Evolutionary Forces

1. Natural Selection
2. Sexual Selection
3. Mutation
4. Genetic Drift
5. Gene Flow

Natural Selection
The evolutionary process through which factors in the environment exert pressure, favoring some individuals over others to
produce the next generation.

Evolutionary survival
 The fit variation will be fit in the challenge and will produce the next generation
 Ex. giraffe, natanggal ang small and medium giraffe because selected traits that are advantageous to the environment
will remain

Sexual Selection
 Select
 Microscopic vision → depth= importance
 Ex. prutas, ‘di makuha
 Important: to perpetuate species
 Ex. large antlers ng deer, wala siyang advantageous feature for evolution pero bakit siya pinili for mating or perpetuation?
 Answer: traits and attributes. Female choose not because it’s advantageous for evolution but may attributes siya na gusto
sexually
 Ex. Peacock

Mutation
The chance alteration of genetic material that produces new variation.
 Chemical change= point mutation (change in one base)

Genetic Drift
The chance fluctuations of allele frequencies in the gene pool of a population
 Founder effects- a particular form of genetic drift deriving from a small founding population not possessing all the alleles
present in the original population
 Ex 1. calamity, malaki ang variation pero mababawasan because malaking gene pool ang nawala.
 Ex 2. Common chimpanzees vs Bonobos
Gene flow
The introduction of alleles from the gene pool of one population into that of another
 Dulot ng migration
 Palitan ng genes
 Ex. pagpapalaganap ng artista sa pilipinas (Di ko gets pero bat ito yung example sakin???)

09/17
Stop fertility of reproduction- Age 50
 culturally , si Lola malaki ang ginagampanan sa pag-reproduce ng generation

Length of Maturation Life Expectancy

Humans 0-18 55-60 yrs.

Chimps 0-10 35-40 yrs.

Baboons 0-11 25-30

*the longer the length of maturation, the longer the life expectancy
*length of maturation is a bi product of extreme longevity

Evolution
The change in allele frequency of gene pool of a population
*If there’s no change, there’s no evolution
 He called this the “state of genetic equilibrium” also known as the Hardy-Weinberg theory of genetic equilibrium
 This theory says, that if it happens, the shouldn’t be natural selection. But, natural selection happens. Therefore, THIS
THEORY CANNOT HAPPEN. This is just a hypothetical situation.
 Importance:
1. We see, calculate the effect of evolutionary forces in a population.
2. It is a model to compare in reality

1
A + a = 100%
↓ ↓
dominant recessive

A + a = 100% A- dominant
a- recessive

[P]= A Frequency of the dominant allele

[q]=a Frequency of the recessive

allele

(p+q=1) (p+q=1) Hardy-Weinberg Formula

or
(p+q=1)^2

AA- homo dominant

↓ ↓ ↓ Aa- hetero dominant
AA Aa aa aa- homo recessive

Example 1: Solution:
In a survey in UP Diliman, out of 1000 respondents, 160 of those are non-
tongue rollers
Tongue Rollers- RR Get q:
Non-Tongue Rollers- rr 160=rr=q^2= 160/ 1000= .16
Sqrt of .16= .4
q= .4

Get p:
(p+q=1)^2
p+ .4 = 1
p= 1- .4
p=.6

(.6)^2 + 2(.6)(.4)+(.4)^2=1
(.36) + (.48) + (.16) = 1
1=1

Example 2: q=rr= 36% =.36= q=.6

36% of the population of 1000 is a homorecessive non-rollers
P+ .6 = 1
p= 1-.6
p= .40

(.4)^2 + 2(.4)(.6)+(.6)^2=1
.16 + .48 + .36 =1
RR Rr rr
T. hetero non
rollers rollers rollers

Living Primates
Diet, Locomotion and Social Behavior
*There is a correlation on the diet and body size

Lower Primates Higher Primates

Called “prosimians”

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 Lemur Homosapiens
Tarsiers Apes
Lorises monkey+apes+humans= Anthropoids

 orangutan Great Apes

 Gorillas
 Chimpanzees  Genetically, they are related in each other
 Bonobos

 chimpanzees African Great Apes

 Gorillas

Relative to the monkey. Closely related to one another Lesser Apes

 gibbons
 Siamangs

Phylogenetic Relation They share common ancestors

*mas malapit ang tao sa chimp and kaysa orangutan

Diet, Locomotion and Social Behavior

 Diversity of Living Primates

Multivorous diet Macaques, baboons

Folivores (leaf) Leaf monkey of Asia and Africa

Insectivores (insect) Lemurs of Madagascar

Gumnivores (gum and sap) Pygmy Marmosets of Amazonia

Gramnivores (grass) Baboons of Ethiopia

Frugivores (fruit) Apes

All primates eat leaves, fruits, and leaves

Major Eras in Evolutionary History

Precambrian  earliest evidence of life: photosynthetic, single-celled organism (3.8 b.y.a.);
similar to the algae in the oceans today
 1.2 bya; evolution of sexual reproduction (meiosis); multi-celled organisms
 1 bya: plant and animal kingdoms diverged

Paleozic  first fossil animal remains (500 million years old)- trilabite and aquatic forms
(550-225 million years  vertebrate fish species
ago)
 400 mya, evolution of land plants and terrestrial insects

Mesozoic

Cenozoic

Early Primates

Dental Structure

Insect-eater spiked teeth (small ones)

*the little the diet, the smaller the body size

Leaf-eater Molar with tall crests (relatively large ones)

