502712

2013
CNC37310.1177/0309816813502712Capital & ClassTomba

Article

Capital & Class

Accumulation and time:

37(3) 355­–372
© The Author(s) 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/0309816813502712
from the Grundrisse to c&c.sagepub.com

Capital

Massimiliano Tomba
University of Padua, Italy

Abstract
This article investigates the way in which Marx combines different historiographical
approaches in order to draft the possibility for both new forms of social relationship
and a new anthropology. The classic unilinear and historicist paradigm and its
idea of pre-modern, pre-capitalist and pre-political social forms does not help
in understanding the interaction of different temporalities and the combination
of formal and real subsumptions. The representation of ongoing accumulation
requires different temporalities, which conflict and intertwine with one another.

Keywords
Philosophy of history, historical temporalities, anthropology, Eurocentrism,
accumulation, colonialism, violence, subsumption

Introduction
Marx wrote the Grundrisse in the midst of a crisis. In a letter to Engels dated 8 December
1857, he wrote, ‘I am working like mad all night and every night collating my economic
studies so that I at least get the outlines clear before the deluge.’ In the book, Mark lays out
a strategy that allows readers to comprehend and go through the crisis via a critique – a
critique that unpacks the crisis, and opens new revolutionary possibilities. According to
Gidwani, ‘Marx uses crisis to produce an agonistic knowledge that is intensely alert to
fissures and interruptions in capital’s imperial being’ (Gidwani 2008: 869).
Marx considers the capitalist mode of production to be a social form which opens a
new epoch; that is, the extension of the sphere of needs and of human capacities:

Hence the exploration of the whole of nature in order to discover new useful properties of
things; the universal exchange of the products coming from the most diverse climates and

Corresponding author:
Massimiliano Tomba, University of Padua, Italy.
Email: massimiliano.tomba@unipd.it
356 Capital & Class 37(3)

lands; new (artificial) modes of processing natural objects to give them new use values. The all-
round exploration of the earth to discover both new useful objects and new uses for old objects,
such as their use as raw materials, etc.; hence the development of the natural sciences to their
highest point; the discovery, creation and satisfaction of new needs arising from society itself;
cultivating [Kultur] all the qualities of social man [gesellschaftlicher Mensch] and producing him
in a form as rich as possible in needs because rich in qualities and relations – producing man as
the most total and universal social product possible (for in order to enjoy many different kinds
of things he must be capable of enjoyment, that is he must be cultivated to a high degree) –
all these are also conditions of production based on capital. This creation of new branches
of production, i.e. qualitatively new surplus time, is not only the division of labour, but also
the separation of a definite kind of production from itself as labour of a new use value; the
development of a constantly expanding comprehensive system of different kinds of labour,
different kinds of production, with a corresponding system of ever more extended and ever
more varied needs. (Marx 1986: 336)

By producing new needs, capital breaks the umbilical cord that used to link Man and
nature. Nature becomes for the first time only an object for mankind to use: ‘nothing
more than a matter of utility’ (Marx 1986: 337). This is the form of modern luxury. One
must consider the difference between luxury in antiquity and in modern times in relation
to the ‘new (artificial) modes of processing natural objects to give them new use values’
(Marx 1986: 336) – the growth of human needs, and new forms of experience.
Corresponding to these phenomena is an anthropological modification, a new kind of
human being: the cultivating of all the qualities of ‘social man’. Marx names this new
human nature, this ‘new subject’, the ‘social individual’ (Marx 1987: 92). This is a very
important concept, which marks an anthropological break. This is an individual who is
not the same any more: he has broken his bond with nature, hence society becomes his
new nature. But not the Hegelian second nature, which presupposes ethical relations
which give the individual his concreteness, determine his duties and therefore also his
limits. In the Marxian third nature, not only the Hegelian estates [Stände] and corporate
relations, but also the system of needs, are destroyed: capital produces not in the perspec-
tive of satisfying human needs but in order to valorise value. The use-value of the com-
modity becomes the abstract support [Träger] of value, and therefore a new form of
use-value. The sensible becomes the phenomenal form of the suprasensible. Money
ceases to be a mean, and becomes the end. The image of capitalistic modernity is the
Verkehrung:1 inversion and perversion at the same time. The limits of the first and the
second nature are overcome; and a new, limitless third nature arises.
The aim of this article is to investigate the way in which Marx combines different
historiographical approaches in order to draft a field of possibilities for both new forms
of social relationship and a new anthropology. In doing so, Marx, appropriately, casts
doubt upon the unilinear conception of time.

Pre-capitalist forms and ‘foreshadowing of the

future’
When Marx wrote the Grundrisse, his political motivation was to open up revolutionary
possibilities within the crisis (Krätke 2008; Krätke 2008a). For this reason, in it he tries
to sketch out possibilities of liberation in the trend of capitalistic development and
Tomba 357

