Yasmine Safwat Mohamed PDF

ALEXANDRIA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MARINE ENGINEERING AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT
Safety and Firefighting Systems for

Tugboats
A Graduation Project Report
Submitted to the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering
Faculty of Engineering – Alexandria University
For the partial fulfillment of the requirements of the B.Sc. degree
By
Yasmine Safwat Mohamed
Under Supervision of
Prof. Dr. Mosaad Mosleh

Dr. Nader Ammar
2014 _ 2015
Dedicated to My Beloved Mother Dr. Wafaa Afia
Who is the source of my inspiration, encouragement, guidance and happiness, and who
shared my goals and aspirations may Almighty ALLAH bless and protect her.
Acknowledgment
First and foremost I would like to thank God. You have given me the power to believe in myself
and pursue my dreams. I could never have done this without the faith I have in you, the Almighty.
This work has been carried out on Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture department at
the Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Thanks for everyone who helped me in
completing this work. I submit my highest appreciation to my thesis advisors.
I will forever be thankful to my former college research advisor, Professor Dr. Mosaad Mosleh
head of the department and my dear professor who was the reason why I decided to go to pursue
this career in research. All of my work is under his valuable supervision.
I take immense pleasure to express my sincere and deep sense of gratitude to my supervising
guide Dr. Nader Ammar for his scientific advice and knowledge and many insightful discussions and
suggestions. He is my primary resource for getting my science questions answered and was
instrumental in helping me crank out this work.
My completion of this project could not have been accomplished without the support of my
caring, loving, and supportive mother Dr. Wafaa Afia. My deepest gratitude for her encouragement,
support, quiet patience and her great love. My beloved mother has sacrificed her life for my sisters
and myself and provided unconditional love and care. I love her so much, and I would not have
made it this far without her.
Special thanks to my wonderful sisters Rose, Dalia and Pensée. My sisters have been my best
friends all my life and I love them dearly and thank them for all their advices, help and support to
achieve this work. I know I always have my family to count on when times are rough.
Finally, I would like to thank every professor who specialized some of his time and let me
extract some advices from him, and those who supported and encouraged me throughout carrying
out this work.
Thanks to all those people out there who gave me help by any means they could offer.
Page II
Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture Department Faculty of Engineering – Alexandria University
Table of Contents
Page #
 Dedication I
 Acknowledgment II
 Table of contents III
 List of figures V
 Abstract VII
1. Chapter 1 - Introduction 1
1.1. Ship Types and Classifications. 2
1.2. Tug Boat Definition. 4
1.3. Types of Tugs 7
1.3.1. Sea Going Tugs. 7
1.3.2. Escort Tugs. 9
1.3.3. Harbor Tugs. 10
1.4. Functions of a Tug Boat. 14
1.5. Specifications of a Tug Boat. 15
2. Chapter 2 – Safety onboard ships 17

2.1. Types of safety. 18
2.2. Risks and Responses. 19
2.3. Safety onboard 20
2.4. SOLAS CONVENTIONS. 22
2.5. Evaluation, testing, and approval of lifesaving appliances and arrangements. 25
2.6. Safety equipment. 27
Table of contents Page III

1
2.7. Personal Safety. 31

2.8. Radio telecommunications. 39
2.9. Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). 41
2.10. Safety of Navigation. 42
2.11. Management for the safe operation of ships. 44
2.12. IACS Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) policy. 45
3. Chapter 3 – Firefighting systems onboard Ships 46

3.1. Basics of Fire. 48
3.2. Classification of fire. 53
3.3. SOLAS Regulations 54
3.4. FSS Code. 55
3.5. Fire Protection and prevention systems 56
3.6. Fire detection and alarm systems 58
3.7. Firefighting systems. 61
3.8. Means of escape. 72
4. Chapter 4 - Case Study “Tug Boat”. 74

4.1. Safety of Tug Boats. 75
4.2. Firefighting Systems of Tugboats. 77
5. Chapter 5 – Conclusions. 83
 References. 86
Table of contents Page IV

List of figures
Page #
 Figure (1.1) – Container ship. 21

 Figure (1.2) – Bulk carrier. 21
 Figure (1.3) – Tanker ship. 23
 Figure (1.4) – Ferries and cruise ships. 23
 Figure (1.5) – Specialist Ship. 32
 Figure (1.6) – Tug Boat. 4
 Figure (1.7) – Sailing Tug boat. 5
 Figure (1.8) – Tugboat race. 6
 Figure (1.9) – Seagoing Tugboat. 7
 Figure (1.10) – Seagoing Notch Tugboat. 8
 Figure (1.11) – Escort tugboats.. 9
 Figure (1.12) – Harbor Tugboat. 10
 Figure (1.13) – ASD Tugboat. 11
 Figure (1.14) - ASD Tugboat. 12
 Figure (1.15) – Firefighting Tugboat. 14
 Figure (1.16) – Tug Boat and Push Boat Diagrams. 15
 Figure (1.17) – Anchor handling Tugboat. 16
 Figure (2.1) - Safety triangle Diagram. 20
 Figure (2.2) – Lifeboats on one side satisfying the whole number of passengers and crew onboard. 25
 Figure (2.3) – Lifebuoy complying with SOLAS requirements. 26
 Figure (2.4) – Life Boats. 28
 Figure (2.5) – Rescue Boats. 29
 Figure (2.6) – Life rafts. 30
 Figure (2.7) – Sea farers personal safety training. 31
 Figure (2.8) – Safety checklist diagram. 32
Table of contents Page V

1
 Figure (2.9) – Things to do before boarding on a ship Diagram. 32

 Figure (2.10) - Thermal Protected Aids. 33
 Figure (2.11) – Immersion suit. 34
 Figure (2.12) – Lifejackets. 35
 Figure (2.13) – Emergency Escape Breathing Device (EEBD). 36
 Figure (2.14) – Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA). 37
 Figure (2.15) – Life buoy. 38
 Figure (2.16) – Radio Telecommunications. 39
 Figure (2.17) – VHF Radio. 40
 Figure (2.18) – GMDSS Concept. 41
 Figure (2.19) – Safety of Navigation. 42
 Figure (2.20) – Safety Helmets. 45
 Figure (3.1) – Fire Flame. 47
 Figure (3.2) – Oxidation reaction 48
 Figure (3.3) – Fire Triangle. 50
 Figure (3.4) – Fire Tetrahedron. 52
 Figure (3.5) - Heat Detectors. 59
 Figure (3.6) - Water Supply Firefighting System. 62
 Figure (3.7) - Foam Firefighting System. 67
 Figure (3.8) - Portable CO2 Fire-extinguisher. 69
 Figure (3.7) - Water Mist. 71
 Figure (3.8) - Stairs arrangement example. 72
 Figure (4.1) - Solar Tugboat. 74
 Figure (4.2) - Standard dimensions and power of towboats and tugboats 81
Table of contents Page VI

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to identify importance of safety and firefighting systems of ships,
their types, arrangements, regulations, and installation. Taking a tugboat as a case study declaring all
of its safety equipment, requirements and firefighting systems may help representing the importance
of such requirements onboard ships.
In the first chapter of this report we will begin by defining ship types and where is our case study
from this classification. We will define tugboats, their types, functions and specifications.
In the second chapter, exposing safety onboard ships will be our target, declaring types of safety,
risks to which a ship is subjected to face and responses to these risks. We cannot talk about safety
onboard without talking about SOLAS conventions and its regulations for safety equipment, life-
saving appliances, personal safety, operational safety, safety of navigation and radio
communications. Also we will declare GMDSS rules.
Third chapter would be about firefighting systems onboard ships. We will begin by
understanding the fire definition, its basics and classifications. Also we will see SOLAS regulations
for this purpose and the importance of FSS Code. This chapter includes the 3 main systems of fire,
prevention systems, detections and alarm systems, and main firefighting systems. Also includes
means of escape in case of fire.
In the fourth chapter, our case study will take place which is a tugboat defining its minimum
safety requirements and its own firefighting systems and procedure in many fire cases onboard
harbor tugboats.
The fifth and last chapter is our conclusions concluded after declaring and studying our safety
and firefighting requirements for ships and studying the case study properly.
Page VII
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
M A R I N E E N G I N E E R I N G A N D N AVA L
ARCHI T ECT UR E DEPART M ENT
FACULTY OF ENGINEERI NG
CHAPTER (1)
INTRODUCTION
1.1. SHIP TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION

Container ships:
Which carry most of the world's manufactured goods and products in a technique called
containerization, usually through scheduled liner services. Container ship capacity is measured in
twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU). Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot and 40-foot (2-TEU) ISO-
standard containers, with the latter predominant. As shown in Figure (1.1) [1].
Figure (1.1) – Container ship [2].
Bulk carriers
The work horses of the fleet, designed to transport unpackaged bulk cargo; these transport raw
materials such as iron ore and coal. Identifiable by the hatches is raised above deck level which cover
the large cargo holds. As shown in Figure (1.2) [1].
Figure (1.2) – Bulk carrier [2].
Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 2

Tankers
Figure (1.3) – Tanker ship [2].
Transport crude oil, chemicals and petroleum products. Major types of tankship include the oil
tanker, the chemical tanker, and gas carrier. Tankers can appear similar to bulk carriers, but the deck
is flush and covered by oil pipelines and vents. Tanker ship is shown in Figure (1.3). [1].
Ferries and Cruise ships
Figure (1.4) – Ferries and cruise ships [2].
Ferries usually perform short journeys for a mix of passengers, cars and commercial vehicles.
Most of these ships are Ro-Ro (roll on - roll off) ferries, where vehicles can drive straight on and off,
making it a speedy and easily accessible way to travel. As shown in figure (1.4) [1].
Specialist ships
Figure (1.5) – Specialist Ship [2].
Such as Tug Boats. As Shown in Figure (1.5).

1.2. TUG BOATS
In the seamanship a very seldom mentioned and elaborated category of small ships, very useful
for the maneuvering within the ports and on all seas is represented here as the fleet of tugs.
Figure (1.6) – Tug Boat [3].
1.2.1. DEFINITION OF A TUG BOAT
A tugboat (tug) is a boat that maneuvers vessels by pushing or towing them. Tugs move vessels
that either should not move themselves, such as ships in a crowded harbor or a narrow canal, or
those that cannot move by themselves, such as barges, disabled ships, log rafts, or oil platforms.

Tugboats are powerful for their size and strongly built, and some are ocean-going. Some
tugboats serve as icebreakers or salvage boats.
Early tugboats had steam engines, but today most have diesel engines. Many tugboats have
firefighting monitors, allowing them to assist in firefighting, especially in harbors [3][4].
1.2.2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TUG BOAT AND TOWBOAT
Early Small details create the difference between a tugboat and a towboat. Both vessels assist
with the navigation of larger ships, but are constructed differently to provide maximum efficiency in
various aquatic environments. Crew and work requirements vary for each vessel.
When pushed by a boat, the barges are referred to collectively as 'the tow,' hence the term
'towboat.' This term is potentially misleading, since such boats actually push their cargo, as opposed
to literally towing it or pulling it from behind. Tows can also be pushed by a {tugboat;} the
difference between the two is that a tugboat has a pointed bow, while a towboat or pushboat has a
square bow which can face up flush against the tow [3]
Figure (1.7) – Sailing Tug boat [4].

1.2.3. TUG BOAT RACES AND BALLET SHOWS
Tugboat races are held annually on Elliott Bay in Seattle, on the Hudson River at the New York
Tugboat Race, the Detroit River, and the Great Tugboat Race and Parade (2012 event was on June
29–30) on the St. Mary's River. As shown in Figure (1.8).
Since 1980, an annual tugboat ballet has been held in Hamburg harbor on the occasion of the
festival commemorating the anniversary of the establishment of a port in Hamburg. On a weekend
in May, eight tugboats perform choreographed movements for about an hour to the tunes of waltz
and other sorts of dancing music [6].
Figure (1.8) – Tugboat race [6].

1.3. TYPES OF TUG BOATS
Tugboats are mainly divided according to their application and utility. The three main categories
in which the tugboats can be divided are:
1. Seagoing tugs
2. Escort tugs
3. Harbor tugs
1.3.1. SEAGOING TUGBOATS
All the tugs pull or tow a vessel with the help of towing lines. The main characteristic of all the
tugs, including seagoing tugs is that they have low aft decks.
This is to ensure that the towing lines have high freedom of movement. The point at which the
towing lines are attached to tugboat must be located at the center or amidships so that the forces
have no influence on the maneuverability of the boat. The towing winches and the towing lines
should be absolutely strong and sturdy as they transfer the total force of the propeller to the lines for
pulling a vessel [5].
.
Figure (1.9) – Seagoing Tugboat [5].