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 Fruit-eater Broad occlusal surfaces on their molars

 Diet is related to locomotion and body size

vertical clinging and leaping (prosimians: tarsiers, lemurs): insect, fruit, flowers

Arboreal quadrupedalism (old and new world monkeys): gums, fruits, seeds, and fruits

Terrestrial quadrupedalism (some old world monkeys)

Knuckle-walking (chimpanzees and gorillas) African Great Apes: fruits, seeds, flowers

Brachiation (gibbons)
Fruit, insects, leaves

Quadrumanous clambering (orangutan, slow lorises): fruits, leaves

Bipedalism (humans) Meat, grains, fruits, dairy products, sugars

 Behavior
o More cognizant of their social environment than their physical worlds
o Non-human primates: grooming (social information)- affiliative behavior
1. Mother and infant
2. Male and female: before mating: maintain social bonds
3. Adults: establish alliances

Aside from affiliative behavior, they also display threat and appeasement gestures
 Threat: head-bobbing, yawning, eye-flashing
 Appeasement: “presenting”, subordinate dominant “fear grimace”
 Proximity: social support

Primate Taxonomy
 Traditional system vs. New or Alternate System
 Relationship of the tarsier to higher primates
o Tarsier vs. loris and lemur (prosimians)
o Shared characteristics: primitive dental pattern, social behaviors, small bodies, large ears
o Tarsier and higher primates: eye orbits are enclosed by bone: has bony ear canal; lacks rhinarium
o Genetically, more closely related to anthropoids than to prosimians
 Relationship of the great apes to humans
o Based on the morphology and biomolecular dat: African apes are more closely related to humans to orangutan

Traditional Primate Classification

4
Alternative Primate Classification

Higher primates vs (WHO?)

 they share common ancestry
In evolution, walang common

Variation-modification ng species

TARSIER
Traditional map: Nakapaloob sa sub-order na prosimii
Issue: May similarity kaya they group in one taxon, proposed from prosimii tinanggal nila ang tarsier sinama sa anthropoids

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Concern: genetically, ang Tarsiers are closely related to apes, monkeys and humans
Result: Sa alternative map, sa suborder ng Strepsirrhini ang natira nalang ay lemur and lorises
While sa haplorhini, nagsama-sama na si tarsiers, monkeys, apes and humans
(New) Pangalawang issue ng classification:
 revise ang relationship ng great apes and human

Sa old: lahat ng great apes magkasama: orangutan and african apes.

African apes
 Chimps/Pan
 Bonobo/ pan
 Gorilla
 Pongo/ orangutan
Vs. human
Implication: great apes closely related to orangutan (new classification) ekis not accepted

 Great apes mas malapit sa humans kumpara sa lesser apes

 Kahit na Great apes mas kamukha ng lesser apes

Phylogenetic Relationship
Use of Tree of life
Meaning: refers to the relative times in the past that species share common ancestors.
Relationship based on criteria:
1. Common ancestry
2. Genetic consideration

Tarsiers are more closely related ; African apes are closely related than great apes

Pongo, Gorilla, Pan (mas malapit) kesa sa homo

Genetically speaking mas malapit ang

 New taxon: 6 primates (lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, humans)

 230 non-human primates
New:
1. Wala nang tarsier
2. Genetically mas malapit si tarsier sa Anthropoids
3. Strepsirhini
4. Haplorhini (Tarsiers, Monkeys, Apes, and Humans)

Superfamily:
 Homonoidea
 Apes+ humans
Family
 Hylobatidae
o Gibbons and Siamangs (lesser apes)
 Hominidae
o Great apes and humans
o Subfamily:
 Ponginae
 Orangutan
 Hominae
 (african apes and humans) such as cimpa and bonobo,
o Tribe
 Hominini: sapiens, troglodytes, pan paniscus
 Subtrive
 Hominina (homo sapiens)
 Panina

Recapitulation

Genetically speaking:
 Tarsier: higher primates
 Homo sapiens: pan troglodytes and pan paniscus
 Homo + pan: gorilla gorilla
 Homo+ african apes: pongo pygmaeus
 Homo + great apes: lesser apes (Gibbons and Siamangs)
 Homo apes: old world monkeys
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  Homo apes + old world monkeys (Catarrhines)

EARLY PRIMATES
Paleocene (65-54 mya)

 We diverge from animals

 First primate like mammals (plesiadapiforms)- dito tayo nag-evolve pero may traits na typical sa mammals pero may traits
na hindi hawig sa modern

Primate like traits were lacking:

 Eyes are faced laterally (based sa diet and lifestyle, sa grasping need natin para depth perception
 Large diastema between the incisors and canines (because of diet and lifestyle nawala yung diastema)
 Relatively small brain (lahat ng primates nag-undergo ng encephalization
 increased in brain size relative sa body size) more or less 1300 cc ; brain capacity ng Australopithecus (si LUCY)
around 400 lang (primate din sila nag undergo din sila ng encephalization)
 Claws (dati yung nails natin yun yung claws. Dahil sa lifestyle, di na need yung claws) pero may iba pa rin na primates
ang meron like tarsier for diet, grooming and adaptation
 Tarsiers still have claws because their diet is eating insects. Their claws are also used for grooming

 Feeding at the terminal ends of branches left to specialization for grasping small twigs
 Grasping useful for catching insects (selection for a convergence of eyes)
 Adaptation for bug-snatching:
o Larger brain
o Forward-facing eyes
o Stereoscopic vision
o Greater hand-eye coordination (tayo lang ang may kayang magpasok ng sinulid sa karayom)
o Nails with sensitive tactile pads

