[Date] The Child and

Adolescent
Learners and
Learning
Principle
Book Review

JESSA MARIE K. LARANJO

 Learner Centered Teaching

Student-centered philosophies are another essential philosophy that educators should be

aware of.
By focusing on the needs of students, implements training individual students teachers
are able to assist and teach students within the classroom ensuring a higher level of
student success. will be discussed which are progressivism, social reconstructionism,
and existentialism.
Student-centered philosophies focus more on training individual students. These
philosophies place more emphasis on the individuality of students and helping them to
realize their potential. A student-centered classroom may be less rigid or structured,
less concerned about past teaching practices and drilling academics, and more focused
on training students for success in an ever-changing world. Students and teachers
typically decide together what should be learned, as well as how this can best be
achieved.
Three Types of Student-Centered Philosophies

Progressivism
Progressivism is based on the positive changes and problem-solving approach that
individuals with various educational credentials can provide their students.
Progressivist educators are outcome focused and don’t simply impart learned
facts. Teachers are less concerned with passing on the existing culture and strive
to allow students to develop an individual approach to tasks provided to them.
Social Reconstructionism

is an educational philosophy that views schools as tools to solve social problems.

Social reconstructionist reason that, because all leaders are the product of schools,
schools should provide a curriculum that fosters their development.
Reconstructionist not only aim to educate a generation of problem solvers, but also
try to identify and correct many noteworthy social problems that face our nation,
with diverse targets including racism, pollution, homelessness, poverty, and
violence. Rather than a philosophy of education, reconstructionism may be
referred to as more of a remedy for society that seeks to build a more objective
social order.
Existentialism

Promotes attentive personal consideration about personal character, beliefs, and

choices. The primary question existentialists ask is whether they want to define

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 who they are themselves, or whether they want society to define them. Although
freedom and individuality are highly valued American principles, existentialists
argue that there is an underlying message of conformity. Rather than the belief
that the mind needs to understand the universe, existentialists assume that the
mind creates its universe. Their beliefs incorporate the inevitability of death, as the
afterlife cannot be experienced personally with the current senses, focusing on the
fact that the experience we have of the world is temporary and should be
appreciated as such.

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles:

Learner-centered teaching engages students in the hard, messy work of learning.

On any given day, in most classes teachers are working much harder than students.

2. Learner-centered teaching includes explicit skill instruction.

Learner-centered teachers teach students how to think, solve problems, evaluate
evidence, analyze arguments, generate hypotheses—all those learning skills essential to
mastering material in the discipline.

3. Learner-centered teaching encourages students to reflect on what they are learning

and how they are learning it.
They challenge student assumptions about learning and encourage them to accept
responsibility for decisions they make about learning; like how they study for exams,
when they do assigned reading, whether they revise their writing or check their
answers.

4. Learner-centered teaching motivates students by giving them some control over

learning processes.
Learner-centered teachers search out ethically responsible ways to share power with
students.

5. Learner-centered teaching encourages collaboration.

Learner-centered teachers work to develop structures that promote shared
commitments to learning.

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 THE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

The Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

First Stage: The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

(the child seeks pleasure from the mouth (e.g., sucking)

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for
eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities
such as tasting and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding
the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems
with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

Second Stage: The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

(the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g., withholding and expelling feces)

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During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--the child must learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and
productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis
for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If

parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that
an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid,
and obsessive.

Third Stage: The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

(the child seeks pleasure from the penis or clitoris (e.g., masturbation)
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the
genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the

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mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be
punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced
by young girls. For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly,
the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the
development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never
fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists
such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to
women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because
they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

Fourth Stage: The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

(the child has little or no sexual motivation)

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and
adults outside of the family.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage
begins around the time that children enter school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as

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intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development
of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to
become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and
an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

Fifth Stage: The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

(the child seeks pleasure from the penis or vagina (e.g., sexual intercourse; McLeod, 2013).

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage
of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's
life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare
of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between
the various life areas.If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual
should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by
the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens
in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the
need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

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Freud’s Personality Components

The Id

The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification
of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious
thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most
likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something
belonging to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.

The Superego

The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people
call their” conscience” or their “moral compass.” The superego is the portion of the mind
in which morality and higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in socially and
morally acceptable ways (McLeod, 2013). It develops as a child learns what their culture
considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not
take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both
your id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override
your superego’s concern, you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would
most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.

