Environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize
and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of
environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a
risk of harmful effects on the natural environment. All monitoring strategies and programs have reasons
and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to
establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases, the results of monitoring will be reviewed,
analyzed statistically, and published. The design of a monitoring program must therefore have regard to
the final use of the data before monitoring starts.

Contents
Air quality monitoring
Air sampling
Soil monitoring
Soil sampling
Monitoring programs
Soil contamination monitoring
Soil erosion monitoring
Soil salinity monitoring
Water quality monitoring
Design of environmental monitoring programmes
Parameters
Chemical
Biological
Radiological
Microbiological
Populations
Monitoring programmes
Environmental monitoring data management systems
Sampling methods
Judgmental sampling
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Systematic and grid sampling
Adaptive cluster sampling
Grab samples
Semi-continuous monitoring and continuous
Passive sampling
Remote surveillance
Remote sensing
 Bio-monitoring
Other sampling methods
Data interpretations
Environmental quality indices
See also
References

Air quality monitoring

Air pollutants are atmospheric substances—both naturally
occurring and anthropogenic—which may potentially have a
negative impact on the environment and organism health. With
the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come
the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as
well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the
demand for air quality monitoring.[1]

Air quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the

effective integration of multiple environmental data sources,
which often originate from different environmental networks and
institutions.[2] These challenges require specialized observation
equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations,
including sensor networks, geographic information system (GIS)
models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service
for querying real-time sensor data.[2] Air dispersion models that
combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to
Air quality monitoring station
predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in
interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of
anemometer data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the
air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.

Air quality monitors are operated by citizens[3][4][5], regulatory agencies[6][7], and researchers[8] to
investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often
involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness[9] of the data gathered, and the
health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels.[10] If the interpretation reveals
concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique "chemical fingerprint" of a particular air
pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.[11]

Air sampling
Passive or "diffusive" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air
pollutants to a sorbent medium. Passive samplers have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and
easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future
continuous monitoring.[12]
Air pollution can also be assessed by biomonitoring with organisms that bioaccumulate air pollutants,
such as lichens, mosses, fungi, and other biomass.[13][14] One of the benefits of this type of sampling is
how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds,
representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made
in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.[14]

Other sampling methods include the use of a denuder[15][16], needle trap devices, and microextraction
techniques.[17]

Soil monitoring
Soil monitoring involves the collection and/or analysis of soil and
its associated quality, constituents, and physical status to
determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats,
including compaction, contamination, organic material loss,
biodiversity loss, slope stability issues, erosion, salinization, and
acidification. Soil monitoring helps characterize these threats and
other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal
health, and human health.[18]

Assessing these threats and other risks to soil can be challenging

due to a variety of factors, including soil's heterogeneity and
complexity, scarcity of toxicity data, lack of understanding of a
contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening.[18]
This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques
that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if
necessary, remediation methods.[18] Soil monitoring plays a Collecting a soil sample in Mexico for
pathogen testing
significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the
identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the
establishment of base background values of soil.[18]

Soil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic
elements (e.g., mercury, lead, and arsenic) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).[18] Historically,
testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most
cases is of a destructive in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and
analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over
time.[19] However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and
contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of
monitoring will continue to improve.[18]

Soil sampling
The two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling
involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling
involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place
over different times or multiple locations at a specific time.[20] Soil sampling may occur both at shallow
ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops,
augers, core barrel, and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used at shallow ground levels, whereas
split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground.[21]

Monitoring programs

Soil contamination monitoring

Soil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns
and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect.
Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, urban
sprawl, construction work, and inadequate agriculture/forestry
practices can contribute to and make worse soil contamination
and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both A portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, analyzer can be used in the field for
testing soils for metal contamination
having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination
monitoring is therefore important to identify risk areas, set
baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation.
Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in the
late 2000s[18], providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration
patterns, and remediation feasibility.[22] Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high
response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency.[23]
Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using chromatography and
spectrometry, geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological
techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of
contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and
laboratory instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring
outcomes.[24]

Soil erosion monitoring

Soil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement.
Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to
reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on
identifying and measuring all the dominant erosion processes in a given area.[25] Additionally, soil
erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though
challenging "because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their
management under a variable climate."[26]

Soil salinity monitoring

Soil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural
process of seawater intrusion and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water
management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally
(as of 2013).[27] Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity
impact and develop management options, whereas at the regional and national level salinity monitoring
may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads.[27]
The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as remote sensing and
geographic information systems (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the
surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of electromagnetic induction techniques,
may also be used to monitor soil salinity.[27]

Water quality monitoring

Design of environmental monitoring

programmes
Water quality monitoring is of little use without a clear and
unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the
objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except
perhaps remote sensing) is in some part invasive of the
environment under study and extensive and poorly planned
Electrofishing survey methods use a
monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may
mild electric shock to temporarily
be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring stun fish for capture, identification
very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. and counting. The fish are then
Some monitoring techniques, such as gill netting fish to estimate returned to the water unharmed.
populations, can be very damaging, at least to the local
population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying
out the monitoring.