 Disappearance of the muzzle (protruding nose and mouth)

 yung survival daw ng tao nakadepend na sa may vision hindi olfactory
 Early primates: adapids (lemur-like) morning omomyidae-tarsier-like)
ANO TO

ANTHROPOIDS
Oligocene (38-23 mya)
 Aegyptopithecus (Egypt)
o Dental Formula (2-1-2-3)
 similar to old world monkeys (similar to humans)* per quadrant per jaw
 Dental formula ng tao 2 incisors - 1 canine - 2 premolars - 3 molars
 We have 2 JAWS:
 Lower jaw: mandible
 Upper jaw: maxilla
o Sexual Dimorphism
 (manifested by sagittal crest-this provides an extra attachment site for the temporal muscles, which
close the jaws.— bone sa taas ng ulo, may hump sa ulo)
 magkaiba ang male at female; physically alam mo na kung ano yung men sila yung malaki compared sa
women
 Mas malaki yung katawan ng lalaki kesa sa mga babae ng given population
 Yung theory na pangahan ang tao, may existing sagittal crest pa siya
 Para saan yung sagittal crest: dun nakaattach yung mga large muscles
TRAITS
Ancestral trait
 May acquired trait ka from your ancestor
 Are what the modern and the ancestors had

Derived trait
 meron yung ancestor tapos wala yung
 A trait that the current organism has and previous one didn’t or vice versa

APES
Miocene period (23-5 mya)

 Early ape fossils: east africa

o proconsul africanus
 Smaller early ape species
 Lacks shoulder adaptation for brachiation (moving from branch to branch using the arms with the body
hanging suspended below)
o Proconsul major
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  Sexual dimorphism
Both:
 relatively large brain (relative to monkey)
 Sexual dimorphism of the teeth mas malaki yung sa lalaki

EARLY BIPEDS
 evolved from miocene apes
 Apelike creatures; penchant for upright walking
 Kapag quadrupeds: knuckle walker siya (ex. chimps)
 Evolved into Australopithecus; later into genus homo
 Early best-known species: Australopithecus Afarensis (reduced amount of craniodental sexual dimorphism compared to
gorilla)
 Climate related explanations for the emergence of bipedalism (savanna hypothesis)
Bakit naging bipeds because during the time:
o Carrying food back to home base (kaya naging bipeds tayo)
o Hands used for fighting (reduction of canines)
o Stone tools
o Thermoregulation (body heat)
 BIPEDS: pag nakatayo di mo maaabsorb lahat ng init
 QUADRUPEDS: kuha mo lahat ng heat
o Assertion of dominance

Cercopithecoid Monkeys
 End of monkeys

RECAPITULATION
PRIMATES AS MAMMALS
Mammals
 body hair
 Long gestation period followed by live birth
 Young receive milk: mother’s mammary gland
 Different type of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars, molars) teeth natin specialized for a particular purpose; we have
generalized dentition, hindi lang pwede sa isang diet
o Reptiles- identical, pointed, peglike teeth (iisa lang diet nila)
o Mammals- specialized teeth for particular activities
 Incisors - nipping, gnawing, cutting
 Canines- ripping, tearing, killing and fighting
 Premolars- either slicing and tearing or crushing and grinding
 Molars- crushing and grinding

 Ability to maintain a constant internal body temp through endothermy

 Increased brain size
 Capacity for learning and behavioral flexibility

PRIMATE CHARACTERISTICS
What set primates apart from other mammals

Limbs and locomotion

 a tendency toward an erect posture (derived trait)
o Associated with sitting leaping, standing and occasionally bipedal walking
o A flexible generalized limb structure which allows most primates to practice various locomotor behaviors
ancestral traits
 Clavicle- rotation of the forearm (ability) hip and shoulder morphology
 Not restricted to one form of movement
 Prehensile hands ( prehensile meaning: ability to grasp) (and sometimes feet), (derived trait)
 ability to skillfully manipulate objects
 Retention of five digits on the hands and feet (ancestral trait)
 Opposable thumb and in most species a divergent and partially opposable big toe
 Nails instead of claws (derived trait)
 Tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the ends of digits
o Enhances sense of touch

Diet and teeth

 Lack of dietary specialization (ancestral trait)
 generalized dentition (ancestral trait)
o Teeth aren’t specialized for processing only one type of food
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SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
 Differences between the sexes in the shape or size of a feature

The senses and the brain

 Vision > olfaction (has to do with evolutionary changes in the skull, eyes, and brin (derived trait)
o Color vision (characteristics of all diurnal primates)
o Depth perception (stereoscopic vision-complete three dimensional vision or depth perception from binocular
vision and nerve connections that run from each eye from both sides of the brain allowing nerve cells to integrate
the images derived from each eye)
 Eyes faced toward the front of the face (binocular vision-in which 2 eyes sit next to each other on the
same plane so that their visual fields overlaps)
o Decreased reliance on olfaction (derived trait)
o Expansion and increased complexity of the brain (derived trait)

Maturation, learning and behavior

 A more efficient means of fetal nourishment, longer period of gestation, reduced number of offspring (with single births the
norm) delayed maturation and extension of the entire life span (derived trait)