The Ego

In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic
part of our personality and reality principle. It is less primitive than the id and is partly
conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the “self,” and its job
is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if
you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the
conflict between your id (“I want that ice cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take
someone else’s ice cream”) and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may mean

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you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to
make that sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while
also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame.

Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult
personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout
childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and
that imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and
depression) and unhealthy behaviors.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models and enable us to form a
mental representation of the world. Piaget (1952) In more simple terms Piaget called the
schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge.
A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we
use both to understand and to respond to situations. Piaget’s emphasizes that each child
each child’s mind has filling cabinet and each drawer has folders that contains files from
things they have observe, learned and experienced.

For instance, it’s first time for a child to saw a dog, he creates schema of what dog looks
like. What he sees that a dog has four legs and a tail. It has a furry hair and it barks. It’s
time for a child to put his/her description of a dog on file (on his mind). In a particular
manner, when he sees another similar description of a dog, “he pulls” out the files and
look at the animal and say, “four legs, tail, barks, furry…That’s a dog!

Assimilation

Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

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After knowing the description of what the dog look likes, this is the time when a child
now sees another animal that looks a little bit smaller one, he or she now concludes that
it is a different looking dog.

Accommodation

This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work and needs to be
changed to deal with a new object or situation.

If the child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog but somehow
different. He might try to it into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look Mommy, what a
funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too! “then the mommy explains, “that’s not a funny
looking dog. That’s a goat!” With this new knowledge, the child was able to change his
schema of “dog”. He/she will now add it as his/her new file in his filling cabinet.

Equilibration

This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.

Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new
information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).

Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge
(accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with
the new schema will continue until the next time, we need to make an adjustment to it.

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them

The main achievement during this stage is Object Permanence - knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden.

It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.
For example, a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later
intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them
pleasurable.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.

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  While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.

For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as
pretending a broom is a horse.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid
in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than
physically try things out in the real world). Children can conserve number (age 6), mass
(age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the
same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

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Cognition reaches its final form. By this stage, the person no longer requires concrete
objects to make rational judgements. He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical
reasoning. His or her ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an adult.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHO- SOCIAL THEORY

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 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-old and younger, some over nine), we
don’t have a personal code of morality. The earliest stage of moral development,
obedience, and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also
capable of expressing this type of reasoning. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.

Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences
of actions.

 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation.

The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is
punished, they must have done wrong.

 Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange.

At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed
down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional Morality

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, the stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and
roles. We begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.

• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships.

The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by

others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

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• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.

The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments

concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on

individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as
far as most people get.

Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and
abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.

• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights.

The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the
good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the
interest of individuals.

The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the
protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

• Stage 6. Universal Principles.

People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may
or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.

E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to
defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the
process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment.
Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

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SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Sociocultural theory is a psychological and sociological theory. The theory was

developed by Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, in 1934.
The theory talks about the importance of society and culture to shape and develop an
individual. It shows how parents, friends, teachers, and society develop the individual’s
sociocultural, learning and cognitive functions. Similarly, the theory highlights the
importance of sociocultural values and beliefs in developing these functions.

Concepts in Sociocultural Theory

Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level,
and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to
logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as
actual relationships between individuals.

– Vygotsky, 1978

 According to Vygotsky, a child already has some innate biological characteristics of

his brain. Society and culture only provide him “tools for intellectual adaptations”.
These tools vary in different cultures and societies. Socio-cultural development with
the help of these tools develops his human intelligence and cognition.

For example, one culture teaches children to play with toys, while the other encourages
them to play outdoors. Children from both cultures adapt to what their cultures teach
them. If a culture encourages talking, they will learn to do so. If a culture requires children
to learn two languages at the same time, they will learn both.

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Two Levels of Learning in Children

Social level (the first level): Says that an individual learns through interaction in a
society.
Personal level (the second level): says these learning is reflected throughout his life.

Principles of Sociocultural Theory

 Children construct their own knowledge:
Knowledge is not transferable; it needs learning. Acquiring knowledge is an
individual ability. However, children might need help to do so.
 Learning needs mediation:
Other people interact with the child to use tools and facilitate the learning process.
 Language is used for mental development:
People use language to develop higher psychological functions.
 Two levels of learning:
It happens on social level at first and then on individual level.
 Social context is important:
If a person does not get the proper social environment to develop, cognition does
not develop.
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
It is how much a child develops with help from society. It differs from that of the
development that happens without help.