stresses the ‘great civilising influence of capital’ (Marx 1986: 336) in order to reach a new
stage of society. In this context, one must understand his representation of the social
individual as an attempt to prefigure the new anthropological type of a new social form
whose capabilities are socially developed. In fact, social development, or social general
knowledge, is not opposed to the individual, as in Capital, later; but rather it represents
his actual development. If modernity has produced the individual, Marx tries to outline
a new concept of individual beyond the modern one.
There are brilliant pages in which Marx works with a double scheme of interpreta-
tion. He pieces together a kind of evolutionary history with a repetitive history (Lefort
1986): a history of invariants. He does this in order to understand the nature of the
historical break that represents the capitalist mode of production,2 inquiring therefore
into pre-capitalist modes of production as the otherness of capitalism. What results from
this analysis is not continuity, but rather an historical change; that is, the radical discon-
tinuity between pre-capitalist and capitalist forms. One can analyse this discontinuity as
a modification of the individual and humanity. ‘Man becomes individualised only
through the process of history [Der Mensch vereinzelt sich erst durch den historischen
Prozeß]’ (Marx 1986: 420). The gradualness of the historical forms in the Grundrisse
concerns the individualisation of man through the progressive dissolution of the original
unity between man and community. Marx depicts the historical process which, starting
from the original condition of the species-being and through different stages, ends with
the social individual, who is apparently conciliated again with the species (Texier 1992:
143). Actually, the ‘social individual’ is the temporary name that Marx found to repre-
sent a different configuration of the relationship between individual and collective (Marx
1986: 90-92). The social individual is the expression of a productive form that has driven
labour beyond the limits of natural necessity and which therefore constitutes the basis for
the development of a new and richer individuality, and thus, also, of a new social forma-
tion. The concept of the social individual evokes a sort of cusp of capitalist development,
the point at which this mode of production even produces a new human nature whose
brain is no longer only the heritage of one skull alone, but also becomes a ‘social brain’
(Marx 1986: 84), in which the potential of the knowledge of the species is objectified.
In this scheme, the overcoming of the natural limit due to the limitless nature of the
capitalist mode of production constitutes the requirement for the free and full develop-
ment of the individual. However, that argument concurrently presents a scheme of phi-
losophy of history. Taking the pages on pre-capitalist forms, in which this topic on the
individual is found, one can see the sequence: genesis, development, crisis. That is to say:
unity of individual and community; dissolution of the communitarian bounds; a new
form of conciliation with the Gattung.
The starting point of this historical sketch is the natural community, which pre-exists
the individual as something natural and where the individual is only a member of the
community. This is the first form of precapitalist mode of production, namely the orien-
tal Despotism. Technological or economical innovation may occur, but they do not
affect the stability of the social organisation which is self-sustaining. The unity of man
and community on the one side and of man and ground on the other side isn’t in ques-
tion. This is a very interesting point, because Marx presents a form of historiography
which breaks with the model of becoming dominated from the development of produc-
tive forces.
358 Capital & Class 37(3)

In the second form, the community is once again also implied, but the individuals are
no longer a sheer accident of the community. In this scenario the dissolution of the
natural essence of the community relationship takes place. The single individual becomes
a landlord, whose form of property is direct possession. The individual remains a mem-
ber of the community, but is nonetheless a single private owner. The community can be
recognised as a historical product.
The Germanic form of property which Marx describes is not really the third form,
but rather a possibility in the development of the precapitalist form of production. Other
possibilities were open. Someone had a history and different developments, someone was
destroyed. In the Germanic form one can find common property and individual posses-
sion at the same time. Marx drafts a comparative history: he analyses this form in con-
nection to the Roman ager publicum. While with the Germans the economical totality is
the single house, with the Romans this is identified with the city, and in the Asiatic form
it is the natural community, who remains the true owner (Munzer 1990: 161-2). In the
Germanic form the ‘community exists only in the mutual relation of the individual land-
owners as such’. The community ‘is neither the substance, of which the individual
appears merely as an accident [as in the Oriental community], nor is it the general,
which exists as such and has a unified being [as with the ancients]’ (Marx 1986: 408), it
appears instead ‘as an assembly, not an association, as a unification whose independent
subjects are the landed proprietors, and not as a unity’ (Marx 1986: 407). The Germanic
system is an element in the constitution of the feudal form, which derives ‘from a
“Germanic” path out of primitive communalism’ (Wood 2008: 80) and where ‘the rela-
tionship of dominion exists as an essential relation of appropriation’ (Marx 1986: 424)
which presupposes ‘the appropriation of another's will’ (Marx 1986: 424). These forms
of relationship – dominion and servitude – ‘constitute a necessary ferment in the develop-
ment and decay of all primitive relations of property and production, just as they express
their limitations’ (Marx 1986: 424-5).
In all these forms of community relationship, be they natural or historical or tradi-
tional, the relationship is pre-given, presupposed to the individual. The community rela-
tionship is a limit to the development of both the individual and the society. In these
forms, writes Marx, ‘a free and full development, either of the individual or of the society,
is inconceivable … since such a development stands in contradiction to the original rela-
tion’ (Marx 1986: 411). Common to these forms is the economical aim of production,
i.e. the production of use value.3 Marx exposes a succession of processes of dissolution
which destroy the communitarian limit of production and create the premises for a lim-
itless production. In this sense, he writes in the introduction to his Contribution to the
Critique of Political Economy (1859), that the ‘Asiatic, ancient, feudal and modern bour-
geois modes of production may be designated as epochs marking progress [progressive
Epochen] in the economic development of society’ (Marx 1987a: 263). Prima facie, in
this frame the genesis of the capitalist mode of production, through the dissolution of
pre-capitalist social relations in Europe, becomes a general scheme of interpretation and
the flow of capitalism becomes a dynamic solvent for transforming pre-capitalist rela-
tions elsewhere.4 On the other hand, Marx’s discourse about progress sets out to show the
process of dissolution of the limits, a progress which is observed from the standpoint of
the present, where the ‘bourgeois relations of production are the last antagonistic form
of the social process of production’ (Marx 1987a: 263-4). ‘Last’, in Marx’s words, because
Tomba 359

