GEORGIANA GALATEANU-FARNOAGA ECATERINA COMISEL Gramiatica limbii engleze pentte az sealar & OMEGAPRES & RAI Bucuresti 1993Coperta: Dana Cruceru Sanda Retinschi — sistent universitar Referenti: Alexandra Vasiliu — profesoaré Anea Tieseu — profesoara Contribufia autoarelor la elaborarea lucrarii a fost urmatoarea: G. Gaifeanu-Farnoagi: cap. 1.0. 34.—3.6.; 7-10; 11.0. 13; 18 19; 22; 2 24-26. E. Comisel: cap. 2.4.—2.5.; 3.7.~3.40.; 4-6; 44; 12: 44-17; 20; 24. Redactor: Simona Rosetti Tehnoredactor: Constantina Velcoviei ISBN 973-9143-01-6 — Omegapres ISBN 973-96189-5-2 — RA!COVINT INAINTE Lucrarea de fafa a fost conceputé ca un material de referinfé pentru elevi, profesori gi alte categorii de persoane interesate de studiul limbii engleze. In tratarea problemelor, s-a avut in vedere modul in care acestea sint prezentate in majoritatea manualelor §i gramaticilor de limba englezi din fara noastri. Au fost de asemenea in atentia autorilor progresele tnregistrate in analiza fenomenului lingvistic In general, nu numai in Romania, dar gi in Arile unde se vorbegte limba englezd, precum gi caracteristica limbii engleze contemporane de a aplica regulile flexibil gi nuantat, in functie de scopul comunicarii, de interlocutor (limbaj oficial sau familiar) si de aspectul limbii (scris_sau oral). Luind in considerafie toate aceste aspecte, Gramaticd limbii engleze pentru uz scolar -prezinta fenomenele gramaticale in mod descriptiv. 7 In cadral parti I, Morfologia, sint studiate regulile privitoare la forma euvintelor. Aceastd prima parte este considerata ca deosebit de importanta pentru cel cate studiazd limba englezi, deoarece primul Jucru care se invati in gramatica unei limbi straine este cum se formeazd categoriile gramaticale de Sark: timpurile verbului, pluralul substantivelor, comparatia adjective- lor ete. Partea a I-a gi partea a III-a, Sintaza propozifici si.Sintaxa frazei, cuprind regulile privitoare la tmbinarea cuvintelor in propozitii si a propozi- fillor in fraze. Aceasta parte este considerata de asemenea importanta, deoa- rece ea arati celui care studiazi limba englezi cum sd foloseascd formele icale pe care le-a invatat. In descrierea formei cuvintelor (In cadrul mor- fologiei) si a functionarii lor in comunicare (in eadrul sintaxei), lucrarea reia afirmajiile confinute in manualele gcolare in vigoare. Cova ce aduce in plus Gramatica limbii engleze pentre uz scolar este 0 ima- gine functionala, de ansamblu, asupra fenomenului gramatical contemporan, prin specificarea atit a unor posibile abateri de la reguli, cit gi a situatiilor in care se folosesc formele gramaticale: in vorbirea curent& sau in limba serisé, in stilul oficial sau in literatura, in varianta britanicé sau cea americana a limbii engleze. In elaborarea lucrarii, s-a pornit de la explicatiile gramaticale gi compen- diile de gramatic& cuprinse in manualele de limb englez& actualmente in uz in gcolile din fara noastré gi de 1a experienja personal gi a altor cadre didac- tice in predarea limbii engleze. In primul rind, autoarele s-au bazat pe traditia creaté de gramaticile elaborate de: Leon Levijchi, Ioan Preda —~ Gramatiea limbii engleze, Ed. Sti- infific 1967; Alice Badescu —Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiintifica, 1963; Catedra de limba gi literatur englezi. Universitatea din Bucuresti — Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiintificd, 1962; Ioana Stelanescu — Lectures in English Morphology, Univ. din Bue., 1978. Avind in vedere tendintele recente din limba englez& contemporana, au fost folosite gi lucriri publicate 3in Marea Britanie gin alte yari (vezi cap. Bibliografie); iar pentru a oferi cititorului un cadru de referinta familiar gi posibilitatea de a face compa- ratii cu structura limbii romane, definitiile generale, structura lucrarii si terminologia au