A child can’t learn many things without society like language skills. They need to be
with people to learn how to use language.

Similarly, people also develop their own cognition by reading, interacting, using
various tools, etc. So, a person’s cognitive level and another persons can be different.

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 Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner believed that a person's development was affected by everything in their

surrounding environment. He divided the person's environment into five different levels:
the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the
chronosystem. As an example, you will learn about these different environmental levels
by meeting five-year-old Alex and examining the influences in his life.

Microsystem

The microsystem is the system closest to the person and the one in which they have direct
contact. Some examples would be home, school, daycare, or work. A microsystem
typically includes family, peers, or caregivers. Relationships in a microsystem are bi-
directional. In other words, your reactions to the people in your microsystem will affect
how they treat you in return. This is the most influential level of the ecological systems
theory.

Let's look at the microsystem Alex lives in. The first part of his microsystem is his home
environment. This includes his interactions with his parents and little sister. Alex's school
is also part of his microsystem. His regular school interactions are with his kindergarten
teacher and the other children in his class.

Mesosystem

The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the different parts of a person's
microsystem. The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not
function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
These interactions have an indirect impact on the individual.

One aspect of Alex's mesosystem would be the relationship between his parents and his
teacher. His parents take an active role in his school, such as attending parent/teacher
conferences and volunteering in his classroom. This has a positive impact on his

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development because the different elements of his microsystem are working together.
Alex's development could be affected in a negative way if the different elements of his
microsystem were working against one another.

Exosystem

The exosystem refers to a setting that does not involve the person as an active participant,
but still affects them. This includes decisions that have bearing on the person, but in
which they have no participation in the decision-making process. An example would be
a child being affected by a parent receiving a promotion at work or losing their job.

One part of Alex's exosystem would be his father's workplace. Alex's father is in the
Navy. This often takes him away from the family, and Alex sometimes does not see his
father for months at a time. This situation impacts Alex, and he becomes anxious when
his father leaves. Alex's anxiety has an effect on his development in other areas, even
though he has no interaction with his father's work or say in the decision-making process.

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Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes; for example, habit formation in motor learning, and
learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills, and learning strategies.
Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to construct
meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are
active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own
learning.

2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful
representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally
relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over
time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening
their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals. Educators can
assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and
educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge
in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and
experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms,
such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made
or develop may vary in different subject areas and among students with varying talents, interests,
and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior
knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most
effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist
learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown to
be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as correct mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving,
and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue
to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well
for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with
appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing,
applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance
goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress
toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they
are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to
reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that
focus on helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance
student learning and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,

and instructional practices.

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 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner
and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many
educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of
thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies. The classroom
environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts
on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is influenced by
the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states,
beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can
enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing. Students’
beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on
motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and
information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as
curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can
also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention on a particular task.
However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and relative thoughts
(e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule or
stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low
performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice of control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners’ intrinsic
motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to
exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as
interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learners’ abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated
on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending
to individual differences in learners’ perception of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and
personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation and effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Effort is another main indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and
skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with
persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that
enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of
comprehension and understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided
by practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that
increase learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and
constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in
an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies across intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary.
Overemphasis on one’s type of developmental readiness–such as reading readiness, for example–

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 may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of
performance. The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual learners and how they
interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and community factors.
Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language interactions and
two-way communications between adults and children can influence these developmental areas.
Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and without
emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,
and communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with
others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect
diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and collaborative
instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking
that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem.
Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners’ sense of
belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning. Family
influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset
factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular
subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and unique pressure to perform
well. Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking,
feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the
learning process, and create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through learning
and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the
pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners
reach their learning goals. Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and
expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences and curricular and
environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators need to be
sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the
degree to which these differences are accredited and adapted to by varying instructional methods
and materials.

13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural,
and social backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning.
Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing
and implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that their individual
differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are
integral parts of the learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards
appropriately high goals. Therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses,
as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an
optimal degree of difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the
learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides

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 one type of information about achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform
various types of programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide other sources of
information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can
also improve students’ self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

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