Seagoing tugboats (or ocean tugboats) fall into four basic categories:
1.3.1.1. The standard seagoing tugboat with model bow that tows its "payload" on a hawser.
1.3.1.2. The "Notch Tug" which can be secured in a notch at the stern of a specially designed barge,
effectively making the combination of a ship. This configuration is dangerous to use with a barge
which is "in ballast" (no cargo) or in a head or following sea. As Shown in Figure (1.10).
1.3.1.3. The "integral unit," or "Integrated Tug and Barge" (ITB), comprises specially designed
vessels that lock together in such a rigid and strong method as to be certified as such by authorities
(classification societies). These units stay combined under virtually any sea conditions.
1.3.1.4. "Articulated Tug and Barge" (ATB) units also utilize mechanical means to connect to their
barges. ATBs generally utilize Intercon and Bludworth connecting systems. ATBs are generally
staffed as a large tugboat, with between seven to nine crew members [8].
Figure (1.10) – Seagoing Notch Tugboat [7].

1.3.2. ESCORT SHIPS
This type of tugboats is used to escort huge vessels along narrow or dangerous passages. These
facilities are provided only to massive ships whose own propulsion system is not capable of doing
maneuverability in dangerous waters. This facility has been introduces as a result of series of
accidents in the past that had lead adverse effects on both marine and human life.
Escort tugs are small and sturdy vessels that generally operate in the confined water. They have
high maneuverability power and often have azimuthing thrusters. As shown in Figure (1.11).
Escort tugs are a relatively recent development in response to the risk of pollution caused by the
grounding of a laden oil tanker (Allan, 2000) [8].
Therefore, an “Escort Tug” must have…
1. Hull and Appendages able to generate indirect forces with ample stability and freeboard
2. A winch which carries the load on power, not on a Brake, and which automatically reduces
excess load
3. Omni-directional propulsion
4. A tow-point located for “Fail-Safe” operation
Figure (1.11) – Escort tugboats [8].

1.3.3. HARBOR TUGBOATS
Harbor tugs are multiple-utility boats that are used in ports and inland water ways for assisting
and towing vessels in and out of the ports. They are also used for pulling barges used for carrying
goods in inland water ways or along the ports. As shown in figure (1.12)
Harbor tugs assist seagoing tugs when the later are pulling very heavy objects. The harbor tugs
have the highest maneuverability as they have to pull and tow huge ships within small area.
Apart from that, harbor tugs are used in firefighting and keeping ports free from ice in winter
season. They have a capacity to generate a towing force at zero velocity. They are also equipped with
firefighting arrangements and equipment for fighting marine pollution [5].
Figure (1.12) – Harbor Tugboat [5]

1.3.3.1. CONVENTIONAL TUGBOATS
The oldest types of tugs are the conventional ones. They are still present in almost all the world
ports, although they are pushed away more and more by contemporary tugs with better maneuvering
capabilities.
In the beginning they had steam propulsion, which has been abandoned. Nowadays, they are
equipped with diesel engines having one or two propellers respectively. With single propeller,
depending on the type, the most common is the right-handed (although left- handed are also quite
often met), and are equipped with a classic rudder. The power plant complex is placed at the stern
with the towing hook in the middle of the tug.
The main characteristic of these tugs is high reliability and efficiency of power expressed in the
force of "bollard pull".
Deficiencies of conventional tugs are: limited maneuvering capabilities which are demonstrated
in slow repositioning of tugs; and amidships position of tow which results in the possibility of
"girting" of the tug along the radius of tow and consequently could result in capsizing of the tug
with fatal outcome for the crew. Tragic result of girting is the crew's inability for prompt reaction
due to high speed of the girting development [7][8].
1.3.3.2. AZIMUTH STERN DRIVE TUGBOATS
Figure (1.13) – ASD Tugboat [5].

Figure (1.13) shows the fundamental difference between tugs with azimuth stern drive
propulsion and conventional tugs which have a propulsion unit placed in the turning nozzle. The
older types had single nozzle while the new ones have two placed at the stern of the tug. This
significantly improves the maneuvering capabilities of the tug with azimuth propulsion.
Accordingly, this type of tug could be used as conventional tug with tow at the amidship but
with much better maneuvering capabilities than conventional tug [5].
 Its main deficiencies include:
 Difficult side movement,
 Increased sinkage of stern during running astern, and sensitiveness to interaction with ship
 Complicated driving mechanism and sensitiveness of nozzles to mechanical damages,
 When towing with central hook, it is sensitive to girting, and Side listing up to 15 degrees.
 Advantages of tug with azimuth stem drive propulsion:
 Improved bollard pull per kW-power,
 Better maneuvering capabilities than conventional tug,
 Draught of up to 3 m in most cases,
 Simple procedure of demounting and maintenance of nozzles.
Figure (1.14) - ASD Tugboat [5].

1.3.3.3. TRACTOR TUGBOATS
The tractor tug represents a completely new and opposite concept of propulsion order and the
turning axis-pivot compared to the conventional tug. The historical development of this type of tugs
started in 1950with companies "Schneider" and "Schottel". After a 384 long break its full application
was experienced after 1990, from which date it has been increasingly used. The main reason why it
has not been used so much is the high price of capital investment.
The basic concept is based on two built-in multidirectional propulsion systems which work in
the cycle of 360 degrees on the principle of two vertically built propulsion mechanisms with rotating
wings placed below the tug bridge.
This type of propulsion system provides excellent maneuvering characteristics to the tractor tug.
The novelty is that the propulsion system is always in front of the tow and in this way the positive
turning moment is always present. The great advantage is seen in the fact of direct control of tow
from the tug bridge /tensioning or releasing of tow/ [5][7].
 The deficiencies of tractor tugs include:
o sensitiveness to damages of underwater propulsion mechanism,
o side list of up to 21 degrees when towing full speed,
o high capital investment,
o reduced bollard pull per kW,
o bad steering at open seas due to reduced turning lever pivot-propulsion,
o Expensive maintenance
 The advantages of tractor tugs include:
 full power at turning 360 degrees, and excellent maneuvering capabilities,
 Instant application of full power, reliability of propulsion.
 Almost impossible appearance of girting, and better response with interaction with the hull
of the ship.

1.4. FUNCTIONS OF A TUG BOAT

Tugboats play a main role of helping large sized ships go in and out of berths. The functions of
tugboats have been diversified in accordance with the enlargement of ships. The increasing volume
of dangerous cargo such like LNG and LPG would be one of the reasons.
Exclusive usages of tugboats are shown in recent; exclusive towing, exclusive guiding or guard
and so on. The exclusive usages support the reduction of ship building costs. This is because
exclusive tugboats are used separately in case of speed required or power required [7][8].
Followings are the functions of tugboats in recent days:
 Moving ships in and out of berth
 Guiding ships in case of dangerous cargo (LNG/LPG)
 Guarding ships during loading/unloading activity
 Docking
 Towing barges and Ocean towing
 Salvaging and towing a wrecked ship
 Anchor handling
 Firefighting
Figure (1.15) – Firefighting Tugboat [7].

1.5. SPECIFICATIONS OF A TUG BOAT

Tugboats are small, sturdy boats. They help guide large ships from the harbor entrance up the
river and into the seaport. When the ship is ready to leave, they guide them back to the sea again.
This work is especially important if the river is busy, has a fast current, or tricky tides.
Figure (1.16) – Tug Boat and Push Boat Diagrams [2].
Tugboats may also help push boats in trouble to safety.
Tugboats also help when work is being done in the harbor or along the river. They may tow barges
or other equipment into place or later help move equipment around as needed.

Tugboats range in size from 70 to 210 feet in length.
Most tugboats are made of wood or metal-sheathed wood. The wood has some "give" to it and
protects both the tugboat, and the boat being pushed, from being damaged.
A tugboat engine generates 750 to 3,000 horsepower. In the early days of tugboats, most engines
were powered by steam, but today most engines are diesel or diesel-electric.
There are currently 4,000 tugboats in operation in the United States. They play a very important role
in helping countries grow and thrive. Tugboats help move millions of dollars’ worth of products up
and down our rivers so we can sell these goods to other people, and so we can receive the goods and
materials we need [7][8].
CHOOSING A TUG BOAT
In literature, the effect of these ships on the whole maritime economy is often neglected but in fact
their value is of paramount importance in maneuvering during bad weather conditions in limited
areas of a world port in particular. Each port has its own particular features which determine the way
of use of the tugs. Generally, the following conditions are crucial in choosing and using the tugs:
- Volume of traffic in the port,

- Types of ships serving the port,
- Navigational obstacles in the port,
- Conditions of environmental protection,
- Local laws and habits,
- Available sizes and types of tugs,
- Experience of crew serving them [8].
Figure (1.17) – Anchor handling Tugboat [8].

CHAPTER II
SAFETY
ONBOARD SHIPS
ARCHITECTUR E DEPARTMENT
CHAPTER (2)
SAFETY ONBOARD SHIPS
Safety is the state of being "safe" (from French sauf), the condition of being protected against
physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or
other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which
could be considered non-desirable.
Safety can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level
of risk. This can take the form of being protected from the event or from exposure to something
that causes health or economic losses. It can include protection of people or of possessions [18].
2.1. TYPES OF SAFETY
It is important to distinguish between products that meet standards, that are safe, and those that
merely feel safe. The highway safety community uses these terms:
2.1.1. NORMATIVE SAFETY

Normative safety is achieved when a product or design meets applicable standards and practices
for design and construction or manufacture, regardless of the product's actual safety history.
2.1.2. SUBSTANTIVE SAFETY
Substantive or objective safety occurs when the real-world safety history is favorable, whether or
not standards are met.
2.1.3. PERCEIVED SAFETY
Perceived or subjective safety refers to the users' level of comfort and perception of risk,
without consideration of standards or safety history. For example, traffic signals are perceived as
safe, yet under some circumstances, they can increase traffic crashes at an intersection. Traffic
roundabouts have a generally favorable safety record yet often make drivers nervous.

Low perceived safety can have costs. For example, after the 9/11/2001 attacks, many people
chose to drive rather than fly, despite the fact that, even counting terrorist attacks, flying is safer
than driving. Perceived risk discourages people from walking and bicycling for transportation,
enjoyment or exercise, even though the health benefits outweigh the risk of injury.
2.1.4. SECURITY
Also called social safety or public safety, security addresses the risk of harm due to intentional
criminal acts such as assault, burglary or vandalism.
Because of the moral issues involved, security is of higher importance to many people than
substantive safety. For example, a death due to murder is considered worse than a death in a car
crash, even though in many countries, traffic deaths are more common than homicides [10].
2.2. RISKS AND RESPONSES

Safety is generally interpreted as implying a real and significant impact on risk of death, injury or
damage to property. In response to perceived risks many interventions may be proposed with
engineering responses and regulation being two of the most common.
Probably the most common individual response to perceived safety issues is insurance, which
compensates for or provides restitution in the case of damage or loss [10].
Safety is often seen as one of a group of related disciplines: quality, reliability, availability,
maintainability and safety. (Availability is sometimes not mentioned, on the principle that it is a
simple function of reliability and maintainability). These issues tend to determine the value of any
work, and deficits in any of these areas are considered to result in a cost, beyond the cost of
addressing the area in the first place; good management is then expected to minimize total cost [11].
Safety in all types of operations is the key factor in ensuring that the company always maintains
its position about the profit line, both efficiently and ethically. To understand the role and
importance of safety in a shipping organization or process, we will take help of the “Safety
Triangle.” As shown in figure (2.1).

Figure (2.1) - Safety triangle Diagram [11].
2.3. SAFETY ONBOARD

Ships go ahead with many International requirements to provide Safety in different aspects such
as pollution, navigation, lifesaving appliances, special measures to enhance safety, radio
communications, construction and subdivision, dangerous goods, strength, construction, and
carriage of cargoes [11].
A ship is a self-contained unit which must be properly equipped to maintain life onboard:
 The hull must be strong enough to bear the stresses imposed by cargoes the sea and adverse
weather.
 It must provide a stable platform in all conditions, and watertight integrity must be maintained
 Navigation needs to be accurate and provided to call for help when necessary.
 When all else fails means must be available for the crew to abandon ship and to survive in a
hostile sea until located and rescue.
Under the direct instructions of the Maritime Safety Committee and as may be requested by the
Marine Environment Protection Committee, the Sub-Committee on Ship Design and Equipment
(DE) will consider matters related to the following subjects, including the development of any

necessary amendments to relevant conventions and other mandatory and non-mandatory

instruments, as well as the preparation of new mandatory and non-mandatory instruments,
guidelines and recommendations, for consideration by the Committees, as appropriate:
1. Design, construction, structure, equipment, machinery installations and electrical installations

of all types of ships, vessels and craft covered by IMO instruments;
2. life-saving equipment, appliances and arrangements; and
3. Survey and certification.
The conventions and other mandatory instruments referred to above include, as a minimum:
a. 1974 SOLAS Convention (chapters I, II-1, III, X, XI-1 and XII and other relevant chapters, as
appropriate) and the 1988 Protocol relating thereto;
b. MARPOL 73/78 (Annexes I and IV and other relevant annexes, as appropriate);
c. International Life-Saving Appliance (LSA) Code;
d. International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft (HSC Code), 1994 and 2000;
e. Guidelines on the enhanced program of inspections during surveys of bulk carriers and oil
tankers (resolution A.744(18)); and
f. Condition Assessment Scheme (CAS).
g. The non-mandatory instruments, which the Sub-Committee may be called upon to review,
include, as a minimum:
1. Code of Safety for Dynamically Supported Craft (DSC Code);
2. Code for the Construction and Equipment of Mobile Offshore Drilling Units (MODU
Code);
3. Code of Safe Practice for the Carriage of Cargoes and Persons by Offshore Supply Vessels
(OSV Code);
4. Code of Safety for Diving Systems;
5. Code of Safety for Special Purpose Ships (SPS Code);
6. Code on Alarms and Indicators;
7. Code on Noise Level on Board Ships;
8. Interim Guidelines for Wing-In-Ground (WIG) Craft;
9. Standards for Ship Maneuverability;
10. Guidelines for the Design, Construction and Operation of Passenger Submersible Craft;
11. Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-Covered Waters [9].