fost elaborate pe baza unor gramatici ale limbii romfne: ‘Academia Romaniei—Gramatica limbii roméne, Ed. Academie: Romaniei, 1966; C. Dimitriu —Gramatica limbii roméne explicati. Morfologia, Junimea, 1979; I. Tordan, VI. Robu — Limba romani contemporand, E.D.P., 1978. Trimiterile ia sursele folosite —romAnegti sau straine —nu au fost de regula mentionate pe parcursul lucrarii pentru a nu {ngreuia Jectura, mate- rialele de referinta find specificate la sfirgitul lucrari. Datorit4 caracterului practic al lucrarii, faptele de teorie gramaticalé continute in Gramaticd au fost expuse succint gi insofite de numeroase exempli- ficati, Exemplele prezente in lucrare sint dintre cele mai simple, aga cum sint ele folosite’ in vorbirea curenta sau prezentate in alte gramatici ale limbii engleze, fiind construite pe baza unui vocabular redus gi accesibil, ugor de injeles ‘pentru elevi. Situafiile in care deosebirile dintre cele dou& limbi prezint& dificultati pentru elevul roman au fost subliniate in lucrare gi practicate in exerciiile care urmeazi fiecSrui capitol. Rezolvarea unui mare numir de exercifii a fost inclus& la sfirsitul volumului. Autoarele dorese si-si exprime gratitudinea fa} de autorii gramaticilor limbii* engleze mentionafi anterior, care au pus bazele unei solide tradijii de anglistica In Romania; mulfumirile noastre se indreapta de asemenea catre asist. univ. Sanda Retinschi de la Universitatea din Bucuresti, prof. Alexandra Vasiliu, de Ja liceul de arta George Enescu" gi prof. Anca Iliescu, de la gcoala general nr. 50 din Bucuresti, pentru competenja gi rabdarea cu care au par- Gurs lucrarea in stadiul de elaborare, oferind binevenite sugestii critice. G. G. si B.C.Partea I MORFOLOGIA (Morphology 1.0. GENERALITAJ! 0.1, Morfologia si sintaxa Cele doua parti constitutive ale gramaticii tradifionale sint morfologia gi sintaxa. Morfologia cuprinde regulile privitoare la forma cuvintelor gi la modificarile formale ale cuvintelor studiate pe parti de vorbire; sintaxa cuprinde regulile privitoare la imbinarea cuvintelor tn propozifii gi fraze*. 0.2, Criterii utilizate in definirea pirtilor de yorbire ' Unitatea de analiza in gramatica traditionali este cuvintul. Gramatica traditionala grupeazd cuvintele in zece clase ‘mari, numite parfi de vorbire: substantivul, articolul, adjectivul, pronumele, nume- ralul, verbul, adverbul, prepozifia, conjunetia si interjectia. Impartirea cuvintelor in zece parti de vorbire se bazeaza pe folosirea con- comitenta a trei crite rii: a) criteriul semantic —sensul lexical cel mai general al cla- selor de euvinte; b) criteriul morfologic =schimbarile ce au loc in forma cuvintelor pentru exprimarva calegoriilor gramatjcale de gen, numar, caz, persoana, comparatie, mod, timp, aspect si diatezd; c) criteriul sintactic = posibilitatea cuvintelor de a indeplini functii sintactice in cadrul propozifi Definirea partilor de vorbire se bazeaza pe toate cele trei criterii, un singur criteriu fiind insuficient. 6.2.4. Din punct de vedere semantic, parfile de vorbire se disting dupa ceea ce exprimi ele: ,numele unui obiect (substantivul, indirect gi Pronumele, care fine locul unui substantiv), o insugire a unui obiect (adjecti- * Gramatica limbii roméne, vol. 1, Ed. Acad. R.S.R., Bucuresti, 1966, p. 44.vul), un numér sau o determinare numeric& (numeralul), 0 actiune sau o stare (verbul), o caracteristics a unei actiuni, stari sau insugiri (adverbul), exterior zarea unui sentiment, a unei star fizice, a unui act de voinfa sau imitarea unui sunet (interjecfia)“*, Din punct de vedere al criteriului semantic, parfile de vorbire se impart in: a) parti de vorbire cu sens lexical de sine statator, gicare pot fi parti de proporifie: substantivul, adjectivul, pronumele, numeralul, verbul, adverbul $i interjectia; b) parfi de vorbire care nu au intotdeauna sens lexical de sine statator, exprimind raporturi intre nofiuni, gi care nu pot fi parfi de propozitie: prepozifia, conjuncfia gi articolul. 