all the previous limits, both natural and communitarian, are now destroyed by the
strength of a production whose aim is not the use value but the value.
An inversion is now prevailing in the capitalist form of production. Through the
dominium of autonomised exchange-value [verselbständigter Tauschwert], the peasant
ceases to appear before the landlord as ‘a peasant with his product’, but he appears as an
owner of money. From this derives a new form of community in which the monetary
relations replace the ancient personal bonds (Marx 1987b: 430). The classic form of
exchange, where the aim is the use value and one sells to buy (C-M-C), is inverted in the
form M-C-M. Value becomes the end. This inversion characterises capitalistic moder-
nity and the new form of community. In his time, Aristotle could still try to save the
oikonomia by confining M-C-M into krematistiké, which he considered a form of
exchange in opposition to the nature of exchange (Marx 1987b: 487-8).5 Marx empha-
sises Aristotle’s opposition of the economic to the chrematistic. The former ‘is limited to
procuring those articles that are necessary to existence, and useful either to a household
or the state’. It ‘is not unlimited’; for the latter; but instead, ‘there appears to be no limits
to riches and possessions’ (Marx 1996: 163). By opposing economic to chrematistic,
Marx poses the very important issue of a clash between unlimited and limit: apeiron
peiras. Marx quotes a long passage from Aristotle:

The riches, such as Chrematistic strives for, are unlimited. Just as every art that is not a means
to an end, but an end in itself, has no limit to its aims, because it constantly seeks to approach
nearer and nearer to that end, while those arts that pursue means to an end, are not boundless,
since the goal itself imposes a limit upon them, so with Chrematistic, there are no bounds to its
aims, these aims being absolute wealth. Œconomic not Chrematistic has a limit … the object
of the former is something different from money, of the latter the augmentation of money. …
By confounding these two forms, which overlap each other, some people have been led to look
upon the preservation and increase of money ad infinitum as the end and aim of Œconomic
(Aristoteles, De Re[publica] edit. Bekker, lib. l. c. 8, 9, passim). (Marx 1996: 163)

The capitalist inversion, the autonomisation of value and the indifference toward the
concrete quality of use value makes the dissolution of those communitarian bonds which
limited the ‘full development of the individual’ possible, through the ‘development of
the productive power’ (Marx 1987: 97). In Notebook 7 of the Grundrisse, Marx outlines
a dialectic between the ‘development of the productive power’ and the ‘development of
the individual’, in which the capitalist mode of production breaks the development-
limiting communitarian bond. This is possible due to the indifference of the ends of
capitalist production to the use value. The whole development of the modern individual
begins with the dissolution of the ancient community and the production of indifferent
relationships, whose name is civil or bourgeois society.
In the 1850s, Marx works with the ambivalences of the concepts of the capitalist form
of production and tries to show the progressive side of capitalist development. Marx’s
attempt to think the limitless nature of capitalism presents some ambiguities, which
emerge in his remarks on colonialism (Anderson 2010). In his Eurocentric justification
of English colonialism in India, he wrote that this would have a ‘double mission … : one
being destructive, the other regenerating – the annihilation of old Asiatic society, and the
laying of the material foundations of Western society in Asia’ (Marx 1979: 217-8). Up to
the end of the 1850s, Marx regarded the ‘propagandistic (civilising) tendency’ (Marx
360 Capital & Class 37(3)

1986: 466) of capital positively, and believed in the thoroughness with which British
industrial capital would destroy non-capitalist societies in the process of its worldwide
expansion (Mohri 1979: 35).6 In the 1950s, Marx’s pronouncements on colonialism
were often ambivalent – the same ambivalence that can be found in the whole constella-
tion of the Grundrisse. Marx works with the ambivalences of concepts of capitalistic
modernity, and orients its positive side by a progressive philosophy of history. Various
branches of Marxism have placed emphasis on this historicism, locating the development
of productive forces as the tendency that must be followed by all other forms that are
designated as backward or residual.
One runs into these ambiguities of the tendency in the Grundrisse’s well-known
‘Fragment on machinery’.7 If one reads the pages of the Grundrisse on the pre-capitalist
form of production and the ‘Fragment’ at the same time, an attempt to outline, from the
logic of the development of pre-capitalist forms, a ‘foreshadowing of the future’ is found.
At the end of the section on pre-capitalist forms of production, Marx writes:

These indications [Andeutung], together with a correct grasp of the present [richtige Fassung
des Gegenwärtigen], then also offer the key to the understanding of the past [Verständnis
der Vergangenheit] … This correct approach, moreover, leads to points which indicate the
suppression [Aufhebung] of the present form of production relations, the movement coming
into being, thus foreshadowing of the future [foreshadowing der Zukunft]. (Marx 1986: 388)

In this Marxian scheme, the perspective of a ‘violent overthrow’ of capital results from
the projection into the future of the laws of development of the pre-capitalist forms.
Marx uses his historic reconstruction politically to sketch out a dialectic of the develop-
ment and limit of the forces of production. This historical scheme is projected onto the
capitalist mode of production to show its immanent limits, in the same way as Marx did
with the pre-modern concept of corporation. In this direction, we find the scenario of
the ‘Fragment on the machine’ from the Grundrisse, in which ‘capital works to dissolve
itself ’ (Marx 1987: 86): as large-scale industry develops, ‘the creation of real wealth
becomes less dependent upon labour time and the quantity of labour employed than
upon the power of the agents set in motion during labour time’ (Marx 1987: 90-91). As
well known, according to the law of value, it is the human labour objectified in a com-
modity that represents its value. For this reason, given an increase in the productivity of
labour through machines and the replacement of living labour with machines, the value
objectified in the products should decrease. Therefore, Marx thought that with automa-
tion, production based upon exchange value, i.e. on the labour-value relation, would
‘collapse’ (Marx 1987: 91). Thus capital works … toward its own dissolution.
The focus of these pages of the Grundrisse is always on the ‘development of science’
and ‘progress of technology’ on the one hand, and the ‘development of the social indi-
vidual’ on the other (Marx 1987: 90-91). There is a geschichtsphilosophical link between
those two elements. Marx saw that science and technology are not neutral. But he was
more interested in developing the positive side of scientific progress than in its destruc-
tive character both for nature and the individual. The unlimited character of the capital-
istic mode of production seems to Marx to be pushing this form beyond its own limits.
Marx’s 1860s perspective is different (Bellofiore 2008). Marx’s thorough analysis of
the world market led him to investigate the competition of capitals, the history of non-
Tomba 361

