1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND
Ethiopia covers an extraordinary number of the world's broad ecological zones with
a high plateau and a central mountain range divided by Great Rift Valley. The country
contains a huge altitudinal range from the Danakil depressions in the Afar 126mbsl to the
mountain tops of Ras Dashen in the north 4,620masl and the Bale mountains in the
southeast. The large cultural diversity with gigantic range of climates results from its
topography and latitudinal variation. It has a very diversity set of ecosystem ranging from
humid forest and extensive wetlands to deserts. This range of habitats also supports a rich
variety of species, which contributes to the overall biological diversity of the country
(USAID, 2008 [32]). Ethiopia encompasses a broad range of ecosystems with great
varieties of habitats that contribute to the occurrence of high faunal diversity.
There are over 10,000 various species of birds (class Aves) across the world.
However, in Africa 2355species, 245 globally threatened with extinction. Ethiopia has a
rich avifauna which is about 40% of Africa’s total. Birds of Ethiopia (926), 24 species are
endemic and 19 are globally threatened. Today birds are the most successful of all
terrestrial vertebrates, with 28 orders containing a total of 166 families (Weldemariam,
2016; WCMC, 1992 [34, 35]). The wildlife biodiversity of Ethiopia supporting more
than2970 species of animals and 7,000 of higher plant species with 12% endemism,
among the fauna 320 are mammals with 36 endemism, 926 birds with 24endemism,
1,249 arthropods with 23 endemism, 200fish with 40 endemism, 202 reptiles with 17
endemism and 73 amphibians with 30 endemism (EBI, 2015; Weldemariam, 2016 [7,
34]). In Africa it ranks the fourth, surpassed by Madagascar, Zaire, Cameron and South
Africa (WCMC, 1992 [35]). Regionally, in addition to being hotspots of biodiversity that
is also highly endangered (Bird Life International, 2012 [3]). Natural habitats and species
are declining by rate of 0.5 and1.5% per year. Almost 12% birds, 25% mammals and32%
amphibians are threatened with extinction in the next century (IUCN, 2013 [11]). To
conserve avian genetic resources sustainably, Ethiopia has established about 73 Important
Bird Areas (IBAs), 30 of these sites comprise wetlands, while the rest are representatives
of other ecosystems (Shimelis and Afework, 2008 [23]). Avian communities have been
found to function as indicators of overall healthy biodiversity and environmental decline
or recovery (Bird Life International, 2010; Schrag et al., 2009 [21, 4]). To conserve the
diverse and important biological resources, 21 National Parks, 11 Wildlife Reserves, 3
Sanctuaries, 21Controlled Hunting Areas, 4 community conservation areas, 5 open
hunting areas, 4 biosphere reserves and58 national forest priority area have been
established as refugee (EBI, 2015; Weldemariam, 2016 [34, 7]).

Vegetation in various parts of the country supports several fauna including those that
are endemic to the country (Yonas Yemshaw, 2002). The presence of five diversified
climatic zones defined by different altitudes, rainfalls and temperatures (Saavedra,2009)
helped to create isolated and varied ecological situations in the country.

Patterns of species composition and diversity are the results of historical, evolutionary
and ecological processes. The species composition in a given area is mostly explained by
historical factors such as dispersal events, geographical isolation, and extinction due to
past climatic and geological events, and in much less extent by some ecological factors
such as competition and predation (Barrantes and Sandoval, 2009).

Ethiopia’s major land feature is a massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus
bisected by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands along much of the edge
(Hillman, 1993; Viveropol, 2001). The Great Rift Valley bisects this mountainous
plateau, dividing it into northwestern and southeastern highland regions (Gillespie, 2003).
These made Ethiopia to have various wildlife and wildlife habitat.

Most of the avian species occur in Important Bird Areas (IBAs). IBAs are selected based
on categories. Some of the categories are globally threatened, restricted range and biome
assemblages, and congregation. A total of 1228 IBAs are distributed among 58 countries
or territories in Africa and its associated islands (Collar and Stuart, 1985). IBAs cover 7%
of the land area of the African Continent. Out of 1228 IBAs, 597 are found in Africa
(47%) (Birdlife International, BLI, 2001). .
Habitat loss and degradation is the major threat. The majority of birds are threatened by
deforestation of the burning of vegetation, commercial logging, subsistence farming,
plantations, and arable farming and mining. A decline in the quantity of the habitat can be
as detrimental as the loss of the habitat itself, for example through grazing bylivestock
and selective logging. Introduced species are particularly important factor for island birds
where indigenous species lack natural defenses. Hunting for food and trade also take their
toll. Habitat destruction is the greatest problem. Although threatened birds occur in many
different habitats, nearly 900 species (75% of all threatened bird species) live in forests.
With the tropical rainforests being extremely rich in bird species, the report highlights
Asia and the Americans as particularly important regions (Birdlife International,2010).