0.2.2.1n funotie de criteriul morfologic, cuvintele din limba engleza Igi modifics forma pentru exprimarea categoriilor gramaticale de gen, numér, caz, persoand, comparafie, timp, mod, aspect gi diateza. Schimbarile in forma cuvintelor care exprim& categoriile gramaticale aledtuiesc’ flexiunea, In funcfie de prezenta’ sau absenta flexiunii, cuvintele se impart tn: a) cuvinte flexibile, care au cel putin o categorie gramaticali, pentru exprimarea careia {gi modificd forma; b)cuvinte neflexibile, care nu sint marcate pentru categorii gramaticale. 0.2.3, In functie de vriteriul sintacti ec, euvintele se impart in: a) cuvinte care indeplinesc o funcfie sintactic& in propozitie, putind fi o parte principala (subiect, predicat) sau secun. dara (atribut, complement, element predicativ suplimentar] de pro- pozitie; b)cuvinte care nu au o func}ie sintactica, dar care marcheaz& funcfii sintactice : I've bought this book tor Mary. She received the parcel after paying for it, VERBUL (The Verb) Li, Detinitie Verbul este partea de vorbire caro: a) exprima actiuni, procese sau stari; b) are categorii gramaticale de persoand gi numar comune cu alte parti de vorbire gi categoriile specifice de timp, mod, aspect gi diateza; c) indeplineste funcfia sintactica de predicat, * ibid, p. 121.2, Clasificare Verbele pot fi clasiticate din punct de vedere al structurii morfologice sau din punct de vedere al sensului lexical gi al functiei. 1.2.1. Din puact de vedere ai structurii morfologice, verbele pot fi clasi- ficate In: a) verbo simple: go; b) verbe compuse: spotlight ; c} verbe cu particula adverbial’: put on’, put off, put away; d) verbe ou prepozitic obligatorie: look at, listen to, wait for, succeed in; e) looufinni verbale: take care of, make use of. Grupele a), b) gio} nu prezinta particularitaji deosebite. Pentru c) vezi § 8.7, iar pentru d) veri § 8.2.5 1.2.2, Sensul lexical al verbelor., Verbele in limba englez’ se impart in: a} verbe cu sens lexical plin, numite de obicei verbe nofionale; b} verbe cu sens lexical redus, care sint folosite mai mult cu funofii gramati- ie. Ip clasa verbelor cu sens lexical redus intra verbele co pulative, verbele auxiliare gi verbele modale. 1.2.3, Funefia sintactici a verbelor, Pe plan sintactic, verbele cu sens mnsint predicative, adic& pot forma singure predicatul unei pe elnd verbole cu sens lexical redus sint nepredicative, au nevoie de 0 complinire (verh notional, nume predicativ) pentra a deveni predicate: The child is clever. In schimb ele marcheaz& anumite categorii gramaticale. In: The film was seen by millions of people. Fimul a tost vazut de milioane de oameni. was are functia de marci a diatezei pasive, timpul Past Tense, persoana a [-e singular pentru verbul see, 1.2.4, Verbele cu sens lexioal redus se impart f 2) verbe copulative (be, si, coaform gramaticii tradifionale: appear, sesm, look, iw, become, get, gr remain, stay, etc.): He seems ill, * Pare bolnay. b)verbe auxiliare fle, have, shalljshould, will/would, mayjmight, canjcould, do) care indeplinesc funchia de marci a categorilior gramaticale de diatezi, mod, timp, aspect, persoand gi numar, a formei interogative si negative la verbele pe care Je insofesc: He was told a lis, i s-a spus o minciund. — Diateza pasiva. He was trying to catch the ball when he fell. Incerca s& prind& mingea ctnd a cazut, —Aspectul continuu, ete. o)verbe semiauxiliare sau modale fcanjeould, must, have to, may|might, shail|should, will|would, oughi to, etc.) care arata etitudinea vorbitorului fafa de enunt: — po Zt might rain-ta —necesitate: You must fini de pring, ete. S-ar putea s& ploud mai tirziu, before noon. Trebuie 38 termini tnainte1.3. Categoriile