capitalist societies, and capital’s ‘early integration into the world market’ (Anderson
2002: 93; Anderson 2010). Concentrating on anticolonial revolts, he brought unilinear
models of historical explanation into question. Differently from the 1850s, here Marx
does not emphasise the ‘double mission’ of English colonialism: the supposed ‘regenerat-
ing’ side disappears, and the destruction of the native industry of India or Ireland by
British capital is no longer regarded as ‘revolutionary’.8 This change of view on India is
also clear in 1881: ‘as for the East Indies, for example, everyone except Sir Henry Maine
and others of his ilk realises that the suppression of communal landownership out there
was nothing but an act of English vandalism, pushing the native people not forwards but
backwards’ (Marx 1989b: 365).
Likewise, science and technology are not considered as progressive forces but, from
the point of view of the worker, as an extraneous power: the construction of machines as
automatons makes science the power of the machine itself. The application of science to
production retroacts into the rationality of modern science, turning it into a capitalistic
mean of production.9 The goal of mechanical construction is the empowerment and
intensification of labour. This is a goal that not only does not exist in the consciousness
of the workers, but is also counterposed to it. The ‘social individual’ disappears, termino-
logically speaking too, and the mutilations of the worker succeed him. Marx’s view in
Capital is not more pessimistic in comparison with the Grundisse, but less abstract: his
point of view is not that of history and its development, but that of the concreteness of
the worker, of his body and mind. Capital goes beyond any limit; insofar as it is the first
mode of production without measure, it is also a powerful destructive system of both ‘the
original sources of all wealth — the soil and the labourer’ (Marx 1996: 508).
The means for the development of production ‘mutilate the labourer into a fragment
of a man, degrade him to the level of an appendage of a machine, destroy every remnant
of charm in his work and turn it into a hated toil’ (Marx 1996: 693). Moreover, they

estrange from him the intellectual potentialities of the labour process in the same proportion
as science is incorporated in it as an independent power; they distort the conditions under
which he works, subject him during the labour process to a despotism the more hateful for its
meanness; they transform his lifetime into working time, and drag his wife and child beneath
the wheels of the Juggernaut of capital. (Marx 1996: 693)

Intellectual potentialities increase, but will be incorporated into science and into the
machine; into the ‘dead labour, that, vampire-like, only lives by sucking living labour,
and lives the more, the more labour it sucks’ (Marx 1998: 241). For instance, computers
have not freed up time but instead have broadened labour-time, so that it invades the
private sphere too. Thus one must not look back romantically to a pre-capitalist past, nor
defend the development of the means of production as representatives of liberation.

Towards a perspective on the historical temporalities

of accumulation
As noted above, the Marxian perspective changes in the 1860s; but already at the end of
1858, in the light of the ability of capital to metabolise the crisis, Marx is led to recon-
sider his analysis. In a letter to Engels dated 8 October 1858, he writes,
362 Capital & Class 37(3)

There is no denying that bourgeois society has for the second time experienced its 16th
century, a 16th century which, I hope, will sound its death knell just as the first ushered it
into the world. The proper task of bourgeois society is the creation of the world market, at
least in outline, and of the production based on that market. Since the world is round, the
colonisation of California and Australia and the opening up of China and Japan would seem to
have completed this process. For us, the difficult question is this: on the Continent revolution
is imminent and will, moreover, instantly assume a socialist character. Will it not necessarily be
crushed in this little corner of the earth, since the movement of bourgeois society is still, in the
ascendant over a far greater area? (Marx 1983: 347-348)

In this letter, one can find the coordinates of Marx’s theoretical and political work of
the 1860s, and the difference with the Grundrisse is already notable. There are three
important issues in this letter. First of all, bourgeois society, writes Marx, ‘has for the
second time experienced its 16th century’. This second 16th century of capitalism leads
Marx to consider an enduring primitive accumulation, not confined to the beginning of
capitalist production. Secondly, both theoretical and political analysis must be made at
the level of the world market. The ‘world is round’, writes Marx, and capitalism puts into
relation different geographical areas and different forms of exploitation. One cannot
analyse capitalism only by considering the countries in which it is more developed. That
being so, the third consideration is that Marx poses the ‘difficult question’ of the success
of a socialist revolution in Europe until the movement of capitalist society is still ‘ascen-
dant over a far greater area’. From this moment on, a Eurocentric point of view on capi-
talism and working class movements is directly reactionary, as are all the attempts to
construct ‘Socialism in one country’.
In order to understand the new level of this analysis, another very important point is
that, at the time of the Grundrisse, Marx had not yet clarified the distinction between
abstract labour and socially necessary labour. The analysis proceeds sometimes in a very
abstract way, so that the levels of the single production of capital and that of capital in
general seem to be mixed up. Instead, it is important to consider that only the socially
necessary labour-time objectified in a commodity counts as the exchange value of a com-
modity, and not the labour-time that is really individually spent in its production. For
example, one hour of productivity labour can correspond to two or three hours of social
necessary labour, and only the latter counts as exchange value (Tomba 2009). The issue
that Marx failed to consider at the time of the Grundrisse is the transfer [Übertragung]
(Marx 1998: 205) of surplus-value from different spheres and, in a wider sense, countries
(Dussel 1990; Dussel 2001: 213-4; Marini 1991: 8-10). Only in the 1860s, when mak-
ing allowance for the competition of capitals in the world market, Marx considers ‘every
individual capital … as a part of the total capital, and every capitalist actually as a share-
holder in the total social enterprise, each sharing in the total profit pro rata to the mag-
nitude of his share of capital’ (Marx 1998: 207).
In this scenario, Marx begins to rethink the categorial context of his analysis. He
begins to conceive capital not according to the scheme genesis, development, crisis, but in
the combination of these moments and their temporalities (Tomba 2012; Bensaïd 1996;
Tombazos 1994: 27). He abandons the scheme of the progressive epochs of economic
development in favour of a historiography of the original accumulation, which he will
work on and reshape in the diverse editions of Capital. The original accumulation
Tomba 363