THE LIVING PRIMATES

 Lemurs and lorises
o Suborder: Strepsirhini
o “Primitive” (more similar anatomically to their earlier mammalian ancestors)
 Retained ancestral characteristics: e.g reliance on olfaction (presence of rhinarium: moist and fleshy pad
at the end of the nose)
 Dental comb
 Comb

 Lemurs: Island of Madagascar

 Lorises: India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Africa
o Slow, cautious, climbing form of quadrupedalism

230 PRIMATES

 Tarsiers: Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, Philippines

o Nocturnal insectivores
o Enormous eyes; immobile within their sockets; can rotate their head 180 degrees

 The Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes and Humans

o New world monkeys
 Southern Mexico, Central and South America
 Arboreal: diurnal
 Broad noses with outward-facing nostrils
 Platyrrhine (flat nosed)
 Marmosets, tamarins, howler monkeys

 Old world monkeys

o Sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia
o Quadrupedal
o Narrower noses with downward-facing nostrils catarrhine
o Sexual dimorphism
o Females have pronounced cyclical changes of external genitalia (swelling and redness)

 Hominoids: Apes and Humans

o larger body size
o Absence of tail
o Shortened trunk
o Arms longer than legs (only in apes)
o More complex behavior
o More complex brain and enhanced cognitive abilities
o Increased period of infant development and dependency

 Gibbons and Siamangs

o Smallest of the apes
o Brachiation

 Orangutans (pongo pygmaeus)

o Borneo and Sumatra
o Sexual dimorphism (males: very large, 200 pounds; females: less than 100 pounds)

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  Gorillas (gorilla gorilla)
o Largest of living primates
o Africa
o Vegetarian
o Sexual dimorphism: males: 400 pounds; females 150-200 pounds
o Terrestrial
o Quadrupedalism (knuckle-walking)

 Chimpanzees
o Africa
o Anatomically similar to gorilla
o Sexual dimorphism
o Knuckle walking; brachiation; bipeds

o Social behavior is complex; lifelong attachments with friends and relatives

 Bonobos
o Resembles the chimpanzees but slightly smaller (pygmy chimpanzees)
o Arboreal (meaning: resembling a tree)

 Humans  Est. 3.3 M years old

o Bipedalism
Questionable daw to: (kasi hindi lang
naman ang human ang may kakayahanan
nito)
o Write and think (increased brain size)
o Dependent on culture
o Predisposed to spoken language; written
language
*At the time, Africa was filled with rainforests
Molecular clock
 a technique that uses the mutation rate of
biomolecules to deduce the time in prehistory when
two or more life forms diverged.
Archaic hominids, archaic homo

Last common ancestor

 (For some) refer to the missing link because there
are no common ancestors
 Earliest human-like: sahelanthropus tchadensis
 Detested by modern biologists, they call it the last
common ancestor due to linear progression
 Last common ancestor of apes and humans (

Linear progression:
ApesMonkeyTarsierProsimiansMammals
 But evolution is not a linear progression. It is a
branching out of members

Alternative classification
 Relation ng apes and humans
Hominid
 Human family (human-like features)
 Basehan yung common ancestry and genetics
 Refer to all apes + humans

EARLY HOMINIDS

LCAPre-AustralopithsAustralopithsGenus Homo

Last Common ancestor and Bipedalism

 Since the LCA is absent from fossil records, it was
Lucy & Selam evaluated based on existing fossil evidence from
 Australopithecus afarensis the early hominids aka the Pre-Australopiths
 Both classified as hominims  The fossil evidence acquired was the cranium (not
 Climbed trees and walked upright to be confused with the skull)
 Not the "missing link" to chimps and humans
Skull= cranium + mandible
Selam
Cranium = face + calvarium or brain case
 Dikika, Afar Depression, Ethiopia (2000)
 Discovered by Zereseney Aleseged
 Skull, spine, kneecap Two factors to consider Pre-Australopiths as related to
 died at age 3 Homo:
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 1. Bipedalism  distal: sa baba
2. Material culture

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

 7- mya: Chad, Africa = tchadensis

 Earliest humanlike fossil
 Probably most related to of between apes and
humans

Prominent features:
o supraorbital torus (aka brow ridges) o Femur articulates to the pelvis
 actually a human-like feature
Ardipithecus
 5.8-4.4 mya
 More ape like than human like, but due to
bipedalism, it is included in the list of Pre-
Australopiths
 Another offshoot of the last common ancestor of
humans and apes

Dentition:
o small calvarium (aka skull cap) which  Large canine and thin tooth enamel (in contrast
means small cranial capacity, and thus, to shorter canines and thick enamel of
not like the genus homo which has a large Australopithecus)
cranial capacity Stance:
 Probably biped because of Foramen magnum
(butas sa cranium)
Facial structure:
 Broad supraorbital torus (more similar to later
homo than apes)
 Less prognathic face
o Face still juts forwards but much less
compared to non-human primates
 Ape sized cranium

Dentition:
 Teeth similar to those of later Australopithecus
 Reduced canine
 Ardipithecus foramen magnum: posterior (due to
quadrupedalism)
Stance:
Human foramen Magnum: anterior (due to the
 Probably a habitual bipedal due to the center of gravity, balance, etc.)
orientation of nuchal plane
o Nuchal plane is where the neck Australopithecus
muscles are attached
 4-2.1 mya Tanzania, Ethiopia, Chad, Kenya, South
Africa
 Evolved after the last common ancestor of apes and
humans existed
 Closely related to humans than African apes
 Brain size equivalent to the living apes; later
Orrorin tugenensis representatives were more encephalized
 6 mya; Tugen Hills, Kenya
Dentition:
Dentition:  Much less ape-like in dentition and locomotion
 Canine less reduced compared to later Stance:
Australopithecus  Dedicated bipedalism