Birds are mainly threatened due to destruction of their habitats. A new report released
on7th October 1999 by Birdlife International shows that 1200 bird species (one in 8 or
12%of the world’s birds) are facing a real risk of becoming extinct in the next 100 years
(Ashand Atkins, 2009). Bird life international also reports that a further 600-900 species
areclose to begin added to the threatened list. Queen Noor, Horonary president of Bird
LifeInternational said: “The prospect of 1 in 8 of our birds disappearing forever is
unthinkable.” Dr. Jerry Bertrand, Chairman of Birdlife International commented: “Birds
are the major indicators of the state of our environment as they are highly sensitive to
change, so they give us early warning signs of future environmental crises. Importantly,
problem beyond birds are generally also rich for other forms of biodiversity”
(PadoaSchiopa et al., (2006).

Ecological studies on birds are important to determine the biodiversity importance of

the site, habitat requirements of the species, determine the population size and to
understand the population dynamics (Gibbons et al., 1996). There is a need to know and
study more about birds in order to protect them because currently many species of birds
are in danger of extinction. This problem is associated with human activities such as
destruction or fragmentation of bird habitats for agricultural expansion (ICBP, 1990).

Birds were the foremost animals to suffer from human actions. Clearly, an aircraft
poses a hazard to birds and there is empirical evidence that birds utilize anti-predator
strategies in response to human disturbance similar to strategies used when encountering
a predator. Thus, in an applied context, anti-predator behaviours can help us to
understand the mechanisms behind the responses of wildlife to different types of human
activities (Bernhardt et al., 2010). Therefore, the study will aims to assess information on
the bird diversity, abundance, screening key species of conservation concern and overall
threats in wolkite university for a better understanding for the habitat suitability for birds
and subsequently for future protection and management of such crucial sites.

1.2. Statement of the problem

The ornithology of Ethiopia is still in its infancy, because of its limited concern and
clearly not for lack of birds. The investigations on avian fauna in Ethiopia are negligible,
when compared to other countries in the region. Only few researchers have also
conducted study on the diversity and ecology of avian species in some parts of Ethiopia
(Urban and Brown 1971, Ash 1979, Ash and Gullick 1989, EWNHS 1996). Despite the
availability of diverse ecosystems in different regions of Ethiopia, the ecology of most
avian species is only little known. Measure of bird diversity might be valuable to
prioritize areas and needs, understand community dynamics and identify causes of
change where they occur, document trends and identify species that may be at risk, have a
quantitative measure of diversity for future comparisons and intervention strategies.
Wolkite university also play vital role for bird conservation. However, no study has been
done in regards to species diversity, abundance and distribution of birds’ communities in
the place. Having this inconsideration, the species diversity and abundance of birds in
Wolkite university will the main aim of this study. Hence, this study will be served as
ideal or scientific information on current abundance and diversity of bird species
including migratory, endemic and global conservation status and able serve as bench
mark for local communities, researchers and ornithologists, allusion on birds and also
further studies.

1.3. OBJECTIVES

1.3.1. General Objective

The general objective of this study is to diversity and relative abundance of bird species
in Wolkite university.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

  To study species diversity of birds in wolkite university

 To study abundance of birds species in the area

 To identify major bird attractant features of the study area

 To identify habitats and habitat association of these birds

1.4. Research questions

1. How many bird species are there in the study area?

2. What are the factors that affect bird species?

3. What type of bird species exist in the area?

4. What is the importance of bird species?

1.5. Significance of the study

The significance of this study will to assess the diversity, richness, evenness and relative
abundance of bird species that will develop the conservation and management of those
species and promote those ideas for the coming generation. The recommendations could
be used to review the current bird conservation policies in order to enhance its
effectiveness and formulate new policies. The finding are also important for decision and
policy maker, development planners, and other in providing them with greater in sight on
the problem that are associated with diversity of birds. The finding will be used as a tool
for development or improvement of their activities with relation to behavior of birds.