2.4. SOLAS CONVENTIONS

The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) is an international maritime
safety treaty. It ensures that ships flagged by signatory States comply with minimum safety standards
in construction, equipment and operation.
The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of
all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships [9].
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, currently in force,
was adopted on 1 November 1974 by the International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, which
was convened by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), and entered into force on 25 May
1980. It has been amended by mean of protocols:
1. By the protocol adopted on 17 February 1978 by the International Conference on Tanker Safety
and Pollution Prevention (1978 SOLAS Protocol ), which entered into force on 1 May 1981;
2. By the protocol adopted on 11 November 1988 by the International Conference on the

Harmonized System of Survey and Certification (1988 SOLAS Protocol ), which entered into
force on 3 February 2000 and replaced the 1987 Protocol, as between Parties to the 1988
Protocol
In addition, the 1974 SOLAS Convention has been amended by means of resolutions adopted
either by IMO’s Marine Safety Committee (MSC) in its expanded form.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, requires flag States to
ensure that their ships comply with minimum safety standards in construction, equipment and
operation. It includes articles setting out general obligations, etcetera, followed by an annex divided
into twelve chapters. [9].
Chapter I – General Provisions

Surveying the various types of ships and certifying that they meet the requirements of the
convention.

Chapter II-1 – Construction–Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical installations

The subdivision of passenger ships into watertight compartments so that after damage to its
hull, a vessel will remain afloat and stable.
Chapter II-2 – Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction

It includes fire safety provisions for all ships with detailed measures for passenger ships, cargo
ships and tankers.
Chapter III – Life-saving appliances and arrangements

It includes life-saving appliances and arrangements, including requirements for life boats, rescue
boats and life jackets according to type of ship.
Chapter IV – Radio communications

The Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS) requires passenger and cargo ships on
international voyages to carry radio equipment, including satellite Emergency Position Indicating
Radio Beacons (EPIRBs) and Search and Rescue Transponders (SARTs).
Chapter V – Safety of navigation

This chapter requires governments to ensure that all vessels are sufficiently and efficiently
manned from a safety point of view. It places requirements on all vessels regarding voyage and
passage planning, expecting a careful assessment of any proposed voyages by all who put to sea.
Every mariner must take account of all potential dangers to navigation, weather forecasts, tidal
predictions, the competence of the crew, and all other relevant factors. It also adds an obligation for
all vessels' masters to offer assistance to those in distress and controls the use of lifesaving signals
with specific requirements regarding danger and distress messages.
It is different from the other chapters, which apply to certain classes of commercial shipping, in
that these requirements apply to all vessels and their crews, including yachts and private craft, on all
voyages and trips including local ones.
Chapter VI – Carriage of Cargoes

It includes requirements for the stowage and securing of all types of cargo and cargo containers

Chapter VII – Carriage of dangerous goods

It requires the carriage of all kinds of dangerous goods to be in compliance with the
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code).
Chapter VIII – Nuclear ships

Nuclear powered ships are required, particularly concerning radiation hazards, to conform to the
Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships.
Chapter IX – Management for the Safe Operation of Ships

It requires every ship-owner and any person or company that has assumed responsibility for a
ship to comply with the International Safety Management Code (ISM).
Chapter X – Safety measures for high-speed craft

It makes mandatory the International Code of Safety for High-speed craft (HSC Code).
Chapter XI-1 – Special measures to enhance maritime safety

It Includes requirements relating to organizations responsible for carrying out surveys and
inspections, enhanced surveys, the ship identification number scheme, and operational requirements.
Chapter XI-2 – Special measures to enhance maritime security

It includes the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code). Confirms that the
role of the Master in maintaining the security of the ship is not, and cannot be, constrained by the
Company, the charterer or any other person. Port facilities must carry out security assessments and
develop, implement and review port facility security plans.
Also, it controls the delay, detention, restriction, or expulsion of a ship from a port. It requires
that ships must have a ship security alert system, as well as detailing other measures and
requirements.
Chapter XII – Additional safety measures for bulk carriers

It includes specific structural requirements for bulk carriers over 150 meters in length [9].

2.5. EVALUATION, TESTING, AND APPROVAL OF

LIFESAVING APPLIANCES AND
ARRANGEMENTS
According to Regulation 4 included in Chapter III of the SOLAS convention consulted edition
2009 all of the lifesaving appliances required to the ship must be approved by the Administration.
Before giving approval to lifesaving appliances and arrangements, the Administration shall
ensure that such lifesaving appliances and arrangements:
1. Are tested, to confirm that they comply with the requirements of Chapter III, in accordance
with the recommendations of the Organization; or
2. Have successfully undergone, to the satisfaction of the Administration, tests which are
substantially equivalent to those specified in those recommendations [9].
Figure (2.2) –Lifeboats on one side satisfying the whole number of passengers and crew onboard [9].

Before giving approval to novel lifesaving appliance or arrangement, the Administration shall
ensure that such appliances or arrangements:
1. Provide safety standards at least equivalent to the requirements of chapter III and the Code and
has been evaluated and tested in accordance with the recommendations of the Organization; or
2. Have successfully undergone, to the satisfaction of the administration, evaluation and tests
which are substantially equivalent to those recommendations
Procedures adopted by the Administration for approval shall also include the conditions
whereby approval would continue or would be withdrawn.
Before accepting lifesaving appliances and arrangements that have not been previously approved
by the Administration, the Administration shall be satisfied that lifesaving appliances and
arrangements comply with the requirements of this chapter and the Code [9].
Figure (2.3) – Lifebuoy complying with SOLAS requirements [9].

2.6. SAFETY EQUIPMENTS

The safety equipment required for ships varies according to:
1. Type of vessel
2. Waterway
3. Proximity to the shore.
A person must not operate a recreational vessel unless all safety equipment required to be
carried on board is easy to reach and well maintained and serviced. Everyone on board must know
what safety equipment is carried, where it is stored and how it works [11].
Safety Equipment onboard ships must include:

1. Survival Crafts that include:
a) Life boats.
b) Rescue boats.
c) Life rafts.
2. Visual signals.
3. Personal Flotation Devices (PFDs) or lifejackets
4. Fire extinguisher (powered recreational vessel)
5. Bucket with lanyard (can also double as a bailer)
6. Bailer
7. Bilge pumping system
8. Lifebuoy
9. Waterproof buoyant torch
10. Anchor and chains
11. Marine Radio Transmitters
12. Approved emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB)
13. Compass

2.6.1. SURVIVAL CRAFTS:

2.6.1.1. Life boats:
They are either enclosed or of open construction and are made from either galvanized steel,
aluminum or GRP. According to the means of propulsion, they are either oar (≤ 60 persons), hand
crank (≤ 100 persons) or motor propelled (> 100 persons).
Lifeboats range in size from 3.7 m 6-person boats used on tugs and other small vessels, to 11.3
m 150-person boats used on large seagoing passenger ships. Substitution of inflatable life rafts for
up to 25% of the required lifeboats is a way to relieve space limitation problems.
Such rafts must be capable of being lowered to the water fully loaded by an approved launching
device one of which must be installed on each side of the vessel. The entire launching operation,
boats and rafts included, must not exceed 30 min. This normally dictates that no more than five rafts
be served by each davit.. The releasing gear for lifeboats should be of a type which will release both
ends simultaneously whether under load or not.
Today, ships are often fitted with lifeboats that are totally enclosed. This protects those inside
from the weather, but also means that the crew have a better chance of escaping if their ship has a
dangerous cargo which is leaking. Imagine trying to escape from a tanker whose cargo is leaking on
to the sea and is ablaze [12].
Figure (2.4) – Life Boats [12].

2.6.2. Rescue Boats
Rescue boats are to be provided with separate launching arrangements capable of both
launching and recovery. The rescue boat may be included in the survival craft capacity. At least one
of the rescue boats on Ro-Ro passenger ships which are certified to carry more than 250 passengers
shall be a fast rescue boat. The rescue boat shall be fitted with a rescue frame for recovery of
persons from the sea. Rescue boat embarkation and launching arrangements shall not take more
than five minutes.
A rescue boat shall be capable of being recovered in not more than five minutes when loaded
with its full complement of persons and equipment. A rescue boat with crane is shown below.
There are different types of rescue boats. The rigid type is 4-6 meters in length, with outboard
engine, covering speeds of 6-20 knots. Rigid inflatable rescue boats, 3.8 – 5.2 m long, with outboard
engine or water-jet, reaching speeds of up to 35 knots are also available [12].
Figure (2.5) – Rescue Boats [12].

2.6.2.1. Life rafts

It is required if vessel is more than 12m in length. Also it must be able to support the weight of all
people on board in the event of swamping [12].
Figure (2.6) – Life rafts [11].
2.6.3. VISUAL SIGNALS

2.6.3.1. Rocket parachute flares.
As required by the SOLAS Regulation number 6.3 in Chapter III and LSA Code Chapter III
regulation 3.1: Not less than 12 RPF must be carried and stowed on or near the navigation bride,
and 4 RPF on each survival craft [9].
2.6.3.2. Hand flares

As required in the LSA Code III/ 3.2 at least 6 HF on each survival craft [9].
2.6.3.3. Buoyant smoke signals

As required in the LSA Code III/ 3.3 at least 2 Buoyant smoke signals on each survival craft
All visual signals must be contained in water-resistant casing, have brief instructions or diagrams
printed on its casing to illustrate the use, have integral means of ignition and be designed not to
cause discomfort to the person holding the casing [9].

2.7. PERSONAL SAFETY

Personal safety or safety of life at sea comes at the top of priority list as there is no loss which is
considered greater than the loss of human life. Shipping companies understand the importance of
the safety of human life at the sea and thus rank it at the very top. It’s a known fact that without an
efficient crew no shipping company can survive [11].
When we talk about personal safety, it is important to understand that just by providing the right
safety equipment to seafarers a safe working environment cannot be created.
You can provide long hours of training and seminars to ensure that the crew knows and
understands all the safety features of your ship. However, do note that this would not guarantee a
secure working environment. Unless seafarers realize the importance of safety, hours and hours of
training imparted on safe working practices wouldn’t bring any results.
There is a need to develop safer habits to overcome our “slack attitude” towards safety and to
make our working environment safer and secure. Only through consistent practice can one form the
right mind set to inculcate safe working procedures [11].
Figure (2.7) – Sea farers personal safety training [11].

To make sure that you maintain a certain level of safety while working on ship, there is a
universal checklist which you need to follow. It is called “The 5 Point Personal Safety Checklist”. To
ensure that you take the right course towards personal safety, follow these 5 important checks
before carrying out any operation or work on ships:
Figure (2.8) – Safety checklist diagram [11].
Things to do before boarding a Ship
Figure (2.9) – Things to do before boarding on a ship Diagram [11].

2.7.1. Thermal Protected Aids

Thermal protective aid is a type of device used for avoiding excessive loss of body heat which
can lead to hypothermia. The thermal protective suit is normally used by those persons who have
suffered body heat loss or by those who have been rescued from cold weather conditions.
The suit has a waterproof polymer coated fabric at the inside. The polymer has very low thermal
conductivity which helps in reducing heat loss in cold or wet conditions. It is required by SOLAS
Convention in chapter III Regulation 32.3 [11].
Figure (2.10) - Thermal Protected Aids [11].

2.7.2. Immersion and anti-exposure suits

An immersion suit is a body covering suit which is worn specifically for the purpose of
remaining afloat and dry during emergencies at high seas. The immersion suit is also known as
survival suit or rescue suit. In today’s times, an immersion suit is one of the most important
necessities on ships and oil rigs, where a person might need something to protect him or her from
the hazards of water. As shown in figure (2.11).
This suit also acts as TPA (but is less effective than TPA) as it avoids the contact of body with
the water. In immersion suit, there are sleeves attached for the arms to carry out actions, whereas
there are no arms in TPA. It is required by SOLAS Convention in chapter II Regulation 2.3 and 2.4
There shall be at least 3 immersion suits for each lifeboat on the ship, unless the ship has totally
enclosed or free-fall lifeboats to accommodate the total number of persons on board, or is
constantly engaged on voyages in warm climates [11] [13].
Figure (2.11) – Immersion suit [11].

2.7.3. Lifejackets
An important lifesaving appliance which is used in almost all kinds of emergencies is the life
jacket or the life vest. The details for construction and operating requirements of life jacket are given
in SOLAS chapter II under LSA code, which was amended in July 2010.
One of the first things a seafarer should check on joining a ship is the place where his or her life
jacket is kept in the cabin. Whenever there is an emergency alarm (let it be a drill) take your lifejacket
along with you to the muster station. Life jackets must be worn while working on lifeboats,
gangways, over side of ships, pilot stations etc. As shown in figure (2.12) [11].
Figure (2.12) – Lifejackets [13].