[ursprüngliche Akkumulation] is not primitive in the sense of being the starting point of
capitalism; but it is instead a whole entirety of always present forms of interventions of
economic and extra-economic violence (Sacchetto and Tomba 2008). The analysis of
accumulation in Capital has a different target from the analysis of pre-capitalist forms in
the Grundrisse, in which Marx was looking for a theory of collapse of a productive form
in the passage to a new higher one. In Capital, Marx works with a different concept of
crisis and, therefore, with a different concept of accumulation. When Marx rethinks the
‘fall of the rate of profit’, he leaves out the ‘collapsism’ of the Grundrisse: crisis ceases to
be understood as an anteroom of the overthrow of capitalism, and becomes an element
for a new form of equilibrium with new forms of accumulation (Reuten and Thomas
2011).
In the 1870s, while he was working on the Russian economic mode of production
and community, Marx revised his scheme of historical development. In a letter written
at the end of 1877 to the Editor of Otechestvennye Zapiski, he wrote that his draft of the
genesis of capitalism in Western Europe could not be transformed ‘into a historical-
philosophical theory of universal development, predetermined by fate, for all peoples’
(Marx 1989: 201).
Between the first and third editions of Capital Volume 1, Marx intervenes, in his
analysis of the history of the capitalistic development, to reduce its general and too
abstract character. Marx does not espouse a universal model of the genesis of the capital-
ist mode of production that is valid ‘for all peoples’. While in the first edition (1867), he
had written: ‘The country that is more developed industrially shows, to the less devel-
oped, only the image of its own future’ (Marx 1867: 12); in the French edition (1872-
1875), which was checked by Marx, one can read instead, ‘The country that is
industrially more developed only shows, to those which follow it on the industrial path,
the image of its own future’ (Marx 1872-1875: 12). Marx’s revision narrows the field: a
country that is more developed shows their future only to the countries directed along
the same industrial path, but this is not a general law.10 Moreover, Marx also intervenes
in the chapter on original accumulation. The analysis loses its character of being the
general law of historical development: in the first edition, he describes the process of
separation as a ‘following of historical processes’ which causes the ‘history of the develop-
ment’ of the modern bourgeois society (Marx 1867: 576) as a general law. In the third
edition, a long paragraph was cut (Marx 1883: 669).11 The analysis became more con-
crete and concerned the English case, where the different moments of primitive accumu-
lation, which was distributed in geographical and ‘chronological order, particularly over
Spain, Portugal, Holland, France, and England’, arrive ‘at the end of the 17th century at
a systematical combination, embracing the colonies, the national debt, the modern
mode of taxation, and the protectionist system’ (Marx 1996: 739). All these systems
require the violence of the state. Therefore, Marx analyses the transition to the capitalis-
tic mode of production, paying attention to the ‘violent levers [gewaltsame Hebeln]’
(1996: 472) that have made it possible, and to the power and the violence of the state,
which dissolved the feudal system and produced the immobilisation and discipline of the
labour-force (Moulier-Boutang 2002: 26). The peculiarity of accumulation involves
extra-economic interventions that join the terrorism of the separation between means of
production and workers (Bonefeld 2001) with the extra-economic violence of the state,
in pursuit of the increase in absolute exploitation of the labour force both in intensity
364 Capital & Class 37(3)