2. Literature review

2.1. Diversity of birds

Biological diversity or biodiversity is the term given to the variability among living
organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
 ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes
diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.(The Convention on
Biological Diversity,CBD,1992). During the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,
world leaders agreed on a comprehensive strategy for `sustainable development`-
meeting our needs while ensuring that we leave a healthy and viable world for future
generations. However, global biodiversity is being degraded at an alarming rate due
to human activities (Skole and Tucker, 1993). The loss of biodiversity often reduces
the productivity of ecosystems and their services (Wilson, 1989). It destabilizes
ecosystems and weakens their ability to deal with natural disasters such as flood,
droughts, and hurricanes, and with humancaused stress, such as pollution and climate
changes. One of the first steps towards national biodiversity strategy is to conduct
survey in order to find out what exists and to analyze its value and importance, and
what is endangered (Australia Biological Resource Study, 2001).

On the basis of the survey results, governments can set measurable targets for
conservation and sustainable use. National strategy programs need to be developed
or adopted to meet this target. Biodiversity can be measured with quantitative indices
of diversity based on richness, the number of elements of biodiversity (usually
number of species), evenness and their relative abundance (Magurran, 1988). An
increasing amount of ecological research relies on measures of bird species richness
to address a range of questions. In addition to research base projects, these methods
are gaining widespread use among agencies and extension groups to measure
baseline patterns of diversity and gauge the effectiveness of management practices
(Freudenberger, 2001: Rosenstock et al., 2002). The most basic study of avifauna of
a site is the preparation of a list of species. A list indicates the diversity of the site,
and shows the presence of rare species if any. The number of rare and endemic
species and the diversity of the species present at the site can be used as indicator of
the importance of different sites or habitats for bird conservation (Bibby et al., 1998:
ICBP, 1992). In spite of the great diversity found among the many different kinds of
birds, they are perhaps the most homogeneous and most easily recognized class of
animals on earth (Wallace and Maham, 1975).
Wetmore (1960) divides the Class Aves into 27 Orders of living birds, and 6 Order of
extinct species. About 170 families of living birds are listed in most classifications
although much uncertainty exists about the status of some of them. An additional 41
fossil families have been listed by Wetmore (1960). Currently, the class Aves
includes 29 Orders, 201 Families, 2073 Genera and 10,010 species (Dereje
Woldeyohannis,2006).

2.2. Body size

In size, living birds vary from the diminutive humming birds, many of which weigh less
than 4 gm, to the bulky ostrich, which stands 2 m in height and weighs more than
150 kg (Bond, 1947). Generally, the size of the bird is directly proportional to its life
span. Large birds like owls, eagles and pelicans survive more than 60 years of age in
captivity (Wilson, 1980).

2.3. Habitat

Birds are commonly distributed in different habitats including the polar region, the
tropics, in forests and deserts, on mountains and prairie and the ocean and its islands
(Wilson, 1980). Avian assemblage shows latitudinal gradient. Tropical regions
typically exhibit higher species richness than do those of temperate latitudes.
Whether this higher avian species richness is associated with higher overall
abundance of birds in an assemblage and/or with lower abundance of individual
species is controversial. There are evidences for the higher numbers of specie in the
tropics being supported by higher number of individuals (Karr, 1971: Poulsel, 2002).
On the other hand, some studies have reported that tropical forest bird assemblages
have a higher biomass, but a more similar level of abundance to their temperate
counterparts (Terborgh et al., 1990: Thiollay, 1990). In the tropics, greater levels of
environmental factors may allow more species to co-exist through increased habitat
heterogeneity and enhance niche specialization (Terborgh, 1980: Karr, 1989). Within
sites, it is fairly evident that habitat is likely to be an important factor concerned with
the distribution and number of birds. Habitat variations may be of natural origin, for
instance by soil type, along a gradient of rainfall or by altitude. Of all possible bird
habitat associations, elevation is the most commonly cited factor (Bibby et al., 1998).
However, it is not yet known whether a general relationship between species richness
and elevation or even whether a universal explanation or model can be formulated
(Colwell and Hurtt, 1994; Rahbek 1995; 1997). Seasonal stability of the habitat
affects species composition and abundance of birds. Bird species that face seasonal
irregularities in the availability of food sources have two alternatives. A bird may
shift to feeding on other resources, or it may move to another area where the original
food resource is available. Where there is no seasonal irregularity in food availability
and other factors are held constant, a species can maintain itself throughout the year
(Karr, 1976). Seasonal variation in avian community structure decreases with
increasing vegetation complexity. This is apparently due to the increased buffering of
the physical environment by the more complex vegetation (Smythe, 1974). The
impact of seasonality varies among the subset of the avian fauna (Karr, 1975).
Insectivorous species diversity and abundance generally vary more seasonally than
do frugivorous(fruit feeders) species diversity and abundance in structurally mature
habitats. The global population size of species varies by many orders of magnitude.
Amongst the birds, the rarest comprise a handful of individuals (Birdlife
International, 2000), whilst the most abundant ones have many hundreds of millions
(Elliot, 1989). Numerous reasons can be suggested for these differences, including
the influence of body size, life history, tropic group, phylogeny and history (Damuth,
1981; Pimm, 1991; Brown, 1995; Gaston and Blackburn, 1996; 2000). However,
whether singly or in combination, these variables have been found to explain only
small to moderate proportions of the variation in population size. Thus, body size, for
example, has been widely quoted as an important correlate and perhaps determinant
of abundance. With species of a similar size differing in abundance may be by
several orders of magnitude (Nee et al., 1991; Blackburn et al., 1994: Gaston and
Blackburn, 1996; 2000).
2.4. Migration