Almost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy
or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or
aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework,
the results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring
will be lost.[28][29]

Parameters
see also Freshwater environmental quality parameters

Chemical
The range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect
any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it
is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local
knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be
expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and the
outcome of the initial surveys.

Freshwater environments have been extensively studied for many

years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions Analyzing water samples for
pesticides
between chemistry and the environment across much of the
world. However, as new materials are developed and new
pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years acid
rain, synthetic hormone analogues, halogenated hydrocarbons, greenhouse gases and many others have
required changes to monitoring strategies.

Biological
In ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the
environment under review and is specific to each individual study.

However, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the
quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past.[30] One of
the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of Salmonid fish such as brown trout or Atlantic
salmon in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep
decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early indications of the problem that later became
known as acid rain.

In recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem
health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself.[31] It is this approach that underpins the
monitoring protocols of the Water Framework Directive in the European Union.

Radiological
Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for
reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances,
and the interpretation of the results.[32] The ‘measurement’ of dose often means the measurement of a
dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly.
Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in
environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of
monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of
facility are given in IAEA Safety Guide RS–G-1.8[33] and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.[34]

Radiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as the US
Environmental Protection Agency's Radnet (http://www.epa.gov/radnet/) and the SPEEDI (http://www.bo
usai.ne.jp/eng/) network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the Nuclear
Emergency Support Team.

Microbiological
Bacteria and viruses are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even
these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as drinking
water or where water contact recreation such as swimming or canoeing is practised.

Although pathogens are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always
directed at much more common indicator species such as Escherichia coli[35], supplemented by overall
coliform bacteria counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens
originate from other humans via the sewage stream. Many sewage treatment plants have no sterilisation
final stage and therefore discharge an effluent which, although having a clean appearance, still contains
many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria.
Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about
the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where E. coli or
coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including specific monitoring
for pathogenic species is then initiated.

Populations
Monitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or
absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations
dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.

As an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10 km square is the measure

adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square
will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.

Monitoring programmes
All scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme.
The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific
strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies
the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to
take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a
monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed
and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme.

There are a number of commercial software packages which can assist with the implementation of the
programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide
the key building block which is the programme itself.

Environmental monitoring data management systems

Given the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial
software Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common
use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central
place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts
are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both
temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports.

One formal certification scheme exists specifically for environmental data management software. This is
provided by the Environment Agency in the U.K. under its Monitoring Certification Scheme
(MCERTS).[36][37][38]

Sampling methods
There are a wide range of sampling methods which depend on the type of environment, the material
being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample.

At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional
chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic
sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.
Judgmental sampling
In judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and/or timing of
collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on
professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that
inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions
about the target population are limited and depend entirely on the validity and accuracy of professional
judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent
chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce
effective sampling for defensible decisions.[39]

Simple random sampling

In simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and/or times) are selected
using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For
example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and
randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates.
This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively
straightforward. An example is shown in Figure 2-2. This figure illustrates a possible simple random
sample for a square area of soil. Simple random sampling is most useful when the population of interest
is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or “hot spots” are expected. The main
advantages of this design are:

1. It provides statistically unbiased estimates of the mean, proportions, and variability.

2. It is easy to understand and easy to implement.
3. Sample size calculations and data analysis are very straightforward.
In some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of
designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic
locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in
obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort.[39]

Stratified sampling
In stratified sampling, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations
that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the
contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than
among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal
proximity of the units, or on the basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site
or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in
estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population
subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly
correlated with the variable used to make the strata.[39]

Systematic and grid sampling

In systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An
initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that
all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid
Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square,
rectangular, triangular, or radial grids. Cressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling
location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are
located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to
infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends
over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures
uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.[39]

Ranked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining
better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly
incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method
to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses a two-phase sampling design
that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set,
and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r)
of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently
within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One
sampling unit from each set is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement
using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest.
Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to
more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of
locating and ranking locations in the field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also
appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is
available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it
is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated.[39]