Stance: Importance of discovery of Australopithecus:

 habitual bipedalism typical of the homo,  Revolutionized the notion on human evolution
australopiths, and some apes which claims that encephalization came before
o Proof of habitual bipedalism: Proximal bipedalism
femur  Bipedalism occurred 2mya before selection for
 proximal: malapit sa taas large brains
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  According to evidence, bipedalism occurred
prior to encephalization

Bipedalism requires the following conditions:

1. Delayed maturation
2. Parental investment

Bipedalism increased the need for:

 Elongated development
 Greater parental investment
 In turn, provided an opportunity for larger brains
to develop culture

Anatomy of Bipedalism
o Bipeds are knock-kneed

Pelvis is composed of four bones

1. Coxal bone (hip bone) of Australopithecus (moder
o Large size calcaneus (heel bone)
humans  great apes) o Hallux does not diverge from other digits
2. Sacrum o Horizontal and transverse arches in the
 Non-bipeds: long and narrow foot absorb the impact of loads
3. Ilium
 Great apes :tall ilium, posteriorly oriented
 Humans/bipeds :short and broad ilium,
anteriorly oriented, bends posteriorly towards
the
4. Ischium, creating the sciatic notch, which
the apes lack
o Great apes: long and narrow
 Long pubis to position the hip
laterally (femoral head displaced  Bipedalism also impacted the form of the spine
away from the center of the lower
trunk)
 Acetabulum: larger to receive
the weight of the body without the
assistance of the forelimbs

o Kangaroos, birds, tyrannosaurus rex

o Presence of tail to counter force of
Bipedalism
o Apes lack tail, so early bipeds could not
inherit this trait
o Spine assumed a lazy S curvature (bipeds
have straighter spine because of standing)

Foramen magnum:
 Moved anteriorly to be directly under the
center of gravity of the skull
 Longer legs but shorter arms
 Apes have opposite configuration

Australopithecus
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  Ethiopia ancestral to robust Australopiths and  10,00 years ago, revolutionized physiologically, and
Australopithecus Africanus biologically
 South African Australopithecus  Holocene = current era
 Early or mid-Pliocene  Start of agriculture

Australopithecus Africanus The emergence of species was brought about by two

Facial structure: reasons
 Foramen magnum, centrally located under the 1. Turnover of mammalian species
skull 2. Severe climate fluctuations
 Relatively smaller brain for humanlike animal
 Human relative with small brain in South Africa Environmental determinism
upset two prevailing notions of human evolution:  Bipedalism is the effect of migration due to changes
 Human evolution: Eurasia in the environment
 Enlarged human brain came after bipedalism  The environment determines/dictates what
becomes of the species
Dentition:  Earliest remains: fragmentary; show similarities to A.
 Humanlike dentition (thus closer to homo than last Africanus
common ancestor)  1,9 mya: more complete fossils (homo habilis)
 Homo rudolfensis (other species)
Stance:  This early homo evolved into Homo erectus
 Suggested bipedalism
Homo erectus
Robust Australopiths (South Africa)  All primates underwent encephalization but what
Very robust: separates homo sapiens from them is the gravity of
 Komdraai their encephalization
 Swartkrans How come Neanderthals became extinct?
 Australopithecus robustus or Paranthropus robustus  They probably did not adapt to the cultural
 Later in time innovations of the homo sapiens
Less robust
 Makapansgat Homo= encephalization, higher intelligence
 Sterkfontein
 Australopithecus africanus Increase of Brain Size
 Earlier in time  Fetal rates of brain growth were maintained after birth
for several months
Robust Australopiths (East Africa)  Bipedalism: dimensions of the pelvis (compromised
Two types also; persisted 5-1.8 mya pelvis)
1. Australopithecus boisei o These characteristics are suitable for
o 510-530 cc childbirth
o Recovered by Mary Leakey in East Africa  Outside of the womb
in 1959 o Modern humans: brain size doubles during
o Found with stone tools the first year if extrauterine life
Dentition:  Selection for intnse fetal raes of brain growth (900,00
o Huge molars and premolars; tiny incisors ya)
and canines  H. erectus: pre and postnatal brain growth: 34 the
size of the modern humans
2. Australopithecus aethiopithecus  Increasing rates of postnatal growth occurred again
o Ethiopia, 2.6 mya (half a million years ago):
o massive mandible
o older and massively built than A. boisei Homo erectus  archaic Homo sapiens
and A. robustus
Facial Structure:  Homo’s shape of cranium: globular/globe-like
o face more massive and juts forward
o sagittal crest is much larger Lifeways
o brain is relatively smaller < A. robustus H. erectus:hunter
 Scavenging (fallback)
Dentition: o Selection for ong legs and long-distance
o enormous premolars and molars walking
 Meat protein from huntingscavenging: important
contribution to the diet
Physical Characteristics o Limb bones from ungulates
o strong supraorbital torus o Oldowan tools, acheulian tools (important
o small braincase means of survival for homo erectus)
o less prognathic face (relative to chimps) Migration out of Africa
o massive mandible (robust australopiths)  H. erectus migrated from Africa (1. Mya): ice ages,
o stone tools (robust australopiths) land bridges
o Dmanisi skulls (Repuvlic of Georgia)
o Modjekerto cranium (Java)
EVOLUTION OF EARLY HOMO AND HOMO ERECTUS  Sudden Afr-Eurasian distributionmigration: long
distance walking important means of adaptation)
Genus Homo  Fire:
 2.4-1.9 mya in the Pleistocene (evolution of genus o first evidence of deliberate fire (South Africa,
homo) 1.5 mya)
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 o Israel, 9000,00 ya; China, 400,000 ya  pronounced  reduced
o Altered the circadian rhythm (24-hour cycle) supraorbital torus supraorbital torus
o Frightened away predators, hardened spear  angled occipital  less angled
points, added to social life of early humans; torus occipital torus
 Cooking: less energy  no chin  with chin
(mastication)  cranial capacity of  no postorbital
 Relaxed selection or heavy 1,000cc constriction
chewing muscles:  cranial capacity of
 Decrease in overall craniofacial 1,350cc
robusticyity
 In general, archaic Homo sapiens were ‘‘admitted to
Evolution and Extinction of Homo erectus
membership in our species because of their almost
modern-sized brains, but set off as ‘archaic' because of
 Homo erectus: first human their primitive looking cranial morphology" (Cartmill &
oBrain size: just below the range of modern humans Smith 2009).
oStone tools for processing of food
 Relaxed selsection for large teeth Archaic Homo sapiens
o Skeleston: nearly modern  average cranial capacity (~1,200 cc) and a
o Must have eveloved from h. habilis-like ancestor proportional increase in encephalization that places
 First discovered by Dubois (Trinil Island, Java, 1891) them between modern H. sapiens (~1,350 cc) and H.
o Femur and skull cap erectus s.l. (~1,000 cc)
 1920’s-30’s Zhoukuodian Cave, China  reduced postorbital constriction, to account for the
 1970’s-1990’s: East Africa, Europe, North and South increase in cranial capacity
Africa  the degree of overall cranial robustness somewhere
 Dmanishi early Pleistocene H. erectus between H. erectus s.l. and H. sapiens
 compared to H. erectus, a more rounded and less
Taxonomy angled occipital region
 East African: Homo ergaster
o Brain size similar to h. erectus Homo heidelbergensis
 East Asian: homo erectus  Middle Pleistocene archaic Homo sapiens
o Larger tooth size
o Thick cranial walls