2.7.4. Emergency Escape Breathing Device (EEBD)

An Emergency Escape Breathing Device (EEBD) is an important lifesaving appliance, which is
used for escaping an area with hazardous conditions such as fire, smoke, poisonous gases etc. All
cargo and passenger vessels must carry EEBD, which should be positioned at different locations
and comply with amendments of chapter -3 of fire system safety code (FSSC) [11].
It is extremely important for a seafarer to understand the donning and operating procedure of an
EEBD
Figure (2.13) – Emergency Escape Breathing Device (EEBD) [11].

2.7.5. Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) is a compressed fresh air supplying device which is
used for carrying out operations such as enclosed space entry, firefighting etc.
This device is mainly use in places where the air does not have enough oxygen to support natural
breathing. Every seafarer must know how to operate the self-contained breathing apparatus [11].
Figure (2.14) – Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) [11].
2.7.6. Life buoys

A lifebuoy, ring buoy, life-ring, lifesaver, life donut, life preserver or lifebelt, also known as a
"Kisby ring" or "Perry buoy", is a lifesaving buoy designed to be thrown to a person in the water, to
provide buoyancy, to prevent drowning. Some modern lifebuoys are fitted with one or more
seawater-activated lights, to aid rescue at night. As shown in figure (2.15) [11].
The lifebuoy usually is ring or horseshoe shaped and has a connecting line allowing the casualty
to be pulled to the rescuer in a boat. They are carried by ships and are also located beside bodies of
water that have the depth or potential to drown someone.
They are often subjected to vandalism which, since the unavailability of lifebuoys could lead to

death, may be punished by fines (up to £5,000 in the United Kingdom) or imprisonment.
As required in Chapter III regulations 7.1 and 32.1 lifebuoys shall comply with LSA Code Reg.
II/2.1.1. They shall be readily available on both sides of the ship and at least on in the vicinity of
stern; not permanently secured in any way [9][11].
At least one lifebuoy on each side of the ship is to be fitted with a buoyant lifeline (LSA Code
II/2.1.4). Also not less than half of the total number must be provided with self-igniting lights (LSA
Code II/2.1.2)
Not less than 2 of the above must also be provided with self-activating smoke signals (LSA
Code II/2.1.3) and be capable of quick release from the navigation bridge [9][11].
Figure (2.15) – Life buoy [10].

2.8. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
Since its establishment in 1959, IMO and its Member Governments, in close co-operation with
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and other international organizations, notably
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Hydrographic Organization
(IHO), the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) and the Cospas-Sarsat partners, have
striven to improve maritime distress and safety radio communications, as well as general radio
communications for operational and personal purposes [9][14].
Ship radio communications entered a new era on 1 February 1999 with the full implementation
of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS); an integrated communications system
using satellite and terrestrial radio communication systems. Also radio telecommunications are
regulated by the SOLAS convention as required in Chapter IV of its consolidated edition [14].
Figure (2.16) – Radio Telecommunications [13].
As required in Reg. 7 Chapter IV of the SOLAS Conventions, every ship shall be provided with:
1. a VHF radio installation capable of transmitting and receiving:

1.1. DSC on the frequency 156.525 MHz (channel 70). It shall be possible to initiate the transmission
of distress alerts on channel 70 from the position from which the ship is normally navigated; and
1.2. Radiotelephony on the frequencies 156.300 MHz (channel 6), 156.650 MHz (channel 13) and

156.800 (channel 16).

2. A radio installation capable of maintaining a continuous DSC watch on VHF channel 70 which
may be separate from, or combined with that required by subparagraph 1.1.;
3. A radar transponder capable of operating in the 9 GHz band, which shall be so stowed that it
can be easily utilized.;
4. A receiver capable of receiving international NAVTEX service broadcasts if the ship is engaged
on voyages in any area in which an international NAVTEX service is provided;
5. A radio facility for reception of maritime safety information by the Inmarsat coverage but in
which an international NAVTEX service is not provided
6. A satellite emergency position-indicating radio beacon (satellite EPIRB) which shall be:
6.1. Capable of transmitting a distress alert either through the polar orbiting satellite service
operating in the 406 MHz band or, if the ship is engaged only on voyages within Inmarsat
coverage, through the Inmarsat geostationary satellite service operating in the 1.6 GHz band;
6.2. Installed in an easily accessible position;
6.3. Ready to be manually released and capable of being carried by one person into a survival craft;
6.4. Capable of floating free if the ship sinks and being automatically activated when afloat;
6.5. Capable of being activated manually [9].
Figure (2.17) – VHF Radio [13].

2.9. GLOBAL MARITIME DISTRESS AND

SAFETY SYSTEM (GMDSS)
The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is an internationally agreed-upon set
of safety procedures, types of equipment, and communication protocols used to increase safety and
make it easier to rescue distressed ships, boats and aircraft. [14].
GMDSS consists of several systems, some of which are new, but many of which have been in
operation for many years. The system is intended to perform the following functions: alerting
(including position determination of the unit in distress), search and rescue coordination, locating
(homing), maritime safety information broadcasts, general communications, and bridge-to-bridge
communications [14].
Specific radio carriage requirements depend upon the ship's area of operation, rather than its
tonnage. The system also provides redundant means of distress alerting, and emergency sources of
power [14].
Recreational vessels do not need to comply with GMDSS radio carriage requirements, but will
increasingly use the Digital Selective Calling (DSC) VHF radios. Offshore vessels may elect to equip
themselves further. Vessels under 300 Gross tonnages (GT) are not subject to GMDSS
requirements [14].
Components of GMDSS
 Emergency position-indicating radio beacon (EPIRB)

 NAVTEX
 Inmarsat
 High Frequency
 Search and Rescue Locating device
 Digital Selective Calling
 Power Supply Requirements
Figure (2.18) – GMDSS Concept.

2.10. SAFETY OF NAVIGATION
IMO has always paid great attention to the improvement of navigational safety.
Since 1959 a whole series of measures have been introduced, in the form of conventions,
recommendations and other instruments. The best known and most important of these measures
are conventions, three of which are particularly relevant to navigation. These are the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS); the Convention on the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 (COLREG); and the International Convention on
Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers, 1978 (STCW).
SOLAS covers various aspects of ship safety; measures dealing with the safety of navigation
appear in Chapter V. In December 2000, IMO adopted a revised version of chapter V, updating it
and incorporating new requirements which entered into force in 2002 [9].
Figure (2.19) – Safety of Navigation [14].

Chapter V include 35 regulations concerning applications, definitions, exemptions and

equivalents, navigational warnings, meteorological services and warnings, ice patrol services, search
and rescue services, life-saving signals and hydrographic services [9].
It also include regulations concerning ship’s routing, ship’s reporting systems, vessel traffic
services, establishment and operation of aids to navigation, ship’s manning, principles relating to
bridge design and arrangement of navigational systems and equipment and bridge procedures,
maintenance of equipment, electromagnetic compatibility [15].
Other regulations in this chapter may concern approval, survey and performance standards
systems and equipment and voyage data recorder, carriage requirements, long-range identification
and tracking of ships, voyage data records.
Also International Code of Signals and IAMSAR Manual, navigation bridge visibility, pilot
transfer arrangements, use of headings and/or track control systems, operation of steering ear,
nautical charts and nautical publications, records of navigational activities and daily reporting,
operational limitations, danger message, information required in danger messages, distress situations,
safe navigation and avoidance of dangerous situations are includes in this chapter [9][15].
According to regulation 34 of this chapter, prior to proceeding to sea, the master shall ensure
that the intended voyage has been planned using the appropriate nautical charts and nautical
publications for the area concerned, taking into account the guidelines and recommendations
developed by the organization.
The voyage plan shall identify a route which:
1. Takes into account any relevant ships’ routeing systems;

2. Ensures sufficient sea room ensures for the safe passage of the ship throughout the voyage;
3. Anticipates all known navigational hazards and adverse weather conditions; and
4. Takes into account the marine environmental protection measures that apply, and avoids as far
as possible actions and activities which could cause damage to the environment.

2.11. MANAGEMENT FOR THE SAFE

OPERATION OF SHIPS
According to Chapter IX in SOLAS conventions concerning management for safe operation of ships:
REGULATION 3: SAFETY MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS

1. The company and the ship shall comply with the requirements of the International Safety
Management Code.
2. The ship shall be operated by a company holding a Document of Compliance referred to in
regulation 4 [9].
REGULATION 4: CERTIFICATION
1. A Document of Compliance shall be issued to every company which complies with the
requirements of the International Safety Management Code. This document shall be issued by
the Administration, by an organization recognized by the Administration, or at the request of the
Administration by another Contracting Government.
2. A copy of the Document of Compliance shall be kept on board the ship in order that the master
can produce it on request for verification.
3. A Certificate, called a Safety Management Certificate, shall be issued to every ship by the
Administration or an organization recognized by the Administration. The Administration or
organization recognized by it shall, before issuing the Safety Management Certificate, verify that
the company and its shipboard management operate in accordance with the approved safety-
management system [9].
REGULATION 5: MAINTENANCE OF CONDITIONS

The safety management system shall be maintained in accordance with the provisions of the
International Safety Management Code.

2.12. IACS OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND

HEALTH (OSH) POLICY
It is the aim of IACS Member Societies to do all they can to manage the OSH risks faced by
their employees and to positively influence the safety performance of the industry.
IACS Member Societies are committed to:

 Raising, discussing and proposing effective control measures to mitigate the OSH risks faced by
the classification societies and their employees.
 Complying with applicable health and safety legislation.
 Providing adequate OSH training to their employees.
 Providing adequate resources (e.g. time, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), safe systems of
work) to allow the aspects of work that they control to be undertaken safely.
 Requiring that adequate resources are provided by Clients and other worksite controllers to
allow work to be undertaken safely.
 Giving their employees the right and responsibility to refuse to conduct work they consider to
present an unacceptable risk until it is safe to do so.
 Recognizing, adopting, developing and promoting best practices within the industry.
This OSH Policy will be reviewed by IACS Council regularly in order to ensure that it remains
suitable and appropriate to the work of IACS Members and is continually improved [15].
Figure (2.20) – Safety Helmets [13].

CHAPTER III
FIREFIGHTING
SYSTEMS ONBOARD
SHIPS
CHAPTER (3)
FIREFIGHTING SYSTEMS ONBOARD
Fire is a phenomenon with which everyone is familiar. We use it daily to heat our homes and
cook our meals. When harnessed, the power and energy from fire serves us well; however, when it is
uncontrolled, a fire can quickly consume and destroy whatever lies in its path.
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion,
releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or
digestion are not included by this definition.
The flame as shown in figure (3.1) is the visible portion of the fire. If hot enough, the gases may
become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside,
the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.
While we are all familiar with fire, few of us are aware of its nature and complex processes. This
chapter examines the phenomena and various mechanisms at work within a fire and is intended to
provide a better understanding of the requirements in fire-fighting scenarios [19].
Figure (3.1) – Fire Flame [19].
Safety and Firefighting systems for ships

3.1. BASICS OF FIRE

3.1.1. CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
What is known as fire is actually a chemical reaction involving the oxidation of the fuel
molecules. However, the reaction occurs at a much faster rate and only under certain conditions
(e.g., elevated temperatures, proper mixture, etc.). In addition, what is called burning or combustion
is actually the continuous rapid oxidation of millions of fuel molecules. Recognizing that the fire or
combustion process is actually a chemical reaction (involving the oxidation of the fuel molecules) is
critical to understanding the basics of the fire phenomena [19].
The oxidation reaction as shown in figure (3.2) is an exothermic process (i.e., one in which heat
is given off). The molecules oxidize by breaking apart into individual atoms and recombine with the
oxygen atoms to form new molecules. During this process, a certain amount of energy is released. In
the examples of rusting iron or rotting wood, the amount of energy released is minimal since these
oxidation processes occur at a very slow rate.
However in a fire, the oxidation rate of the fuel molecules is much faster. Because of this rapid
reaction, energy is released at a much greater rate. The released energy is actually felt and seen in the
form of heat and light. The more rapid the oxidation rate, the greater intensity in which the energy is
released. An explosion is, in fact, the oxidation of a combustible media at an extremely fast rate [19].
Figure (3.2) – Oxidation reaction [19].