and extension. For this reason, the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe could not be
transformed ‘into an historical-philosophical theory of universal development, predeter-
mined by fate, for all peoples’. Marx had learnt, especially in his confrontation with the
Russian populists, that one could never understand historical phenomena ‘with the passe-
partout of a philosophy of history whose supreme virtue is to be suprahistorical’ (Marx
1989: 201).
Without the violence of the state; without the destruction of different auctoritates
and corporative bonds; without the production of proletarians; without enclosures
and separation of labour from the means of production; without discipline and con-
trol of the formally free workers; without these and other histories and their synchro-
nization, the capitalist mode of production would not have been born. One might
speak of a ‘processus de rencontre aléatoire’, in the sense in which Althusser, in his
Matérialisme de la Rencontre, speaks of it (Althusser 1994: 572). In all modes of pro-
duction there are different elements that are independent of each other, and each is
the result of a particular history without any teleological relation to other histories.
The capitalist mode of production might also not exist; but the lucky – or wicked –
encounter and combination of different temporalities made it possible. Even if the
encounter of these elements is aléatoire, their combination is not random, and
requires an explanation: these temporalities and the multiple ‘violent levers’ (Marx
1996: 739 and p. 742) of accumulation are always again synchronized through the
power of the state, which created and disciplined modern proletarians through work-
houses and the systematic destruction of corporative bonds, enclosures, and the sepa-
ration of labour from the means of production. According to these considerations, we
must refer to ongoing original accumulation. The Marxian ‘primitive accumulation’ is
not only an episode of the protohistory of the capitalist form. ‘Original’ – I prefer to
use this translation for the German ‘ursprünglich’ – does not mean that the accumula-
tion is an ancient moment of history of capitalism; ‘accumulation’ is the continuous
driving power of capitalism, a combination of different and relatively independent
moments: violence of the state, the production of proletarians and formally free
labour, colonisation, slavery, the dissolution of ancient forms of authorities, enclo-
sures, separation between producers and means of production, discipline of the wage-
workers. These histories of extra-economic violence and their synchronisation through
the state were and are the conditions of possibility of the capitalist mode of produc-
tion. Gleichschaltung, a Nazi term that means switching onto the same track – a term
that can be translated as the English word synchronisation – is the constitutive element
of capitalistic modernity from its beginning to now.
In order to understand the permanence of original accumulation now, we need a kind
of historiography of the present that makes it possible to understand the current combi-
nation of different temporalities under the attempt to synchronise them through the
intervention of extra-economic violence. Also for the study of modern slavery, we need
on one hand a form of historiography that is able to work with ‘a plurality of temporal
strata, of variable extension and duration that interact in the same historical dimension
of modernity, and which can only be understood in relation to one another’ (Tomich
2004: 94; Sewell 2008: 528-530) – in Capital, Marx exposes the historical passages of
this genesis with a new kind of historiography. On the other hand, we need different
categories of subsumption, such as the ‘hybrid’ or intermediate forms [Zwitterformen] of
Tomba 365

subsumption (Marx 1996: 511, and see Murray 2004: 243–73; Murray 2000: 122) in
which surplus labour is extracted by means of direct coercion without the formal sub-
sumption of labour to capital.
If for the ‘bourgeois historians’ the ‘historical movement which changes the producers
into wage workers exists only in its appearance, as the process of ‘their emancipation
from serfdom and from the fetters of the guilds’ (Marx 1996: 706), for the historical
materialist, this history ‘is written in the annals of mankind in letters of blood and fire’
(Marx 1996: 706). Marx works as an ancient chronicler:

• From the 1570s to the 1610s, a ‘mass of free proletarians [vogelfreie Proletarier]
was hurled onto the labour market by the breaking-up of the bands of feudal
retainers’ (Marx 1996: 708-9).
• In the 16th century, ‘The process of forcible expropriation of the people received
… a new and frightful impulse from the Reformation, and from the consequent
colossal spoliation of the church property. … The suppression of the monasteries,
&c., hurled their inmates into the proletariat’ (Marx 1996: 711).
• From 1660 onwards, after the restoration of the Stuarts: the abolition of the ‘feu-
dal tenure of land’. ‘Landed proprietors carried, by legal means, an act of usurpa-
tion, effected everywhere on the Continent without any legal formality’ (Marx
1996: 713).

A mass of proletarians was produced through the dissolution of the feudal system.
They needed to be disciplined into the chronometric time of the market, rather than that
of the Church (Le Goff 1960).12 The ‘bloody legislation’ against the expropriated begins
with the following:

• Henry VIII, 1530: ‘Beggars old and unable to work receive a beggar's licence. On
the other hand, whipping and imprisonment for sturdy vagabonds. They are to
be tied to the cart-tail and whipped until the blood streams from their bodies,
then to swear an oath to go back to their birthplace or to where they have lived
the last three years and to ‘put themselves to labour’. … For the second arrest for
vagabondage the whipping is to be repeated and half the ear sliced off; but for the
third relapse the offender is to be executed as a hardened criminal and enemy of
the common weal’ (Marx 1996: 723-4).
• Edward VI, 1547: ‘A statute of the first year of his reign … ordains that if anyone
refuses to work, he shall be condemned as a slave to the person who has denounced
him as an idler’ (Marx 1996: 724).
• Elizabeth, 1572: ‘Unlicensed beggars above 14 years of age are to be severely
flogged and branded on the left ear unless someone will take them into service for
two years; in case of a repetition of the offence, if they are over 18, they are to be
executed, unless someone will take them into service for two years; but for the
third offence they are to be executed without mercy as felons’ (Marx 1996: 725).
• James I (1603-1625): ‘Any one wandering about and begging is declared a rogue
and a vagabond. Justices of the peace in petty sessions are authorised to have them
publicly whipped and for the first offence to imprison them for 6 months, for the
second for 2 years. … Incorrigible and dangerous rogues are to be branded with
366 Capital & Class 37(3)

an R on the left shoulder and set to hard labour, and if they are caught begging
again, to be executed without mercy’ (Marx 1996: 725-6).