Cranial Morphology
 Thick supraorbital torus
 Cranium: long and largely behind the face (restricts
the forehead)
 Cranial vault: short; posterioir surface (marked by
the projection of the occipital topped with nuchal
torus powerful neck musce attachments)
 Midline of the cranium: raised a keel of a boat (not a
sagittal crest)
 Alveolar prognathism
 Incisors: shovel-shaped on the tongue side
 Massive jaws (lack a prominent chin)
o True chin = mental trigone
 These traits slowly dimisished

Homo floresiensis
Source of heated debate:
 Size of the cranium is smaller relative to body size
 Late Pleistocene date (18,000 ya)
 Isolation and size of the island of Flores, Indonesia:
selection for reduced body size
o General trend among the vertebrates on
small islands small animals grow larger;
large animals become dwarfed
 Small brain size: no encephalization like archaic
and modern H. sapiens
o Evidence of fire
o Sophisticated stone-tool use

ARCHAIC HOMO
Middle Pleistocene hominins that morphologically and
behaviorally fall somewhere in between H. erectus and
modern H. sapiens.

Homo erectus Homo sapiens

 long and low  rounded and high
cranium that is cranium that is
widest at its base widest at the top

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 ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS
Homo erectus > Archaic homo
 Half a million years ago: brain size under intense
selection pressure again (encephalization)
 Mid pleistocene Homo evolved from H. erectus
Africa and Asia
 Faces remained large and robust (increasing brain
size)
o Kabwe, Zambia: large cranial vault,
posteriorly oriented to a large face with
massive brow ridges
 Brain size: within the range of modern humans
 Homo heidelbergensis others regard them as
archaic homo sapiens
 Evolved from H.erectus during the last four glacial
periods
 However isolated H. Erectus populations (the hobbit
from Flores) may have persisted until late
Pleistocene
 Though meron nang archaic homo meron parin
simultaneously homo floresiensis
 First direct evidence of human evolution
 Stone tools: Mousterian tradition opposed to
Achurian ng erectus and Oldowan ng habilis
Neanderthals
 Western Eurasia (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
Spain, UK, Croatia, Israel, Iraq, Russia
 Neander Valley Germany
 archaic and modern humans: overlapping brain
size, but vastly different face
Skeletal Traits and Genetics
 Humaneness of Neanderthals
o Enormous cranial capacity
o Behaviors (burial of the dead)
o Variety and intensity of stone tool
production
 Difference: skeletal traits that are highly unusual for
modern humans
 Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens
neanderthalensis
 Mitochondrial DNA preserved in Neanderthal bone
in (magkaiba ang DNA ng neanderthalensis at
homo sapiens neanderthalensis)
Upper Pleistocene Remains
 Well preserved skeleton (cranial fragments, dental
elements, limb bones, mandible) France, Syria,
Israel
 Evidence of burial ritual
o Iraq: fossil pollen remains of spring flower
purposefully placed in the grave
o Uzbekistan: horn surrounding a nine-year-
old boy
o Slovenia: flute-like instrument
 Growth and development
o High infant mortality (based on fossil
record)
o Had similar growth and development
sequence and duration compared to
modern humans
o As they become adults a faster rate of
growth increased the size of the face
relative to the neurocranium
o Puberty: supraorbital torus and other
craniofacial structures become prominent
 Neurocranium
o Large but posteriorly oriented cranium
o Small forehead arises behind a prominent
supraorbital torus
o Parietal frontal bones: thicker and flatter
(modern humans)
 Face
o Mid-face: only slightly projecting (alveolar
prognathism of H. erectus, absent)
o Nasal regions: broad and extensive
o Large jaws, relatively small teeth (with
complex root forms)
o Mandible lacks a mental trigone
o Foramen magnum: more posterior location
compared to homo
 Post-cranium
o Head minus skull
o Large trunk, short limbs (pilar body unit)
o Skeletons are riddled with healed trauma
Modern Homo
 Modern human evolution: speciation event
(prohibited inbreeding with resident archaic
population, e.g. Neanderthals)
 Theory 1: Recent Africa Origin/Complete
Replacement Model
o Anatomically modern human (homo
sapiens sapiens) nag evolve sa Africa
 Theory 2: Multiregional Evolution
o Kumalat tas nag evolve
 Early modern H. Sapiens evolved during the last ice
age (würm)
o Ethiopia fossil remains: gradual
disappearance of archaic traits
o Was there inbreeding?
 Portugal finds: juvenile with
modern H. Sapiens traits (mental
trigone) with limb bone dension
resembling those of
Neanderthalensis
Modernity and the Evolution of Language
 What traits define homo sapiens
o Distinct mental trigone
o Globular cranium above the face forming
forehead
o Reduced teeth (food production, 10,000
ya)
 10,000 ya naganap yung
Neolithic revolution
o Behavior defines them more than traits
 Evolution of Language
o Probably occurred before upper paleo
(40,000-10,000 ya): blade tools, fitted
clothes sewn by bone needles, grave
goods, arts, abstract thoughts
