans = 2 X charge of electron
Note –
1F ≡ 96500 Cb
1F ≡ 1 mole electrons
For instance –
MnO4- (1 mol) → Mn+2; calculate total Faraday
Ans = 5F
Q Calculate charge in faraday on 2.8 gm N-3
Mole of N-3 = 2.8/14 = 0.6 mole
So charge will be 0.6 F
Q Calculate molar mass of electron?
Mass of 1 mole = 9.1 X 10-28gm X Na
= 5.5 X 10-4 gm
= 0.55 mg
Q Calculate total number of electron in 1kg mass?
Mole = (1 X 103 gm)/ (mass of 1 mol electron)
Mole = 103/ 9.1 X 10-28Na
Number of electron = 103 X Na/ 9.1 X 10-28Na
= 1031/ 9.1

Mass of electron relative to hydrogen

Molar mass of hydrogen = 1.008 gm
Mass of one hydrogen = 1.67 X 10-24gm
Mass of electron = 9.1 X 10-28 gm
Mass of (electron/ Hydrogen) = 9.1 X 10-28 gm/ 1.67 X 10-24
Mass of (electron/ Hydrogen) ≈ 1/ 1837
Note – mass of moving particle
 M = mo/ √(1-V2/C2)
Where mo is resting mass
V ↑ → m↑↑, (e/m)↓
↓
Note – resting mass of electromagnetic waves is zero and velocity is equal to velocity of light then
moving mass will be infinite.

Anode/canal rays experiments: Discovery of Protons

A German scientist, E. Goldstein modified the discharge tube (discharge tube was fitted with a
perforated cathode) and passed an electric current through it.
He found that positively charged rays were emitted from the anode in the discharge tube. These
rays were called 'Canal Rays'.

Anode Rays Discharge Tube

When an electric field was applied, these rays deflected towards the negatively charged plate.
Thus, Goldstein concluded that an atom contains positively charged particles along with the
electrons.
These positively charged particles were named as 'protons' by a British scientist, Ernest
Rutherford.
Canal rays were also called anode rays since they emitted from anode (electrode connected to
positive terminal of high voltage source) in the gas discharge experiments using perforated
cathode.

Manifestation of atom
 Q Calculate total number of proton, electron and neutron in given examples –
1. 11Na23
2. 6C12
3. 30 70Zn+2
4. Phosphide ion (1531P-3)
5. Phosphonium ion (PH4+)
6. PO4-3
7. oCH3
8. :CH3
9. :NH3
10. 7 mg of nitrogen atom
11. 16 mg of oxygen atom

Some atomic species

Examples Properties
1
Isotopes/ Z = same 1H Protium (H) Chemical properties are
2
isoprotic A = differ 1H Deuterium (D) similar and physical
3
A-Z = differ 1H Tritium (T) properties will be differ
C C13 and C14
12

Cl35 and Cl37

Isobar Z = differ Ar40 K40 Ca40 physical properties are
A = same C14 & N14 similar and Chemical
210
A-Z = differ 82Pb and 83Bi210 properties will be differ
31 32
Isotones/ Z = differ 15P 16S Both physical and
isoneutronic A = differ chemical properties are
A-Z = same differ
11 23
Isodiaphere Z = differ 5B 11Na Both physical and
A = differ chemical properties are
A-Z = differ differ
(n-p = A-2Z) = same
Isoelectronic Same electron HF, H2O
CH4 NH3 H2O HF Ne
Isostears Same number of N2O, CO2
electron Electron = 22
Same number of Atom = 3
atom
Fractional atomic mass is because of presence of isotopes
Specific charge of isotopes are different from other one
If an element has more than one isotope then its atomic mass will be average of atomic
mass of all isotopes
For example
Element X has three isotopes XA1, XA2 and XA3; relative availability is a: b: c
Then average atomic mass = (A1a + A2b + A3c)/ (a+b+c)
Q If the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 and it is composed of two isotopes Cl35 Cl37 then
calculate the ratio of contribution of these isotopes?
Ans –
Q If availability of X20 X21 & X22 are 85%, 10% and 5% respectively then calculate average atomic
mass?
Ans –
Q Average atomic mass of an element is 10.8 and X10 X11 and X12 are the isotope of this element
then calculate contribution of these isotopes in average atomic mass?
1. 1:1:1
2. 2:1:1
3. 1:2:1
4. 2:2:1
Ans – (4)
Note – isotope can be differentiated by e/m
Note -

Thomson’s atomic model

Indian version/ water melon concept/ rasgulla chasani concept

According to this model electrons (negative charge) are dispersed in positive sphere like seed in
water melon.