3.1.2. FUNDAMENTALS OF FIRE
The combustion process, or burning, is in fact the rapid oxidation of millions of fuel molecules in
the vapor form. Once there is sufficient oxygen and the fuel vapor molecules properly mix, an
ignition source is typically needed for oxidation to be initiated. However, once oxidation is initiated,
it is an exothermic process [16].
If sufficient energy is released during the reaction to maintain the elevated temperature of
surrounding oxygen and fuel molecules, and there are sufficient oxygen and vaporized fuel
molecules available, then the oxidation process will continue.
The heat released by the oxidation of the fuel molecules is radiant heat, which is pure energy, the
same sort of energy radiated by the sun and felt as heat. It radiates, or travels, in all directions. Thus,
part of it moves back to the seat of the fire, to the “burning” solid or liquid (the fuel).
The heat that radiates back to the fuel is called radiation feedback. This part of the heat serves to
release more vapors and also serves to raise the vapor (fuel and oxygen molecule mixture) to the
ignition temperature. At the same time, air is drawn into the area where the flames and vapor meet.
The result is that the newly-formed vapor begins to burn and the flames increase, which starts a
chain reaction. The burning vapor produces heat, which releases and ignites more vapors. The
additional vapor burns, producing more heat, which releases and ignites still more vapor. As long as
there is fuel and oxygen available, the fire will continue to grow.
For a fuel source with a limited amount of surface area available, the amount of vapor released
from the fuel reaches a maximum rate and begins to level off, producing a steady rate of burning.
This usually continues until most of the fuel has been consumed.
When there is less fuel vapor available to oxidize, less heat is produced and the process begins to
die out. A solid fuel may leave an ash residue and continue to smolder for some time, while a liquid
fuel usually burns up completely [16].

3.1.3. FIRE TRIANGLE

There are three (3) components required for combustion to occur:
4. • Fuel – to vaporize and burn
5. • Oxygen – to combine with fuel vapor
6. • Heat – to raise the temperature of the fuel vapor to its ignition temperature
Figure (3.3) shows the typical “fire triangle”, which illustrates the relationship between these
three components.
There are two important factors to remember in preventing and extinguishing a fire:
i. If any of the three components are missing, then a fire cannot start.
ii. If any of the three components are removed, then the fire will go out [16].
Figure (3.3) – Fire Triangle [19].

It is important to have a clear understanding of these three components and their inter-reactions
in a fire. The following Paragraphs examine each of these items in further detail.
3.1.3.1. Fuel
Fuel is necessary to feed a fire, and without fuel, the combustion process will terminate. The fuel
molecules involved in a fire must be in the vapor (gas) state. However, the initial fuel source may be
in a solid, liquid or gaseous state. Many examples of each type of these fuels can be found onboard a
vessel. Various types of fuels can include solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
3.1.3.2. Oxygen
Because the combustion process involves the oxidation of the fuel molecules, the availability of
oxygen is vital for the process to exist. Accordingly, the second side of the fire triangle refers to the
oxygen content in the surrounding air.
Air normally contains about 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% other gases, principally argon,
and therefore, sufficient oxygen is typically available unless some type of controlled atmosphere (i.e.,
inerted, etc.) is involved.
3.1.3.3. Heat
For fuel molecules to undergo the oxidation process and result in a self-supporting fire, the
molecules must be at elevated temperatures (i.e., ignition temperature). Without this elevated
temperature, there will be no rapid oxidation or combustion of the fuel molecules.
Further, the generation of additional fuel vapors is largely dependent upon feedback radiant
heating of the fuel, except for gaseous fuels. Therefore, heat is the third side of the fire triangle. The
production of energy from the initial reaction tends to raise the temperature of other molecules to
the necessary elevated temperatures and tends to create the self-supporting nature of fire [16].

3.1.4. FIRE TETRAHEDRON
The fire tetrahedron shown in Figure (3.4) provides a better representation of the combustion
process. A tetrahedron is a solid figure with four triangular faces and is useful for illustrating the
combustion process because it shows the chain reaction and each face touches the other three faces.
The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is that the tetrahedron
illustrates how flaming combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction of the
oxidation process. In a sense, the chain reaction face keeps the other three faces from falling apart.
This is an important point, because the extinguishing agents used in many modern portable fire
extinguishers, automatic extinguishing systems and explosion suppression systems directly attack and
break the chain reaction sequence in order to extinguish a fire [16].
Figure (3.4) – Fire Tetrahedron.[19].

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) mentions two standards in IMO Resolution
A.602 (15) which define the various classes of fires. The first is the International Standards
Organization (ISO) Standard 3941, and the second is the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA)
10 Standard.
Table 1 identifies these classes of fire as they are listed in IMO Resolution A.602(15). IMO
Resolution A.602 (15) is included in Annex of the International Code for Fire Safety System (IMO
FSS Code) [17].
While the types of combustibles covered by ISO and NFPA are very similar for Classes “A,”
“B” and “D,” the combustibles covered by Class “C” designation differs substantially. Considering
that the classification of the various types of combustibles used in the ABS Rules (e.g., Notes in 4-7-
3/Table 4 of the Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels, 4-5-1/Table 1 of the Rules for
Building and Classing Steel Vessels Under 90 meters (295 feet) in Length, etc.) more closely follows
the NFPA designations
Table (1) - Fire Classifications [17].
ISO Standard 3941 NFPA 10
Class A: Fires involving solid materials,

Class A: Fires in ordinary combustible materials,
usually of an organic nature, in which
such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many
combustion normally takes place with the
plastics.
formation of glowing embers
Class B: Fires involving liquids or liquefiable Class B: Fires in flammable liquids, oils, greases,
solids. tars, oil-based paints, lacquers and flammable gases.
Class C: Fires which involve energized electrical

Class C: Fires involving gases. equipment where the electrical non-conductivity of
the extinguishing medium is of importance.
Class D: Fires in combustible metals, such as

Class D: Fires involving metals. magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium
and potassium.

3.3. SOLAS REGULATIONS
The fire safety objectives referred to in chapter II-2 regulation 2 are to:
1. Prevent the occurrence of fire and explosion

2. Reduce the risk to life caused by fire
3. Reduce the risk of damage caused by fire to the ship, its cargoes and the environment;
4. Contain, control and suppress fire and explosion in the compartment of origin; and
5. Provide adequate and readily accessible means of escape for passengers and crew
In order to achieve the fire safety objectives set in the previous paragraph the functional
requirements declared in the same regulation are embodied as appropriate:
1. Division of the ship into main vertical and horizontal zones by thermal and structural
boundaries;
2. Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship by thermal and
structural boundaries;
3. Restricted use of combustible materials;
4. Detection of any fire in the zone of origin;
5. Containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin;
6. Protection of means of escape and access for firefighting;
7. Ready availability of fire-extinguishing appliances; and
8. Minimization of possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapor [11].

3.4. FSS CODE

The International Code for Fire Safety Systems (FSS Code) was adopted by the Maritime Safety
Committee (MSC) at its seventy-third session (December 2000) by resolution MSC.98(73) in order
to provide international standards for the fire safety systems and equipment required by chapter II-2
of the 1974 SOLAS Convention [17].
The second chapter of this code Includes regulations for the International shore connections
and states the engineering specifications such like standard dimensions, materials and accessories.
Standard dimensions of flanges for the international shore connection shall be in accordance with
the following table:
Table 2 - Standard dimensions for international shore connections [17].
Description Dimension
Outside diameter 178 mm
Inside diameter 64 mm
Bolt circle diameter 132 mm
Slots in flange 4 holes, 19 mm in diameter spaced equidistantly on a bolt

circle of the above diameter, slotted to the flange periphery
Flange thickness 14.5 mm minimum
Bolts and nuts 4, each of 16 mm diameter, 50 mm in length
Materials and accessories

International shore connections shall be of steel or other equivalent material and shall be
designed for 1 N/mm2 services. The flange shall have a flat face on one side and, on the other side;
it shall be permanently attached to a coupling that will fit the ship's hydrant and hose.
The connection shall be kept aboard the ship together with a gasket of any material suitable for
1 N/mm2 services, together with four bolts of 16 mm diameter and 50 mm in length, four 16 mm
nuts and eight washers [17].

3.5. FIRE PROTECTION AND PREVENTION

The best way to deal with fires on board ships is to prevent them rather than letting them occur.
Breaking out of fire in a place where no fire exist is called “ignition”, whereas “flash” is a term used
for fire eruption in a new place as a result of flames from an existing fire in a nearby place (the
ignition source).
Fires can be largely prevented by providing effective laggings to hot surfaces such as generator
turbocharger bellows, main engine exhaust uptakes after the turbocharger, various steam pipes and
pipes carrying hot oil. Laggings can be done by ship staff but these days specialist contractors are
available to carry out this work more aesthetically. Also, whenever lagging is removed, a habit should
be cultivated to put it back after the work is finished.
Some fires may be purely accidental, and others may be caused by circumstances beyond control.
But many fires have resulted from the acts or omissions of crew members. Carelessness and
irresponsible or ill-advised actions have caused disastrous fires. And omissions not taking the proper
preventive measures when hazardous situations are discovered have allowed many fires to "just
happen."
No matter how a shipboard fire starts, it could result in the loss of the ship, and perhaps the loss
of lives. It is therefore extremely important that crew members be constantly alert for situations that
could cause fire aboard ship [19].
3.5.1. DESIGN SAFETY FEATURES

Before discussing the causes of shipboard fires, we should note that ships flying the U.S. flag are
designed and built according to very detailed regulations. These regulations are, for the most part,
based on maritime experience in some cases tragic experience that resulted in loss of life and
property.
They provide uniform minimum requirements for the construction of vessels. The regulations,
and the safety standards they represent, are continually being upgraded in the light of increased
experience. Of course, the desire for absolute safety must be balanced against the cost of attaining it.
Fire safety is well represented through the following design regulations [17].

1. Structural fire protection (hull, super- structure, bulkheads and decks)
2. Restrictions on the use of combustible materials
3. Insulation of exhaust systems
4. Venting of cargo spaces, fuel tanks and pump rooms
5. Means of escape
6. Minimum stairway sizes
7. Fire detection and alarm systems
8. Fire main systems
9. Fixed fire extinguishing systems
10. Portable and semi-portable extinguisher requirements
11. Approved machinery, equipment and installation.
Each bulkhead, deck, hatch, ladder, and piece of machinery is built and located to serve a
specific purpose or purposes including, wherever possible, fire safety. But good design is only the
beginning; it must be combined with good construction and good workmanship to make a safe
vessel. Then it is up to the crew to keep the vessel safe. Stated another way, safety begins on the
drawing board and is completed only when the vessel is decommissioned [16].

3.6. FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS
The purpose of regulation 7 in chapter II -2 SOLAS conventions is to detect a fire in the space
of origin and to provide for alarm for safe escape and fire-fighting activity. For this purpose, the
following functional requirements shall be met:
1. Fixed fire detection and fire alarm system installations shall be suitable for the nature of the
space, fire growth potential and potential generation of smoke and gases;
2. Manually operated call points shall be placed effectively to ensure a readily accessible means of
notification; and
3. Fire patrols shall provide an effective means of detecting and locating fires and alerting the
navigation bridge and fire teams.
 General requirements
1. A fixed fire detection and fire alarm system shall be provided in accordance with the provisions
of this regulation.
2. Fixed fire detection and fire alarm system and a sample extraction smoke detection system
required in this regulation and other regulations in this part shall be of an approved type and
comply with the Fire Safety Systems Code.
3. Where a fixed fire detection and fire alarm system is required for the protection of spaces, at
least one detector complying with the Fire Safety Systems Code shall be installed in each such
space.
Apart from this, it is also important to check/test fire detectors on regular basis. Some of the
main types of detectors used on ships are:
3.6.1. Flame detectors

Light produced by a flame has a characteristic flicker frequency of about 25Hz. The spectrum in
the infra-red or ultra-violet range can be monitored to give an alarm. Oil fires generally do not give
off much smoke and this type of sensor is preferred, especially near fuel handling equipment or
boilers to give an early warning [19].

3.6.2. Heat detectors

Heat detectors are of various types such as rate of rise type, which has bi-metallic type detecting
elements – a thick strip and a thin strip. The thin strip is more sensitive to temperature rise than the
thicker one. If there is a sudden rise in temperature, the thin one bends faster than the thicker one,
bringing both of them in contact.
During normal temperature rise both strips will deflect about the same amount and thus show
no reaction. Normally if rate of rise is less than 10 degrees C in half an hour, the detector will not
give any alarm. If the rate should rise to 75 degree Celsius, or more, the two strips come in contact,
thus triggering the alarm [19].
3.6.3. Smoke detectors

There are two main types of smoke detectors used
1) Light obscuration type
2) Ionization type Liquid or gas fires may not give off smoke initially but will catch fire
spontaneously. Thus smoke detectors are not effective for such fires. These detectors are mostly
used in accommodation areas [16].
.
Figure (3.5) - Heat Detectors [26].

Important points to consider for fire prevention on board ships
 In engine room, waste bins used for storing oily rags must have lids (covers). Oily rags should
not stay lying around or stuck at unnecessary places. Receptacles with covers should be provided
at each floor and on both sides.
 High pressure fuel oil pipes should not be tightened to control a leakage while the engine is
running. Also, oil shouldn’t be taken in to turbochargers during operation.
 Short sounding pipes should be kept shut with plugs. Never should they be left in open position
for the sake of convenience. Cases have been reported wherein oil has spilled out from these
short sounding pipes leading to accidents.
 Loose pet cocks /small cocks on common rail pipes should be checked for.
 Exhaust leakages and steam leakages should be promptly attended.
 Ship’s crew should be careful about galley fires, especially by keeping electrical equipment in
good order. Senior officers should keep an eye in the galley when provision is being received
because this is the time when galley remains unattended for a long time.
 One of the patent methods of fire prevention is effective and regular fire patrol. There is no
method that can beat physical monitoring.
 Fire caused by cigarettes is still one of the most common causes of fire. All care should be taken
to dispose cigarettes (using self-closing ashtrays) and never should one smoke in bed.
 Fires have also caused during loading and unloading of cargo such as coal. For this reason, ship
personnel must always discuss the characteristics of the cargo and preventive methods to be
taken during safety meetings and weekly drills [16].