The seasonal distribution of birds is affected by their migration patterns. Migration is not
a voluntary one, but is one of necessity caused by climatic conditions such as the
food supply and the length of the daylight (Lincoln, 1998). In Eastern Africa, the
following three types of migration can be recognized (Mackworth-praed and Grant,
1956): complete, trans-equatorial and local. Complete migration includes those
species visiting Eastern Africa during the nonbreeding season from Europe or Asia.
Trans-equatorial migration includes those species that move either to a more humid
or to a drier area for breeding, and in so doing cross the equator. Local migration
includes those species, which breed in Southern Africa and move northward in the
non-breeding season. Breeding season in birds shows variation. Local climatic
conditions and local food supply are probably the main factors governing breeding
period. Ground-breeding birds normally nest during the wet season and it may be
due to the effect of annual burning of grass and open forest country during the dry
season, but it is more likely that food is abundant at this season. Woodland and forest
species may breed in any month. The breeding of a species in any one-year at a
certain time is not a guarantee that it will breed at the same time the next year, or
even at all in that locality (Mackworth-praed and Grant,1956).

2.5. Importance

Birds are one of the most important components of biodiversity. This is reflected by the
ecological, economical and esthetic values. It is often asserted that birds are
convenient indicators of biodiversity, at least at large scales and that they are useful
for monitoring environmental changes. One reason is that birds have long been
popular with naturalists, amateurs and professionals and consequently their
systematic and distributions are better known than any other comparable groups of
animals, with the possible exception of larger mammals (Furness and Green wood,
1993). Birds are highly motivated, extremely efficient and cost-effective insect pest
 controllers (Pschorn-Walker, 1977). As a group, insectivorous birds display a wide
variety of feeding specializations, from hunting in the air (swifts and swallows) to
excavating deeply in wood (woodpeckers). Roughly 60% of the approximately 8600
species recognized by Mayr and Amadon (1951) are partly or largely insectivorous.
Insect pest outbreaks can annually destroy hundreds of millions of dollars of
agricultural and forest products. Birds can alter their diets to feed almost exclusively
on an insect pest during an outbreak if it becomes profitable for them to do so. They
can develop a search image for this new prey and can learn how to hunt for it more
efficiently. Factors that help to determine which type of insects are selected by birds
of prey are; insect density, body size and nutritional content, ease of capture,
palatability (presence of chemical defenses or parasites), and density of potential
competitors (other birds, mammals, ants, spiders, and predacious insects) (Lack,
1954). In 1921, forest and agricultural pests were reduced to 78% by birds resulting
in savings of $ 444 million crop and timber losses. The value of birds in terms of
economy is beyond our imagination. Their value is not just in their actual
consumption of insect pests, but also in their role in keeping future outbreaks to a
minimum (Holling, 1988). Birds also serve other purposes in nature. Fruit-eating
birds help in dispersal of seeds. Birds eat and digest the pulp of berries and other
fruits, but pass the seeds unaffected through their droppings. The seeds may sprout
wherever the droppings fall (Clout and Hay, 1989). Certain birds like humming birds
and sunbirds pollinate certain flowers that produce nectar. Hummingbirds and
sunbirds feed on nectar. As they visit flowers in search of it, they spread pollen from
flower to flower.