Capitalistic modernity was born globalised in the entanglement of colonialism and

slavery. As the case of the American colonies shows, workers’ escape or exit constitutes the
principal problem of capitalistic accumulation between 1500 and 1800 (Moulier-Boutang
2002: 26). The end of the English legislation of the 16th and 17th centuries is the immo-
bilisation and discipline of the labour force, even through slavery. This was no anomalous
case in the colonies, but rather an authoritarian answer, quite homogeneous, to control
the mobility of European and North American living labour on the market (Moulier-
Boutang 2002: 158). According to Boutang, it is not trade that produces the slavery, but
rather the bonded wage labour that produces its modern forms (Moulier-Boutang 2002:
232). Modern slavery, especially debt bondage, could be considered as a disciplined vari-
ant of ‘free’ wage labour. Slavery is not a dark moment banished into the proto-history of
capital13, but is continually reproduced from the capitalist mode of production.
The colonial system supported the development of the industrial system. Marx’s edit-
ing of historical materials14 shows different counter-histories and the dark side of a ‘prog-
ress’ whose focus was ‘a vast, Herod-like slaughter of the innocents’ (Marx 1996: 745).
Capital affirms itself on the stage of world history, showing its mortal face at once. This
violence was extreme ‘in plantation colonies destined for export trade only, such as the
West Indies, and in rich and well-populated countries, such as Mexico and India, that
were given over to plunder’ (Marx 1996: 741). Through this violence, capital was able to
pull out labour-force to be employed into plantation, and the intensity of labour was set
to the clock of the world stock exchange. For this reason, ‘the negro labour in the
Southern States of the American Union preserved something of a patriarchal character,
so long as production was chiefly directed to immediate local consumption. But in pro-
portion, as the export of cotton became of vital interest to these states, the overworking
of the negro and sometimes the using up of his life in 7 years of labour became a factor
in a calculated and calculating system. It was no longer a question of obtaining from him
a certain quantity of useful products. It was now a question of production of surplus
labour itself ’ (Marx 1996: 244).
Slavery becomes something new when it is subsumed to the world market, as with its
development, all people are entangled in its net (Marx 1996: 750). The net of the world
market holds together not only different forms of exploitation while combining them
synchronically, but, and this is the other history, it bridges different working classes. The
very important issue that Marx posed at end of the 1860s concerns the synchronic com-
bination of different forms of exploitation, and their entwinement starting from the
relation between absolute and relative surplus-value.
Capital needs to create geographical areas or productive sectors in which it can pro-
duce an enormous quantity of absolute surplus-value to support the production of
extraordinary surplus-value, relative surplus-value produced through mechanical innova-
tions. As a matter of fact, when technological innovation becomes widespread, the grow-
ing productivity of labour obtained through its employment becomes socially dominant,
and the capitalist can no longer draw social surplus-value though his growing productiv-
ity. The capitalist hence can do nothing but ruthlessly prolong the working day. The
extraction of relative surplus-value requires differentials in the productive labour-force,
Tomba 367

therefore through different processes of accumulations capital generates, in those parts of

the world in which workers’ resistance is lower, a great mass of absolute exploitation
(Tomba 2009).
The original [ursprünglich] violence of the accumulation must be repeated over and
over in order to cause new differentials in the force of production and intensity of labour.
Therefore, the extra-economic violence of primitive accumulation accompanies as a basso
continuo the whole history of capital. Today, this violence also accompanies the econom-
ical–political function of borders in order to set the price of the migrant labour-force,
and to determine ethnic divisions of labour.

Historical materialist’s historiography

The late Marx, confronting himself with the Russian populists and with historical mate-
rial on the ancient forms of community (Marx 1972), was looking for such a new kind
of historiography and political intervention. In the first draft of the answer to Vera
Zasulich, Marx tries to think how the destiny of the obshchina is not its own necessary
dissolution, but can be the ‘starting point of a Russian regeneration’. This topic returns
in the Preface of the Russian Edition of the Communist Manifesto (1882). Marx wrote,

Now the question is: can the Russian obshchina …, a form of primeval common ownership
of land, even if greatly undermined, pass directly to the higher form of communist common
ownership? Or must it, conversely, first pass through the same process of dissolution as
constitutes the historical development of the West? The only answer possible today is this: If
the Russian Revolution becomes the signal for a proletarian revolution in the West, so that the
two complement each other, the present Russian common ownership of land may serve as the
starting point for communist development. (Marx 1989a: 426)

Here one finds historical forms of production, such as the Russian community, which
are not a pre-capitalistic residual, but contemporary forms with a specific temporality,
which hold in themselves the possibility of new forms of emancipation and liberation.
This late Marx forces us to think of history as a multiversum. To be understood, the
world market requires a historiographical paradigm which is able to comprehend the
combination of a plurality of temporal strata in the violent synchronising dimension of
modernity. The post-modern juxtaposition of a plurality of historical times, in which
slavery is contiguous with high-tech production in the overcoming of the dualism of
centre and periphery, doesn’t explain anything and is even concealing. The post-modern
mosaic of temporalities and forms of exploitation, even though it represents them as
interconnected, poses the different times in a state of indifference to each other, while the
very problem is their combination through the mechanisms of synchronisation in the
world market. The nexus of value/socially necessary labour is now the most adequate
category to comprehend the mechanism in which the labour-time of computer-based
production requires and is combined with compulsory labour in several parts of the
world (Silver and Zhang 2008; Sacchetto 2008; van der Linden, Marcel 2007; Glassman
2006; Gambino 2003).
Assuming on the one hand the reciprocal co-penetration between absolute and
relative surplus-value throughout, the distinction between ‘advanced’ and ‘backward’
capitalisms loses a great part of its significance. It is no longer possible to reason in
368 Capital & Class 37(3)