3.7. FIREFIGHTING SYSTEMS

The purpose of this regulation is to suppress and swiftly extinguish a fire in the space of origin.
For this purpose, the following functional requirements shall be met:
1. Fixed fire-extinguishing systems shall be installed, having due regard to the fire growth potential
of the protected spaces; and
2. Fire-extinguishing appliances shall be readily available.
3.7.1. Water supply systems

3.7.1.1. Fire mains and hydrants
Ships shall be provided with fire pumps, fire mains, hydrants and hoses complying with the
applicable requirements of regulation 10 chapter II-2 SOLAS conventions.
Materials readily rendered ineffective by heat shall not be used for fire mains and hydrants unless
adequately protected. The pipes and hydrants shall be so placed that the fire hoses may be easily
coupled to them [16].
The arrangement of pipes and hydrants shall be such as to avoid the possibility of freezing.
Suitable drainage provisions shall be provided for fire main piping. Isolation valves shall be installed
for all open deck fire main branches used for purposes other than firefighting.
In ships where deck cargo maybe carried, the positions of the hydrants shall be such that they
are always readily accessible and the pipes shall be arranged as far as practicable to avoid risk of
damage by such cargo [16].
The diameter of the fire main and water service pipes shall be sufficient for the effective
distribution of the maximum required discharge from two fire pumps operating simultaneously,
except that in the case of cargo ships the diameter need only be sufficient for the discharge of
140m3/h.
The number and position of hydrants shall be such that at least two jets of water not emanating
from the same hydrant, one of which shall be from a single length of hose, may reach any part of the
ship normally accessible to the passengers or crew while the ship is being navigated and any part of
any cargo space when empty, any ro-ro space or any vehicle space, in which latter case the two jets
shall reach any part of the space, each from a single length of hose. Furthermore, such hydrants shall
be positioned near the accesses to the protected spaces [16].

3.7.1.2. Fire pumps

Sanitary, ballast, bilge or general service pumps may be accepted as fire pumps, provided that
they are not normally used for pumping oil and that if they are subject to occasional duty for the
transfer or pumping of oil fuel, suitable change-over arrangements are fitted.
3.7.1.3. Fire hoses and nozzles

Fire hoses shall be of non-perishable material approved by the Administration and shall be
sufficient in length to project a jet of water to any of the spaces in which they may be required to be
used.
Each hose shall be provided with a nozzle and the necessary couplings. Hoses specified as “fire
hoses” shall, together with any necessary fittings and tools, be kept ready for use in conspicuous
positions near the water service hydrants or connections. Additionally, in interior locations in
passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers, fire hoses shall be connected to the hydrants at all
times. Fire hoses shall have a length of at least 10 m, but not more than:
1. 15 m in machinery spaces;
2. 20 m in other spaces and open decks; and
3. 25 m for open decks on ships with a maximum breadth in excess of 30 m.
Unless one hose and nozzle is provided for each hydrant in the ship, there shall be complete
interchangeability of hose couplings and nozzles
Figure (3.6) – Water Supply Firefighting System [20].

Ships shall be provided with fire hoses, the number and diameter of which shall be to the
satisfaction of the Administration.
For the intended purposes, standard nozzle sizes shall be 12 mm, 16 mm and 19 mm or as near
thereto as possible. Larger diameter nozzles may be permitted at the discretion of the
Administration
For accommodation and service spaces, a nozzle size greater than 12 mm need not be used.
For machinery spaces and exterior locations, the nozzle size shall be such as to obtain the
maximum discharge possible frown two jets at the pressure mentioned in paragraph 2.1.6 from the
smallest pump, provided that a nozzle size greater than 19 mm need not be used. Nozzles shall be of
an approved dual-purpose type (i.e. spray/jet type) incorporating a shutoff [17].
3.7.2. CO2 System Applications

CO2 systems are “total flooding” systems and must displace sufficient amounts of air to reduce
the oxygen concentration to a level which will not support combustion.
1.7.4.1. Machinery Space Systems

As indicated above, fires in machinery spaces, cargo pump rooms and similar spaces are
generally Class “B” (flammable liquids) type fires. In this type of fire, ignition of flammable sources
can spread quickly, since such fires normally involve pool fires or jet or spray fires from pressurized
fuel or lube oil lines. Accordingly, the heat build-up is rapid.
It is important to introduce the required quantities of CO2 quickly in order to minimize the
growth of the fire. This prevents the build-up of heat from possibly causing failure of the structural
integrity of the space, making it impossible to maintain the CO2 concentration and also prevents
heat updraft created by the fire from carrying away the carbon dioxide, as well as allowing for
quicker cool-down periods [16].
1.7.4.2. Cargo Hold Systems
Fires in ordinary cargo holds normally involve class “A” combustibles and generally start with
some smoldering and production of large quantities of smoke. Only when sufficient heat is
developed to reach the “flash-over” or ignition temperature (temperature at which solid
combustibles give off sufficient gases to support continued rapid burning) will rapid burning occur.
Extinguishing a class “A” fire is difficult due to the thermal insulating properties of the material.

Typically, the hold is kept closed until the vessel reaches a port where the cargo is removed from
adjacent spaces not involved in the fire. The cargo hold involved in the fire is then opened, with
charged fire main nozzles at the ready and the cargo is unloaded, cooled with water or broken open
if necessary to extinguish any remaining fire [16].
3.7.3. Foam Fire-extinguishing Systems

Foam is produced by the combination of three materials:
• Water
• Air
• Foam making agent
Foam is formed by first mixing the foam-making agent (foam concentrate) with water to create a
foam solution. The actual foam bubbles are created by introducing air into the foam solution
through an appropriate aerating device. The correctly chosen foam concentrate, when properly
proportioned with water and expanded with air through an application device, will form finished
foam. [23].
 Foam types:
There are two basic types of foam, chemical and mechanical.
A) Low Expansion Foams
Low expansion foams are considered to be those foams with an expansion ratio of 12:1 when
mixed with air. That is one volume if foam concentrate will create 12 volumes of foam. Low
expansion foams are effective in controlling and extinguishing most flammable liquid (Class “B”)
fires. Foams typically used on tanker deck foam systems are of the low expansion foam type.
B) Mid Expansion Foams
Mid expansion foams refer to those foams with an expansion ratio of between about 20:1 to
100:1. Few applications of mid expansion foams are found in shipboard applications.
C) High-Expansion Foams
High-expansion foams are those that expand in ratios of over 100:1. Most systems produce
expansion ratios of from 400:1 to 1000:1. Unlike conventional foam, which provides a blanket a few
inches over the burning surface, high-expansion foam is truly three dimensional; it is measured in
length, width, height, and cubic feet [16].

 Limitations on the Use of Foam

Foams are effective extinguishing agents when used properly. However, they do have some
limitations, including the following:
i) Because they are aqueous (water) solutions, foams are electrically conductive and should not be
used on live electrical equipment.
ii) Like water, foams should not be used on combustible-metal fires.
iii) Many types of foam must not be used with dry chemical extinguishing agents. AFFF is an
exception to this rule and may be used in a joint attack with dry chemical.
iv) Foams are not suitable for fires involving gases and cryogenic (extremely low temperature) liquid
v) If foam is placed on burning liquids (like asphalts) whose temperatures exceed 100°C (212°F), the
water content of the foam may cause frothing, spattering or slop over. Slop over is different from
boil over, although the terms are frequently confused. Boil over occurs when the heat from a fire in
a tank travels down to the bottom of the tank and causes water that is already there to boil and push
part of the tank’s contents over the side. Certain oils with a high water content, such as crude oil,
have a notorious reputation for boil over. Slop-over occurs when foam, introduced into a tank of
hot oil [surface temperature over 100°C (212°F)] sheds its water content due to the high heat. The
water forms an emulsion of steam, air and the foam itself. The forming of the emulsion is
accompanied by a corresponding increase in volume. Since tanks are three dimensional, the only
place for the emulsion to go is over the sides of open tanks or into the vents of enclosed tanks.
vi) Sufficient foam must be on hand to ensure that the entire surface of burning material can be
covered. In addition, there should be enough foam to replace foam that is burned off and to seal
breaks in the foam surface [21].
 Advantages of Foam
In spite of its limitations, foam is quite effective in combating Class “B” and some Class “A”
fires and has the following advantages:
i) Foam is a very effective smothering agent, and it provides cooling as a secondary effect.
ii) Foam sets up a vapor barrier that prevents flammable vapors from rising. The surface of an
exposed tank can be covered with foam to protect it from a fire in a neighboring tank.
iii) Foam is of some use on Class “A” fires because of its water content. AFFF is especially effective,
as are certain types of wet-water foam. Wet-water foam is made from detergents, and its water

content quickly runs out and seeps into the burning material. It is not usually found aboard vessels; a
more likely use is in protecting bulk storage in piers or warehouses.
iv) Foam is effective in blanketing oil spills. However, if the oil is running, an attempt should be
made to shut down a valve, if such action would stop the flow. If that is impossible, the flow should
be dammed. Foam should be applied on the upstream side of the dam (to extinguish the fire) and on
the downstream side (to place a protective cover over any oil that has seeped through).
v) Foam is the most effective extinguishing agent for fires involving large tanks of flammable liquids.
vi) Foam can be made with fresh water or seawater, and hard or soft water.
vii) Foam does not break down readily, and it extinguishes fire progressively when applied at an
adequate rate.
viii) Foam stays in place, covers and absorbs heat from materials that could cause re-ignition.
ix) Foam uses water economically.
x) Foam concentrates are not heavy, and foam systems do not take up much space [22].
 Basic Guidelines for Foam

I. Storage
If manufacturer recommendations are followed, then protein or synthetic foam concentrates
should be ready for active service even after many years of storage.
II. Water Temperature and Contaminants
Foams in general are more stable when generated with lower temperature water. Although all
foam liquids will work with water in excess of 37.7°C (100°F), the typical concentrate works best
with water in the temperature range between 1.7°C and 26.7°C (35°F and 80°F). Either fresh or sea
water may be used. Water containing known foam contaminants, such as detergents, oil residues, or
certain corrosion inhibitors, may adversely affect foam quality [22].
III. Combustible Products in Air
It is desirable to take clean air into the foam nozzle at all times, although the effect of
contaminated air on foam quality is minor with low expansion foams.
IV. Water Pressures
Nozzle pressures should be held between 3.4 bar and 13.8 bar (50 and 200 psi). If a proportioner
is used, proportioner pressure should not exceed 13.8 bar (200 psi). Foam quality deteriorates at
higher pressures. Range falls off at lower pressures. [17].

V. Non-ignited Spills
Where flammable liquids have spilled, fires can be prevented by prompt coverage of the spill
with a foam blanket. Additional foam may be necessary from time to time, to maintain the blanket
for extended periods until the spill has been cleaned up.
VI. Electrical Fires
Foam should be considered nearly the same as water when used on electrical fires, and is
therefore not generally recommended for use on electrical fires. However, if the supply of current to
the electrical circuits can be interrupted or broken, then foam can be used to extinguish such fires.
VII. Vaporized Liquids
Foam is not recommended for use on materials that may be stored as liquids, but are normally
vapor at ambient conditions, such as propane, butadiene and vinylchloride. Fire-fighting foam is not
recommended for use on materials that react with water, such as magnesium, titanium, potassium,
lithium, calcium, zirconium, sodium and zinc [17].
Figure (3.7) – Foam Firefighting System [20].

3.7.4. Inert gas systems
The system shall be capable of:
a) Inerting empty cargo tanks by reducing the oxygen content of the atmosphere in each tank
to a level at which combustion cannot be supported;
b) maintaining the atmosphere in any part of any cargo tank with an oxygen content not
exceeding 8% by volume and at a positive pressure at all times in port and at sea except
when it is necessary for such a tank to be gas-free; [17]
c) eliminating the need for air to enter a tank during normal operations except when it is
necessary for such a tank to be gas-free; and purging empty cargo tanks of a hydrocarbon
gas, so that subsequent gas-freeing operations will at no time create a flammable atmosphere.