Birds through the ages have been the source of considerable fascination and folklore, and
have been used as symbols. They are arguably the most universally celebrated form
of nature, found in pictures, photographs, sculptures, word and song (Cliffordand and
Beehler, 1998). At the same time, few species of birds like Quelea (Quelea quelea)
cause major agricultural loss in some regions of the world.
2.6. Threats

Despite their importance, many species of birds are in danger of extinction due to human
activities. These include intensive farming, land reclamation, fertilizers, intensive
meadow mowing/silage making during bird breeding season, drainage of formerly
extensive wetlands, deforestation and widespread clearance of native forest and
woodlands, intensive pine forestation (at the expense of natural broadleaved
woodlands), marine and coastal development encroaching on coastal and wetland
areas (which are important for bird migration and breeding), intensive development
encroaching natural conservation and heritage areas (roads, housing, golf courses,
etc.) and pollution (Birdlife International, 2006).

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the study area

Data Analysis

Number of bird species and abundance data were summarized per plot and the data of
bird species were calculated using diversity indices. The species diversity of the area
calculated based on Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index. Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index
(H’) is calculated as:

H’ = -Ó(Pi lnpi) …………………… ... ……… (1)

Where, Pi = Proportion of the i species, and ln = Natural th logarithm

Species evenness, which measures the pattern of distribution of the bird populations
present in the area, was evaluated using Shannon-Wiener Evenness Index (E) as follows:

E = H’/ Hmax ………………………………………... (2)

Where, H max = lnS = natural logarithm of the total number of species (S) in each month
(Shannon and Weaver 1949).
The relative abundance of the bird species was determined by using the equation:

Relative abundance (%) = n/Nx100………………… (3)

Where, n is the numbers of individuals of particular recorded species and N is the total
number of individuals of recorded species. According to Bibby et al. (1992), Simpson’s
similarity index (SI) was used to assess the similarity among different blocks/habitats
with reference to the composition of species using the formula:

SI=2C/A+B ………………… .. ………… (4)

where, C= Number of species common between sites, A= Number of species in site A,

and B=Number of species in site B.

Encounter rate method was used to explain a species list with an index of relative
abundance based on the number of encounters with individuals per block of time. It was
calculated as:

Encounter rate = Total Number of Individual Birds Observed x 10 Period of Observation

in Hours ………... (5)

Encounter rate was used to give a crude ordinal scale of abundance (Bibby et al. 1992) as
given in (Table 1.

Table 1. Encounter rates used to give a crude ordinal scale of abundance

Abundance category Abundance score Ordinal scale

<0.1 1 Rare 0.1–2.0 2 Uncommon 2.1–10.0 3 Frequent 10.1–40.0 4 Common 40.0+ 5

Abundant

Finally, the data were analyzed through one-way ANOVA for abundance comparison
between wet and dry season and abundance among different blocks. Paired sample t-test
was used to compare abundance difference among bocks in wet and dry season and
Microsoft excel 2010 was also used to calculate bird species diversity index.
Table 1. Ordinal scale of abundance (Bibby & Jones, 1999)
Number of sightings Ordinal scale
<0.1 Rare
0.1-2.0 Uncommon
2.1-10.0 Frequent
10.1-40 Common
>40.0 Abundant

4. WORK PLAN AND BUDGET/LOGISTICS

Table 1. WORK PLAN (TIME SCHEDULE)

Activity Time period(2019)

November December January February March April May

Proposal 
writing
Proposal 
submission
Proposal 
defense
Data  
collection
Data 
analysis
Research 
writing
Paper
submission
Paper
defense

4.2. Budget plan

Table 2. Stationary and equipment budget
Item Unit Quantity Unit price Total price
Paper Packet 1 50 50
Pencil No 1 1 1
Pen Packet 1 30 30
Binder No 1 35 35
Calculator No 1 100 100
Camera No 1 1500 1500
Photocopy Page 50 60 300
Service
Total No 56 1776 2016
Table 3. Transport and personal cost
Item Unit Quantity Unit price Total price
Research Days 10 30 300
Assistance Days 5 20 200
Guide Days 4 20 80
Telepthone Card 5 10 50
Bus Round trip 2 100 200
Total No 26 180 830
Sub total No 2846(2016+830)
Contingency No 142.3
(5%)
Ground total No 2988.3

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