terms of more developed forms and residues: the various forms of exploitation are to be
understood in an historical-temporal multiversum, in which they interact within the
contemporaneity of the present. On the other hand, we must consider the possibilities
of liberation resulting from different temporalities of different social forms. In the first
draft of the letter to Vera Zasulich, Marx copies a quotation from Morgan: ‘the new
system’ towards which modern society tends ‘will be a revival in a superior form of an
archaic social type’. Marx comments, ‘So we must not let ourselves be alarmed at the
word ‘archaic’ (Marx 1989b: 346). This topic is present in his Notebooks on Morgan
dated 1880-81 (Marx 1972), as a countermelody to the trajectory of property that has
become, wrote Morgan, ‘an unmanageable power’. As opposed to this trajectory,
Morgan proposes an alternative pathway in which ‘human intelligence will rise to mas-
tery over property’, i.e. a ‘higher plan of society’, as per Marx’s annotations, which ‘will
be a revival, in a higher form, of the liberty, equality and fraternity of the ancient gentes’
(Morgan 1877: 552; Marx 1972: 139). If Morgan wrote that a ‘mere property career is
not the final destiny of mankind’, Marx is interested in the possible different pathways
of capitalistic civilisation. There is no trace of romanticism in these considerations, but
instead, an attempt to think the future in the past: a kind of politics that presupposes
a new concept of history and a new kind of historiography. Marx goes on to read
European development and the passage from common to private property using a
geological image: ‘as in geological formations [geologischen Formationen], these histori-
cal forms contain a whole series of primary, secondary, tertiary types, etc’ (Marx 1989b:
358).15 There is not a sequence of different historical forms, as if they were in a list;
instead, there is a whole series of primary, secondary, tertiary types, etc. in these his-
torical formations, as there is in geological formations. The secondary overlaps the
primary, without wiping it out. The dissolution of common property is not a historical
law. The historical materialist, when dealing with the different temporal strata, makes
the co-presence of various historical stratifications evident. Because the historical
forms are not arranged according to the line past–present, but as geological formations
(Tomba 2012), one can consider the combination of temporalities as part of a surface
of possibilities, and not as the succession of a line.

Notes
  1. Hatem (2006: 12) stresses seven levels of ‘inversion’ by Marx: ‘intersubjective’, ‘intrasubjective’,
‘ontique’, ‘sémiotique’, ‘économique’, ‘politique’, and ‘idéologique’.
  2. According to Spivak (1999: 81), these forms are 'not an explanation but an attempt to fit
historical presuppositions into a logical mold'.
  3. ‘Closer examination of all these processes of dissolution will show that relations of production
are dissolved in which use value, i.e. production for immediate use, predominates, and in
which exchange value and its production presuppose the predominance of the other form’
(Marx 1986: 426).
  4. Wainwright (2008: 885) writes that this ‘remark about the spread of capitalism outward from
Europe manifests Marx’s Eurocentrism’. According to Wainwright, Marx leaves his stagist
interpretation during the 1860s. See Hobsbawm 1964.
 5. The krematistiké and not the oikonomia constitutes the prehistory of the modern economic
science that developed from the first half of the 18th century (Brunner 1968).
  6. According to Mohri, 'In the 1840s and 1850s Marx emphasized the "revolutionary" role
of British free trade, basing himself upon a general expectation that it would destroy the
Tomba 369

framework of the old society which was an obstacle to the growth of productive forces, and
would generate in its place the kind of development that would lay the basis for a new society.
However, this view was discarded by Marx himself from the 1860s onward, as he became well
aware that the destruction of the old society would not necessarily give rise to the material
conditions for a new society’ (Mohri 1979: 40); Jaffe 2007.
  7. With Riccardo Bellofiore, I wrote a history of the interpretations of this 'Fragment' in Italian
workerism (Bellofiore and Tomba 2009).
 8. Mohri (1979: 38) remarks, ‘On the contrary, the destruction of native Irish industry is
now looked upon as the first step toward demolition of the base for the Irish revolution
itself, or, we may dare to say, it is obviously taken as "counter-revolutionary" rather than as
"revolutionary".'
  9. On Marx’s changing evaluation of the role of science and technology in the end of capitalism
from the Grundrisse to Capital, cf. Caffentzis 2008.
10. According to Anderson (2002: 87-88), his historical studies of the 1870s led Marx to insider
‘alternative pathways’ to capitalistic industrialisation.
11. When the German editor informed Marx that a third edition of Capital had become necessary,
Marx wrote to Danielson that he should make only the least possible number of alterations
and additions for the 3rd edition, and that he wanted only 1000 copies printed, rather than
3000, as the editor wanted. After the 3rd edition was sold out, he wrote, 'I may change
the book in the way I should have done at present under different circumstances' (Marx to
Danielson, 13.12.1881, in Marx 1992: 161). New historical studies and a rethinking of the
field of categories would impose on him the rewriting of several passages in the chapter on
accumulation.
12. ‘The despotic bell calls him [the workman] from his bed, calls him from breakfast and dinner’
(Marx 1996: 427); Thompson 1967.
13. The overall number of human beings forced to leave African shores amounts about to
11 million. The slaves introduced into the Americas between 1519 and 1867 numbered
9,599,000: cf. Pétré-Grenouilleau 2004. There was a progression in the slave population of
the Americas, which reached 33,000 in 1700, nearly three million in 1800 and peaked at
more than six million in 1850.
14. Marx quotes several historical materials, for instance Howitt 1838; Stamford Raffles 1817.
15. The ‘spatialising metaphor, by allowing the concept of time to pluralise, has an advantage.
"Temporal strata" (Zeitschichten) cross-refer, as in the geological model, to several time levels,
of diverse duration and different origins, but nonetheless contemporaneously present and
active’ (Koselleck 2000: 9).

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Author biography
Massimiliano Tomba is a professor in political philosophy at the University of Padua. He has
published several texts on the political philosophy of Kant, Hegel, the post-Hegelians, Marx and
Walter Benjamin, among them Krise und Kritik bei Bruno Bauer. Kategorien des Politischen im nach-
hegelschen Denken (Peter Lang, 2005); La vera politica. Kant e Benjamin: la possibilità della giustizia
(Quodlibet, 2006); and Marx’s Temporalities (Brill, 2013).