3.7.5. Portable fire extinguishers
3.7.2.1. Type and design

Because a fire starts small, most fires that are discovered early and attacked quickly are usually
controlled and extinguished before they can grow out of control. The ready availability of suitable
portable and semi-portable fire extinguishers is therefore very important. Although limited in
capacity, portable extinguishers are easy to transport and can be used to engage a fire quickly. Semi-
portable extinguishing systems bring larger amounts of extinguishing agent to the fire but are more
difficult to transport. When used properly, both can be very effective in controlling and
extinguishing a small, localized fire.
Not all extinguishers are the same. Fire extinguishers can vary in size, as well as the extinguishing
medium that they use. Therefore, not all extinguishers are suitable for use on various types of fires.
The usual types of extinguishing agents found in portable extinguishers onboard a vessel include:
• Water
• Foam
• Carbon-dioxide
• Dry chemical
Extinguishers that use water or water solution as the extinguishing agent are suitable only for
class “A” fires (refer to Section 2 for more information about fire classifications.). There are typically
three types of water extinguishers used onboard, including soda-acid, cartridge-operated and stored
pressure water extinguishers. Manufacturing of the soda-acid and cartridge-operated extinguishers
has generally been discontinued. However, since large numbers of these types of extinguishers are
still in use, they will be discussed along with the currently produced type, the stored pressure water
extinguishers.
Water extinguishers may be filled with either water or a water/antifreeze solution. Accordingly,
water extinguishers could be subject to freezing and adherence to the manufacturer’s
recommendations regarding the environmental conditions of the storage locations is important. Dry
powderers shall comply with the requirements of the Fire Safety Systems Code [16].

3.7.2.2. Arrangement of fire extinguishers
Accommodation spaces, service spaces and control stations shall be provided with portable fir
extinguishers of appropriate types and in sufficient number to the satisfaction of the Administration.
Ships of 1,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall carry at least five portable fire extinguishers.
One of the portable fire extinguishers intended for use in any space shall be stowed near the
entrance to that space.
Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers shall not be placed in accommodation spaces. In control
stations and other spaces containing electrical or electronic equipment or appliances necessary for
the safety of the ship, fire extinguishers shall be provided whose extinguishing media are neither
electrically conductive nor harmful to the equipment and appliances.
Fire extinguishers shall be situated ready for use at easily visible places, which can be reached
quickly and easily at any time in the event of a fire, and in such a way that their serviceability is not
impaired by the weather, vibration or other external factors. Portable fire extinguishers shall be
provided with devices which indicate whether they have been used [17].
Figure (3.8) - Portable CO2 Fire-extinguisher [20].

3.7.5. Fixed fire-extinguishing systems
Water is an ideal extinguishing medium for many shipboard applications. It is readily available,
has great heat absorbing capabilities and can be used on a variety of fires. There are several
mechanisms involved in the extinguishment of a fire with water. First, there is the cooling of the
flame temperature when water passes through the combustion zone and absorbs heat through
evaporation [16].
Cooling of the flame temperature results in a reduction in the amount of radiant heat released by
the fire, and therefore, a reduction in the amount of heat radiated back to the fuel surface. Secondly,
there is the cooling effect of the fuel surface by the direct impingement of water droplets on the
surface. With a reduction of the radiant heat received at the fuel surface and the additional cooling
of the fuel surface by direct contact with the water droplets, there is a reduction in the amount of
combustible gases released.
With sufficient cooling of the flame temperature and/or the fuel, the rate of pyrolysis or
vaporization of combustible vapors will be reduced to a point which combustion will no longer be
self-supporting. Water has the important additional effect of when it evaporates it turns into steam.
The steam, which is in the immediate vicinity of the chemical reaction, displaces the air that supplies
oxygen for the combustion process and results in a smothering of the fire [16].
Fixed water extinguishing systems are normally considered to include water spray, water
sprinkler and water mist systems. These systems utilize fixed piping systems with distributed arrays
of nozzles located in the overhead, which are supplied from dedicated pump(s). However, the
particular fire hazards and safety concerns vary depending on the particular type of space being
protected. For example, in a machinery space, one would anticipate Class “B” combustibles to be
involved, while in an accommodation space, one would anticipate the involvement of Class “A”
combustibles.
Even the degree of anticipated supervision has a role. There are many locations in the
accommodation spaces and service spaces that are not continuously supervised (cabins, storage
closets, etc.) and a small initial fire could easily go unnoticed by shipboard personnel. There are also

certain differences in the extinguishing mechanisms at work for a water mist system as compared to
those involved in a water spray or water sprinkler system. Accordingly, the system designs, as well as
the requirements, vary depending upon the space to be protected and the type of system to be
installed. The following provides a brief discussion regarding the individual types of systems [16].
A fixed fire-extinguishing system required by paragraph 5 below may be any of the following
systems:
1. a fixed gas fire-extinguishing system complying with the provisions of the Fire Safety
Systems Code;
2. a fixed high-expansion foam fire-extinguishing system complying with the provisions of the
Fire Safety Systems Code; and
3. a fixed pressure water-spraying fire-extinguishing system complying with the provisions of
the Fire Safety Systems Code.
Where a fixed fire-extinguishing system not required by this chapter is installed, it shall meet the
requirements of the relevant regulations of this chapter and the Fire Safety Systems Code. Fire-
extinguishing systems using Halon 1211, 1301, and 2402 and perfluorocarbons shall be prohibited.
In general, the Administration shall not permit the use of steam as a fire-extinguishing medium
in fixed fire-extinguishing systems. Where the use of steam is permitted by the Administration, it
shall be used only in restricted areas as an addition to the required fire-extinguishing system and shall
comply with the requirements of the Fire Safety System Code [17].
Figure (3.9) – Water Mist [17].

3.8. MEANS OF ESCAPE

Details and calculations of stairway, Doorways and corridors are stated and have arrangements
rules that are stated in the FSS code chapter 13 by the IMO.
Stairways shall not be less than 900 mm in clear width. The minimum clear width of stairways
shall be increased by 10 mm for every one person provided for in excess of 90 persons. The total
number of persons to be evacuated by such stairways shall be assumed to be two thirds of the crew
and the total number of passengers in the areas served by such stairways [17].
The dimension of the means of escape shall be calculated on the basis of the total number of
persons expected to escape by the stairway and through doorways, corridors and landings
Calculations shall be made separately for the two cases of occupancy of the spaces specified below.
 Means of escape plans
Means of escape plans shall be provided indicating the following:
1. The number of crew and passengers in all normally occupied spaces;
2. The number of crew and passengers expected to escape by stairway and through doorways,
corridors and landings;
3. Assembly stations and survival craft embarkation positions;
4. Primary and secondary means of escape; and
5. Width of stairways, doors, corridors and landing areas.
Means of escape plans shall be accompanied by detailed calculations for determining the width
of escape stairways, doors, corridors and landing areas [17].
Figure (3.10) - Stairs arrangement example [17].

CHAPTER IV
CASE STUDY
“TUGBOAT”
CHAPTER (4)
CASE STUDY: TUGBOAT
4.1. SAFETY OF TUGBOATS

Taking a Tugboat as a case study which obeys DNV classification society rules; the vessel shall
be equipped with at least one fast rescue boat of type complying with IMO MSC/Circ.809, arranged
and maintained to be permanently ready for use under severe weather conditions. The launching
arrangement shall be a SOLAS approved type [18].
The following minimum safety equipment shall be provided:

 One line-throwing appliance with not less than four projectiles and four lines
 One daylight signaling lamp
 Six lifebuoys, 4 being with a self-igniting light and buoyant line (SOLAS approved type)
 One SOLAS type approved immersion suit for each crewmember
 One SOLAS type approved lifejacket for each crew member plus 25% of the number of
survivors for which the vessel is intended to carry.
Figure (4.1) - Solar Tugboat [18].

According to Heysham port rules minimum safety standards for tug boats operating in this area are :
1. All operations shall be carried out in compliance with the requirements of Terminal regulations
and the tug operators Policy and Procedures Manual or equivalent.
2. Smoking and naked light restrictions shall be observed at all times. Open flame (including LPG)
cookers are not permitted.
3. Safety signs and important information shall be prominently displayed or otherwise available.
4. The owner or operator shall ensure that an adequate supply of personal protective equipment,
including safety footwear, gloves, eye and ear protection, etc., is provided and that such
equipment is worn.
5. Safety checks shall be carried out daily and a safety checklist completed. A record of safety
checklists shall be maintained in the office.
6. The tug shall provide with a safe means of access, in compliance with the Merchant Shipping
regulations. A safety net should be provided wherever practical.
7. All tugs shall carry Emergency Response procedures, which, as a minimum cover the actions to
be taken in the event of fire, explosion, grounding and collision.
8. Tug staff shall be fully familiar with the use of all firefighting, lifesaving appliances and other
emergency equipment carried.
9. All tugs shall have appropriate procedures for safe entry into enclosed spaces, as a minimum,
entries into tanks shall be covered by an entry permit system.
10. All tugs shall have appropriate procedures for hot work, which shall be covered by a permit
system. Hot work shall not be permitted when alongside at any oil terminal or installation
handling oil or flammable products.
11. Firefighting appliances, flammable gas and fixed fire detection and extinguishing systems must
be kept in efficient working condition with records of maintenance and testing maintained.
12. Flashlights, hand-portable radios and other electrical equipment used on deck shall be either
intrinsically safe, gas tight or explosion proof.
13. Tugs must have a documented system for monitoring hours worked and procedures for the
avoidance of fatigue. [28].

4.2. FIREFIGHTING SYSTEMS OF TUGBOATS
Tugs and tow boats are both used to move barges, in addition to their harbor duties. Owing to
their construction, tugboats are better adapted to the towing of barges in open water, where they are
subjected to heavy winds and waves.
4.2.1. Automatic Fire Detection Systems

While not normally used, the fire detectors used on tugboats and towboats are almost always set
up to activate an alarm rather than a fire extinguishing system. There are two reasons for not
installing automatically operated extinguishing systems in engine rooms:
1. A system that automatically floods the engine room with an extinguishing agent can jeopardize
the lives of personnel in the space.
2. The flooding of an engine room would cause the loss of propulsion. During a critical navigating
maneuver, this could result in a serious accident.
Detectors are sometimes used to trigger firefighting systems in such spaces as paint lockers,
lamp lockers and small storage rooms, as these spaces are not usually occupied wherever an
automatic system is used, the proper warning devices should be installed, and warning signs posted.
On tugboats and towboats, automatic fire detection systems are used primarily in engine rooms.
The detectors most often employed are pneumatic and combination heat and smoke detectors. [27].
4.2.2. Fixed Fire extinguishing systems

4.2.2.1. Fire-Main System
The fire-main system is the basic firefighting system for tugboats and towboats. In most
systems, 6.4- or 7.6-cm (2 J /2- or 3-in.) piping carries water from the pumps to the fire stations.
The water pumps have capacities ranging from 570-1900 lit/min (150-500 gal/ min). Generally, two
pumps are installed, with one in service and one as a backup pump. Because tugboats and towboats
do not always have enough space to separate the pumps, they may both be located in the same
general area [27].

The fire stations are usually located at the main deck level, on exterior bulkheads. Each fire
station has a water outlet with a control valve and a 3.8-cm (1 1/2 -in.) connector. The connector is
often fitted with a wye gate so that two 3.8-cm hoselines can be connected into the fire station. A
wide variety of nozzles are used since some towboats are not required to carry specific nozzles [27].
The most widely used nozzle is similar in operation to a garden hose nozzle; it produces a good
fog stream and a straight stream. Plastic combination nozzles are also being used on some vessels.
They can provide a solid stream and 30° and 60° fog streams. The ability to vary the width and type
of stream is advantageous in firefighting operations. Straight streams have greater reach and
penetration which allow the attack to be made from a distance. Fog streams have excellent heat
absorption qualities, and their conical shape protects firefighters from the fire's heat when a close-in
attack is necessary [27].
Some older vessels still carry smooth-bore nozzles that are both inefficient and dangerous. If the
smooth-bore nozzle of a charged hose line is dropped and becomes free, the nozzle will whip back
and forth and can cause injury if it hits a crew member. If the nozzle man is forced to retreat and
abandon the hose, he may not be able to shut off the water flow. There is a proposal to do away
with this type of nozzle in the marine services [27].
Some towboats and tugboats do not have a fire-main system. Their only firefighting water
supply is a pipe outlet with a connection for a deck wash down hose. While this setup is very
ineffective, it can be used to extinguish fire if the attack is made early, while the fire is small.
Firefighters would have to advance close to the fire, because the nozzle will probably produce a
poor water stream. (See Chapter 10 for a description of the use of water streams to attack fire.)
4.2.2.2. Engine Rooms

Fixed carbon dioxide (CO2) or Halon 1301 total-flooding systems are installed in the engine
rooms of some tugboats and towboats. These systems are similar to those described in Chapter 3,
but are smaller in scale.

4.2.2.3. Paint and Lamp Lockers.

Small CO2 or Halon 1301 flooding systems are often used to protect paint and lamp lockers and
deck gear-storage spaces. These small systems may or may not be activated by fire detectors.
Normally, they are activated manually. However, if a system can be operated automatically, a
discharge warning horn or bell must be part of the system [27].
4.2.2.4. Semi-portable Systems

Semi-portable carbon dioxide extinguishing systems are used to fight fires in engine rooms. The
usual system consists of one or two 22.7- or 45.4-kg (50- or 100-lb) cylinders, a length of hose and a
horn-type discharge nozzle. The nozzle handle is long, and the nozzle control lever can be locked in
the open or closed position. With the lever locked in the open position, the long horn can be used
to discharge CO2 into places that are difficult to reach [27].
Semi-portable Halon systems are also used. This system usually consists of one or two cylinders
of agent at a pressure of about 1310 kilopascals (190 psi) at normal temperatures. For faster release,
as in the case of explosion suppression systems, the gas is pressurized with nitrogen to pressures as
high as 6900 kilopascals (1000 psi). The agent is directed onto the fire with an on-off nozzle
connected to the cylinders by a length of rubber hose. (See Chapter 8 for a detailed description of
both CO2 and Halon semi-portable systems.) [27].
4.2.2.5. Portable Extinguishers

Tugboats and towboats are required to carry portable fire extinguishers capable of extinguishing
class A, B and C fires.
4.2.3. FIGHTING TUGBOAT AND TOWBOAT FIRES

In this section, two fire situations and the recommended firefighting procedures are described
from the alarm to overhaul.