In the 19th century, Thomson described the atom as a ball of positive charge containing a number
of electrons.

Drawback;
He could not explain Rutherford’s experiment.
He could not explain line spectrum of the atom

Rutherford’s atomic model/ Rutherford’s α scattering experiment radioactive

source – lead
Experiment
Rutherford took radioactive lead as a source and thin gold foil(100mm thickness)
surrounded by ZnS screen and bombarded high energy α particles on gold foil and
observed some interesting facts which were
Observation –
1. Most of the α particles passed through the gold foil without undergoing any deflection
2. A few α particles underwent deflection through small angles
3. Very few α particles (1 out of 20,000) returned back i.e. through an angle of nearly 180o

Conclusion –
1. Since Most of the α particles (up to 90%) passed through the gold foil without undergoing
any deflection that means there must be sufficient empty space within the atom.
2. Since few particles deflect from their path and it is possible because of repulsion that
means a positive charge is concentrated in very small volume which is known as nucleus
3. Electrons revolve around nucleus in circular path and these paths named orbit.
Note – nucleus was discovered by Rutherford
Calculations conducted by Rutherford
4. Radius of Nucleus –
Radius of nucleus
[(r) α A1/3] and r = roA1/3
Where ro is radius constant = 1.33X10-15 m
10-15 m = 1 ferme
And radius of atom is 10-10 m
Ratio of radius of atom and nucleus (rA/rn) = 105
5. Volume of nucleus
VN = (4/3) ΠRN3
VN = (4/3) Π(roA1/3)3
VN = (4/3) Π(ro3A)
VA/VN = 1015
VA = 1015 VN
6. Density of nucleus
Density = m/v
 Density = (A X amu)/ (4/3) Πro3A
And amu = 1.67X10-27 Kg
Density = 1017kg/m3
Conclusion –
[Radius α A1/3
Volume α A
Density α Ao]
7. Number of deflected α particles on θ angle –
[N α 1/ {sin4(θ
θ/2)}]
θ↑ → N↓ ↓

Q Calculate total number of deflected α particles on 90o angle, if 400 α particles are deflected
on 60o angle?
Ans = [N α 1/ {sin4(θ θ/2)}]
4
N1/ N2 = sin (θ θ2/2)/ sin4(θθ1/2)
4 4
N1/ 400 = sin (30)/ sin (45)
N1/ 400 = [{(1/2)/ (1/√ √2)}4] = ¼
N1 = 100
8. Distance of closest approach
(TE) initial = (TE) final
(KE+PE) initial = (KE+PE) final
½ MV2 + 0 = 0 + KQ1Q2/Rm
½ MV2 = K (2e) (ze)/Rm
Rm =?
Q Calculate the distance of closest approach? If velocity of α particle is 3000km per sec.
Ans – Rm = (2KZe2)/(1/2 MαVα2)
= 2 X 9 X 109 X 79 X (1.6 X 10-19)2/ (½ X 4 X 1.67 X 10-27 X (3 X 106)
Q Calculate distance of closest approach? If protons are used instead of α particle in
Rutherford’s experiment.
Q Determine the ratio of distance of closest approach regarding proton and α particle?
Rutherford’s planetary model
Rutherford’s atomic model also known as Rutherford’s planetary model because according
to this model electrons revolve around the nucleus as like planet around the sun
Drawbacks;
1. Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic radiation; if a body is revolve in an orbit then it achieve
acceleration and according to Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic radiation when a
positive charge move with acceleration then it would continuously emit electromagnetic
waves.
 Hence conclusion is that if revolving electron is emitting electromagnetic waves then its
path must be spiral and it will be captured by nucleus due to attraction, but Rutherford
could not explain it
The main problem with Rutherford’s model was that he could not explain why negatively
charged electrons remain in orbit, when they should instantly fall into the positively
charged nucleus. This problem would be solved by Danish physicist Niels Bohr in 1913
2. Rutherford could not explain Zeeman and stark effect
3. He could not explain line spectrum of atom
α scattering effect is shown by all heavy metals like Ag, Au, Pt, Pd etc.
Density of nucleus does not depend on atomic mass

Bohr’s atomic model

Bohr carefully observed “Rutherford’s atomic model, Planck's quantum theory and Einstein’s
Photo electric effect” and proposed Bohr’s atomic model.