o Precursors to language
 Hand gesticulations
 Complex problem solving abilities
(minana from common ancestor)
 Modified by using abstract
notation to represent concepts
 Hence language like form of
communication
o Base sa Australopithecus endocasts: may
language centers sa brain
 Prior to evolution, may language
na sa brain
 Nariokotome brain
asymmetry
 Left side of brain
15
  Broca's area (located in
the lower portion of the
left frontal lobe, and it
controls motor functions
involved with speech
production and language
comprehension)
 Neanderthals:
o Iniisip na yung burial position
o Burials of non-adult
o Red ochre remnants (body
deterioration)
o Intensity of stone-tool production
 Suggestion of complex
communication (language)
o FOXP2 gene: modern and archaic
Neanderthal
*Language may have been around long before the evolution
of modern humans; [issue] when it became a fixed
behavioral trait in Homo remains unresolved
*Lahat ng practices na to nagpapakita ng complex ideas and
complex ideas are expressed thru language. Long before
evolution, meron nang language.
How Forests Think: Toward an Anthropology Beyond the
Human, Kohn
Ethnography: Malinofsky
TRAITS OF HOMO SAIENS (MODERN HUMANS)
 Gracile or smooth face beneath a tall cranial vault
o Unlike archaic homo na posteriorly
oriented yung cranial wall, compromised
yung head tas nagkaroon ng supraorbital
torus
o Humans globular shaped cranium, may
forehead, tall cranial vault, no tall brow
ridges
 Large brain to face ratio: humans are neotenic
o Slow rate of somatic maturation=
developmental shift (adult modern
humans=infants of the great apes>the
great apes infants resemble their
counterpart)
o Face became less prognathic by reducing
the rate of development
 Byproduct of selection for delayed
maturation and extended life
o Slow development: more time for juveniles
to learn language
 Early modern human remains: Skuhl V from Israel
 Encephalization overlaps between archaic and
modern human (suggestive of similar cognitive
potentials)
o Both of these species capable sila of
cognitive potentials
 Difference form archaic:
1. Shape of cranium
2. Mental trigone
3. Reduction of brow ridges
4. Larger brain to face ration
5. Smaller teeth
ANTHROPOLOGICAL (POLITICAL, SOCIOOGICAL)
THEORIES : AN INTRODUCTOY HISTORY
Why study theory?
 Data are meaningless
 Theories: tools anthropologists, sociologists, etc.
use to give meaning
 Understanding data collected
Early theories/approaches
 15th-16th cent: European contact with different
societies
 Degenerationism: biblical for variation in human
society, deterioration
o Tower of babel
 Progressivism: proress rathern thn detertioration
o Primitive (more advanced state)
 Biogical evolutionary approaches
1. Carolus Linnaeus
a. Taxonomic system of life forms (Systema
Naturae) immutability of the species
2. Jean Jack Lamarck theory
a. “Acquired characteristics”; changes in
geographic and climatic areas put
pressure on plants and animals
3. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Natural Selection
a. Individuals with favorable variations would
survive and reproduce, but those with
unfavorable variations won’t
b. “survival of the fittest” – Herbert Spencer
4. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
a. Evolution: progressive, simple to more
complex states
b. “organic analogy”
c. Social evolution could be studied in the
same way that one studied biological
evolution
i. Lower animals have no blood or
circulatory system=primitive
tribes, there is no system of
exchange
ii. More advanced animals have
blood vessels=more advanced
societies have fenced and
graveled roads
iii. Highest organisms have major
blood vessels and
capillaries=highest societies have
large main roads and minor ones
(e.g. development of railroads)
Society=organism
Species=society
Negative consequences: social Darwinism
 Lahat ng unfit dapat dead
*listen to the whole fucking recording maybe at 40min
5. Edward Burnett Tylor, English (1832-1917)
a. Culture is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of
society
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 b. Single body of information of which
different human groups have greater
lesser amount
c. Monogenesis: all human races belonged to
the same species and shared same
evolutionary origin
i. Differences in the civilization and
mental state, differences of
development
d. Psychic unity of mankind=uniform action of
uniform causes
i. Repeated occurrence of cultural
traits in widely disparate
locations, evidence of psychic
unity of mankind
e. Survivals” cultural leftovers
6. Lewis Henry Morgan, American (1818-1881)
a. Evolution of human society, primeval to
Victorian era
b. Cultural development: savagery,
barbarism, civilization
c. Correlating his state of social evolution
with specific development in family
structure; subsistence and technology
d. Evolutionary progress: propelled by the
flowering of germs of thought (driven by
the development of new subsistence
strategies)
i. Germs of thought: his belief thay
there exist universal ideas which
like seed would germinate and
blossom in the proper
environment