4.2.3.1. Electrical Fire on a Harbor Tugboat

 The Fire.
The main generator is giving off dense smoke, and the insulation on the windings is starting to
burn.
 Size up.
The vessel is under way with a tow. The generator is supplying electricity for the tug's lighting,
radar and communication needs. The generator is located in the engine room on the port side aft.
 Attack.
The alarm is sounded. The circuit breaker is tripped to take the generator off the line. This
should be done from the engine room, if possible; otherwise, the breaker on deck or in the
pilothouse can be tripped. The diesel engine driving the generator is shut down to protect crew
members attacking the fire. The auxiliary generator is started to provide electricity for the engine
room lights, the navigation equipment and the general service pump.
One crewman advances a portable CO2, dry chemical or Halon extinguisher as close as possible
to the generator. He directs the stream into the generator windings.
 Confining the Fire.
The fire was confined by removing the electrical load and shutting down the generator drive
engine. This prevents the production of additional heat and the overheating of wires that run to
other areas.
 Protecting Exposures.
Crewmen remove whatever combustibles they can carry from the vicinity of the generator. Since
the entire engine room is exposed, the best protection is to quickly knock down the flames and cool
the generator. Once the generator is taken off the line and the driving mechanism secured, the fire
can be controlled.
 Ventilation.
The burning insulation gives off large quantities of irritating smoke. Mechanical ventilation is
used to clear the engine room after the fire is extinguished.
 Overhaul.
A great deal of heat remains in the copper generator components. This is absorbed by wet
canvas and burlap, placed on the outside of the generator housing [27].

4.2.3.2. Fire in a Deck Gear-Storage Space

 The Fire.
Cordage, wooden tackle and burlap waste are burning on the deck inside the storage space. The
fire is extending up the forward bulkhead. The alarm is sounded.
 Sizeup.
The storage space is on the main deck; it runs 7.62 m (25 ft.) across the beam of the vessel and is
about 4.6 m (15 ft.) wide with a 2.4 m (8 ft) overhead. It is entered through port and starboard
doors. A small vent is located in the overhead. In addition to deck gear, the storage space contains
cartons of toilet tissue and paper towels and some lumber. The main body of the fire is located
about 2.4 m (8 ft) from the starboard doorway. The space is not equipped with a CO2 or Halon
flooding system. . [27].
 Attack.
Since firefighters are able to enter the space, an attack is made with a portable extinguisher. A
dry chemical extinguisher could quickly knock down the flames if properly applied. However, it
might not extinguish the fire completely, because class A combustibles tend to smolder. A portable
water extinguisher could do the job if the stream is properly applied, but an extensive fire may be
beyond the extinguisher's capability. . [27].
 Backup.
Hoselines are positioned at the two doorways to back up the extinguisher. The hoselines are
charged to the nozzle. The fire is so in- tense that the crewman with the extinguisher is forced to
retreat. An attack must be made with a hose stream. The port-side hoseline will be used, so that the
stream does not push the fire across the entire compartment. . [27].
The port-side line (line 1 in Figure 4.2) is advanced to the space. The nozzle man uses a spray
pattern and crouches low. He sweeps the overhead with a short burst as he enters, to cool off the
hot gases. Then he advances into the space, directing short bursts of fog at the base of the flames.
The starboard door is opened to allow the heat and smoke to vent outside. . [27].

Figure (4.2) - Standard dimensions and power of towboats and tugboats (including ocean-going tugs).
The starboard hose line (line 2) is used to knock down any flame that is pushed out the door. It
is not at any time directed into the door. Its function is only to prevent the extension of flames
outside the door
 Protecting Exposures.
All areas adjacent to the fire are checked. If fire has entered these areas this fire must also come
under attack. If fire has not entered the area but bulkheads are hot, combustibles must be moved
away from the bulkhead and the bulkhead cooled with a fog stream.
 Overhaul.
Once the fire is knocked down and darkened, the burning material is pulled apart and wet down.
When it can be picked up, it is taken out on the deck and saturated with water. The spaces adjacent
to the storage space are carefully inspected for fire extension. All materials that are stowed against or
near the bulkheads are moved to allow a complete inspection.

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER (5)
CONCLUSIONS
Finally, it can be concluded that the work’s main arguments are threefold:
1. Most determinedly, the importance of Safety and firefighting systems onboard ships.
2. Their types, arrangements, installations and regulations.
3. Manners, types and regulations for such installations on a tugboat as a case study.
From the present report work, the following conclusions are obtained :
1. Concluded results are briefly concerning tug boat position among ship classification.
2. A tug is a boat that maneuvers vessels by pushing or towing them.
3. Tugboats have 3 types: seagoing, escort and harbor tug.
4. There is a difference between tow and tug boats
5. Tugboats has several functions rather than maneuvering vessels suck like docking, firefighting,
salvage and anchor handling.
6. Each port has its own particular features which determine the way of use of the tugs. Generally,
there are several conditions that are crucial in choosing and using the tugs.
7. Safety has 4 types: Normative, Substantive, Perceived and security.
8. There are 3 types of survival crafts: lifeboats, rescue boats and life rafts.
9. Visual signals has 3 types: Rocket Parachute flares, hand flares and smoke buoyant signals.
10. Personal safety equipment are various: lifejackets, EEBD, SCDA,…etc
11. Most important radio communications equipment is the VHF radio installation
12. Fire is a chemical reaction.
13. There is a difference between fire triangle and tetrahedron
14. IMO classifies fire into 4 classes: A, B, C and D.

15. There are three fire systems: prevention, detections, alarm, and main firefighting systems.
16. Fire Protection has to be considered
17. Fire Detection system has 3 types of detectors: flame, heat and smoke detectors.
18. Results also included regulation for firefighting systems onboard.
19. Firefighting has mainly 4 systems:
1) Water supply system,
2) CO2 system,
3) Foam system,
4) Inert gas system
20. There are two types of extinguishers: fixed or portable fire extinguishers.
21. Means of escape in case of fire were very important to be declared when talking about safety and
firefighting means.
22. Tug boat is our case study
23. Minimum requirements for safety of tugboats include equipment and visual signs.
24. Firefighting on a tugboat has 5 main steps: attack, confining the fire, protecting exposures,
ventilation and overhaul.

REFERENCES
REFERENCES
[1] Paulet, Dominique, “Architecture Navale, Connaissance et Pratique” (in French) - Presles,
Dominique. Paris: Éditions de la Villette, 1999.
[2] Klaas Van Dokkum, “Ship Knowledge” – Dokmar Maritime Publishers B.V., 2014.
[3] George H. Reid, “Primer of Towing” - Cornell Maritime Press, 1992.
[4] Virginia Thorndike, “Stories of Work and Life aboard”- Down East Books, 2004. pp. 14–16.
[5] Zoran Radisic, “Principal 'Types and Characteristics of Harbour Tugs” - Republika Hrvatska, 2003.
[6] “tugrace.com” - tugrace.com. 2013-06-22. Retrieved 2014-10-23.
[7] Robert G. Allan and Kenneth D. Harford, “Advances in Tug Design and Operational Efficiencies
for Harbour and Offshore Applications” - ASNE Seminar, January 2009.
[8] Jarosaw Artyszuk, “Types and Power of Harbour Tugs - The Latest Trends” - Maritime University
of Szczecin Faculty of Navigation, April 2003.
[9] International Maritime Organization, “SOLAS” - International Maritime Organization,
consolidated edition, 2009.
[10] Jeroen Johan de Hartog, Hanna Boogaard, Hans Nijland, Gerard Hoek, “Do the Health
Benefits of Cycling Outweigh the Risks?’ - Environmental Health Perspectives, 2010.
[11] Anish Wankhede and Raunek Kantharia, “The Ultimate Guide to Personal Safety On board Ships”
- Marine Insight, First Edition, February 2012.
[12] Prof. Dr. Yousri Welaya, “Lifesaving Systems” – Lectures notes, Faculty of Engineering,
Alexandria University, 2014.
[13] Catherine Hetherington, “Safety in shipping: The human element” - Journal of Safety Research,
Pergamon, 2006.
[14] Johnson, B, “English in maritime radiotelephony”- World Englishes 13 (1), 1994. P 83–91.
[15] Bureau Veritas,“Ship Safety handbook -2” – Lloyd’s of London Press Ltd. Bureau Veritas,
1990.
[16] American Bureau of Shipping, “Guidance Notes On Fire-Fighting Systems” - ABS Plaza, May
2005.
[17] International Maritime Organization, “FSS Code” - International Maritime Organization,
second edition, 2007.
References Page 87
[18] “Minimum Safety Standards For Tugboats Operating Within The Jurisdiction Of The Port Of Heysham”
- Peel Ports Group, July 2011.
[19] “Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology”- National Wildfire Coordinating Group, NWCG, 2014.
[20] International Fire Service Training Association- United States of America, “Fire Detection and
Suppression Systems” - Third Edition, 2005. p. 9.
[21] Charles G. Oakes, PhD, Blue Ember Technologies, LLC. “Safety versus Security in Fire Protection
Planning,” The American Institute of Architects: Knowledge Communities, May 2009.
Retrieved on June 22, 2011.
[22] Det Norske Veritas, “Offshore Service Vessels, Tugs and Special Ships” - DNV Rules, part
5, chapter 7. July 2010.
[23] NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, pg. 2-19.

[24] Fire Rescue NSW Annual report
http://www.fire.nsw.gov.au/gallery/files/pdf/annual_reports/annual_report_2012_13.pdf
[25] City of Fort Lauderdale, "Fire-Rescue - Special Operations Command", April 2011.
[26] Dana, Gorham, “Automatic Sprinkler Protection”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. second edition, 1919.
[27] Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, “Marine fire Prevention, firefighting
and fire Safety”- Maritime Training Advisory, 2012.
[28] International Labour Office Geneva, “Accident prevention on board ship at sea and in port” -
International Labour Organization, second edition, 1996.
References Page 87

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ALEXANDRIA UNIVERSITY

Safety and Firefighting Systems for

Yasmine Safwat Mohamed

Prof. Dr. Mosaad Mosleh

 Table of contents III

2. Chapter 2 – Safety onboard ships 17

Table of contents Page III

2.7. Personal Safety. 31

3. Chapter 3 – Firefighting systems onboard Ships 46

4. Chapter 4 - Case Study “Tug Boat”. 74

Table of contents Page IV

 Figure (1.1) – Container ship. 21

Table of contents Page V

 Figure (2.9) – Things to do before boarding on a ship Diagram. 32

Table of contents Page VI

1.1. SHIP TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION

Figure (1.1) – Container ship [2].

Figure (1.2) – Bulk carrier [2].

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 2

Figure (1.3) – Tanker ship [2].

Ferries and Cruise ships

Figure (1.4) – Ferries and cruise ships [2].

Figure (1.5) – Specialist Ship [2].

Such as Tug Boats. As Shown in Figure (1.5).

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 3

1.2. TUG BOATS

Figure (1.6) – Tug Boat [3].

1.2.1. DEFINITION OF A TUG BOAT

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 4

1.2.2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TUG BOAT AND TOWBOAT

Figure (1.7) – Sailing Tug boat [4].

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 5

1.2.3. TUG BOAT RACES AND BALLET SHOWS

Figure (1.8) – Tugboat race [6].

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 6

1.3. TYPES OF TUG BOATS

1.3.1. SEAGOING TUGBOATS

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 7

Figure (1.10) – Seagoing Notch Tugboat [7].

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 8

1.3.2. ESCORT SHIPS

Figure (1.11) – Escort tugboats [8].

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 9

1.3.3. HARBOR TUGBOATS

Figure (1.12) – Harbor Tugboat [5]

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 10

1.3.3.1. CONVENTIONAL TUGBOATS

1.3.3.2. AZIMUTH STERN DRIVE TUGBOATS

Figure (1.13) – ASD Tugboat [5].

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 11

 Its main deficiencies include:

 Difficult side movement,

 Complicated driving mechanism and sensitiveness of nozzles to mechanical damages,

 Advantages of tug with azimuth stem drive propulsion:

 Improved bollard pull per kW-power,

 Better maneuvering capabilities than conventional tug,

 Draught of up to 3 m in most cases,

 Simple procedure of demounting and maintenance of nozzles.

Figure (1.14) - ASD Tugboat [5].

Safety and Firefighting systems for ships Page 12

1.3.3.3. TRACTOR TUGBOATS

 The deficiencies of tractor tugs include:

o sensitiveness to damages of underwater propulsion mechanism,