Adaptive cluster sampling

In adaptive cluster sampling, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples
are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of
sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for
later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite
oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the
borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare
characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables
delineating the boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to
give unbiased estimates of the population mean.[39][40]

Grab samples
Grab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material,
usually water, in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with river
water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good
snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the
point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional
monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to
other parts of the river, lake or ground-water.[40]:3
Collecting a grab sample on a stream
In order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and
longitudinal transect surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish
that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys
should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at
times of flood and drought.[40]:8–9

In lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth

samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and
then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required
depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in
the chemical composition of lake water at different depths,
especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify
into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and a cool
de-oxygenated lower layer (hypolimnion).

In the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a

wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of
cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing
conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges,
close to the effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater
input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial
answer when taken on its own.

A rosette sampler used for ocean

Semi-continuous monitoring and continuous monitoring
There is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment
available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or
variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For
example, a sampler can be programmed to start taking samples of
a river at 8-minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises
above 1 mm / hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain
gauge communicating with the sampler by using cell phone or
meteor burst[41] technology. Samplers can also take individual
discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples
into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler An automated sampling station and
data logger (to record temperature,
might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-
specific conductance, and dissolved
samples taken at 20-minute intervals. oxygen levels)

Continuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an

automated analytical facility close to the environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be
viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the
River Dee regulation system but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic
rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on
parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity and colour but it is also possible to
operate gas liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry technologies (GLC/MS) to examine a wide
range of potential organic pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a
requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for
the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of the
pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of
pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and
GLC/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and glands.

Passive sampling
The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling
location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can
be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being
small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of
passive sampling devices are the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) sampler, Chemcatcher, Polar
organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS), semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs), stabilized
liquid membrane devices (SLMDs), and an air sampling pump.

Remote surveillance
Although on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many
monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires
the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-
line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote
surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also
enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and/or parameters so that
immediate action can be initiated if a trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also
allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged
or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip aerial protruding. Use of such equipment
tends to reduce vandalism and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public.

Remote sensing
Environmental remote sensing uses aircraft or satellites to monitor the environment using multi-channel
sensors.

There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected
by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of
radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to
specific wavelengths from far infrared through visible light frequencies to the far ultraviolet. The
volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support. The
output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences
in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing
specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In
particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b concentrations
in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.

Active remote sensing emits energy and uses a passive sensor to detect and measure the radiation that is
reflected or backscattered from the target. LIDAR is often used to acquire information about the
topography of an area, especially when the area is large and manual surveying would be prohibitively
expensive or difficult.
Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing
applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, the effects of climate
change on glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths.

Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in
conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides information to
monitor trends such as El Niño and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include
different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource management, land use planning and
conservation.[42]

Bio-monitoring
The use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the
environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of
that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to accumulate chemical species can often accumulate
significant quantities of material from very low concentrations in the environment. Mosses have been
used by many investigators to monitor heavy metal concentrations because of their tendency to
selectively adsorb heavy metals.[43][44]

Similarly, eels have been used to study halogenated organic chemicals, as these are adsorbed into the
fatty deposits within the eel.[45]

Other sampling methods

Ecological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For
grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a quadrat – a 1-metre square frame – is often used
with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted[46]

Sediments and soils require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is
representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may
also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well[47] such as the Ekman grab sampler.

Data interpretations
The interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large
and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists
approach the analysis of results with a pre-conceived outcome in mind and use or misuse statistics to
demonstrate that their own particular point of view is correct.

Statistics remains a tool that is equally easy to use or to misuse to demonstrate the lessons learnt from
environmental monitoring.

Environmental quality indices

Since the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised
to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river
stretch is in "Class B" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean
BOD of 4.2, a mean dissolved oxygen of 85%, etc. In the UK the Environment Agency formally
employed a system called General Quality Assessment (GQA) which classified rivers into six quality
letter bands from A to F based on chemical criteria[48] and on biological criteria.[49] The Environment
Agency and its devolved partners in Wales (Countryside Council for Wales, CCW) and Scotland
(Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) now employ a system of biological, chemical and
physical classification for rivers and lakes that corresponds with the EU Water Framework Directive. [50]

See also
Biodiversity monitoring, e.g. Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland
Carbon monitoring
Carbon profiling
Citizen Science, cleanup projects that people can take part in.
Crowdmapping
Unmanned aerial vehicle § Applications: drones can be used for various types of
environmental monitoring

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