e. Evolution of culture
i. Development of inventions and
discoveries
1. Connected to
development in
subsistence
ii. Development of primary
institutions (subsistence,
government, language,
propension)
1. Seeded as germs of
thought in the period of
savagery
2. Germinated (barbarism)
3. Flowered (civilization)
iii. Stages of cultural evolution:
transition between stages could
be marked by acquisition of
certain kin patterns and mode of
subsistence and development of
certain technological innovations
1. Lower status of
savagery:
infancy of human race (start);
fish subsistence, fire (end)
2. Middle status of
savagery:
fish subsistence, fire (start);
bow and arrow (end)
-------------------------------------
1. Middle status of
barbarism:
Domestication of
animals/cultivation of maize and
plants (start)
Smelting of iron ore (end)
2. Upper status of
barbarism:
Manufacture of iron (start)
Alphabet/writing (end)
3. Status of civilization:
ancient and modern
Foundations of Sociological Thought
 Emile Durkheim, French (1858-1917)
o Theory of sociology
o The question of social cohesion (social
solidarity)
What held society together?
 Society is not real; it is virtual because of
our roles
 Social solidarity: the result of a force
arising from participation in a shared
system of beliefs and values which molded
and controlled individual behavior
 We are born into the system
 Our life is unreal because we don’t really
want to do what we have to do.
 Collective conscience: system of beliefs,
ideas, attitudes, and knowledge that are
common to a social group or society.
 Originated in the communal
interactions and experiences of
members of a society
 Because people were born and
raised within this shared context
of the collective coincidence, it
determined their values and
beliefs (collective
representations)
 Social cohesion is maintained
because everyone in society
shared its set of representations
 Social contract: authority of the state over
the individual
Truth Truth
Believed and accepted Mental copies
 New world = new constructed reality
 Hegemony: leadership by a social group,
controls the society
How do you study collective conscience scientifically
Postmodernism
 Modernism (in anthropology) 1920’s-mid 1970’s
o Detachment, assumption of a position of
scientific neutrality, rationalism
 Postmodernism – challenged this claim/assumption
o Objective, neutral knowledge of another
culture is impossible
 Roots (Europe)
o 20th century Europe – hermeneutics (study
of the interpretation of meanings)
o Do not accept the view that observers can
derive neutral objective knowledge about
the world
 Tainted with biases and particular
perspectives
 Jacques Derrida (1930-), Father of Deconstruction
o All cultures construct autonomous self-
contained worlds of meaning
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 o Ethnographic description distort native CULTURE
understandings
o Issues: Tylor
 See some things and not others
 Choose who speak for the society - Culture is the complex whole that includes morals and
 Omniscient narrator all the habits we acquire as members of society
o Deconstruct meanings
 Michel Foucault (1926-1984)  Culture is shared
o Discourses of power o It is common to all members of society
o Social relations are characterized by o They all partake in this but their participation is
dominance and subjugation not necessarily uniform
o Ideological conditions are controlled by  Self-laceration: Thailand
dominating people or classes  Canine tooth filing: Indonesia
o Knowledge, truth, and reality are defined
by them
Recent definitions
 How do you study collective scientifically?
 Social fact
o Social and behavioral rules that exist  Actual behavior versus
before an individual is born into a society  Abstract ideas, values, perceptions of the world that
and which that person learns and observes inform that behavior
as a member of that society  Is society a formula?
o Ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, o Society is unreal because it is constructed,
existing outside the individual designed
consciousness (e.g. duties defined
externally, ready-made religious belies and
practices
o Pervasive, coercive
o Society’s general rules of behavior
o People follow unconsciously; rules are
internalized through growing up in a
society (enculturation)

Historical Particularism

Franz Boas, born to a German Jewish family (1858-1942),

Father of American Anthropology

 Repudiated social darwinism and evolutionism

 Rejected comparative method in favor of
ethnography
 Cultural customs must be examined from 3
fundamental perspectives:
o Environmental conditions
o Psychological factors
o Historical connections (most important,
hence, Historical Particularism)
 Societies created by their own historical
circumstances
o Specific histories of individual societies
(focus)
 Value of fieldwork
o Only through living with people and
learning their language that one could
develop an accurate understanding of a
culture

*see photo*

*** diaperology

Malinowski:

1. Skeleton
2. Flesh and blood
3. Spirit
4.

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