gramaticale ale verbului | tn limba englezi, verbul are forme gramaticale determinate de categoriile specifice de timp, aspect, diateza gi mod gi de categoriile nespecifice de per- soana gi numar. In functie de prezenta sau absenfa categoriilor de timp, persoana gi numar, formele verbale in limba engleza se tmpart in forme per- sonale gi nepersonale. Formele personale ale verbului (Finite Forms of the Verb) sint modurile indicativ gi subjonctiv. La aceste forme, verbul este. marcat pentru a exprima categoriile de timp, mod, diatez&, aspect, persoana si numar, iar din punct de vedere sintactic, ele pot forma singure predicatul gi se acordé in numar gi persoang cu subiectul. Formele nepersonale ale verbului (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) sint infinitivul, Gerund-ul (Gerunziul), participiul prezent gi participiul trecut. Aceste forme nu au categoriile de timp, persoand si numar gi nu pot forma singure predicatul propozitiei. : 1.4, Timpul (Tense) Categoria gramaticali a timpului (Tense), categorie specifics verbelor, se referé la ordinea evenimontelor in timp, aga cum este perceputd aceasta de vorbitor in momentul vorbirii. Momentul in care are loc actul de vorbire este momentul prezent (now). Fata de acest moment, care constituie axa de referinta a prezentului, unele evenimente sint: a) anterioare, cind ele au loc inainte de momentul vorb' tele sint amintite de vorbitor): Present Perfect; b) posterioare fata de momentul vorbirii (evenimentele fiind anticipate de vorbitor, deoarece vor avea loc dup& momentul vorbirii): Future; ce) simultane cu momentul vorbirii (avind loc in acelagi timp) Present. Considerind momentul vorbirii punctul prezent, vorbitorul ‘si poate aminti un eveniment care a avut Joc la un moment anterior momentuluj vorbirii (then). In raport cu acest moment amintit then, care di nagtere axei de referinf& a trecutului, alte evenimente pot fi: (evenimen- a) anterioare momentului trecut then: Past Perfect; b) simultane cu then: Past Tense; c) posterioare: Future in the Past. De asemenea, !n momentul vorbirii (now), vorbitorul poate anticipa anumite evenimente (posterioare momentului vorbirii). in raport cu un anume eveniment posterior momentului prezent (axa de referinfi a viitorului), alte evenimente pot fi: a) anterioare: Future Perfect ; b) simultane: Puture; c) posterioare: engleza nu are marca formala pentru aceste evenimente.i, trebuie astfel luate in consideratie trei elemente: b) momentul (sivirgirii) actiunii; c) axa sau momentul de referinfa. a) Momentul vorbirii este momentul In care enunful este pronuntat de vorbitor: now, b) Momentul acfiunii este momentul in care a avut loc actiunea sau starea: now, then, tomorrow, ete. c)Momentul de referinta reprezinté axa pe care se plaseazd vorbitorul in perceperea evenimentului: axa prezentului, axa trecutului, axa viitorului. In functie de cele trei eleniente — momentul vorbirii, momentul acfiunii gi momentul de referinfi — limba englez& cunoaste urmatorul sistem de timpuri: —pe axa prezentului: Present, Present Perfect, Future; —pe exa trecutului: Past Tense, Past Perfect, Future in the Past; —pe axa viitorului: Future, Future Perfect.* 1.5. Timpul prezent simplu (Present Tense Simple) 1.5.1. Definitie. Prozentul simplu desemneazi un eveniment (0 actiune sau stare) care se intiinpl4 simultan cu momentul vorbirii (prezentul instan- taneu) sau care include momentul vorbirii (prezentul generic gi habitual). 1.5.2. Formit. Din punct de vedere al formei, prezentul simplu este identic eu infinitivul, la toate persoanele singular gi plural, cu excepfia persoaniei a Ill-a singular, care adauga -(¢)s: - I ? Eu inot. El You im. 1w{Voi | inoti, tnotati. Ea We | swim. voi |i She } swims. Typ (moat. They Eijle J inoata. (neutra) 1.5.3, Pronuntarea si ortogratierea ferminafiei -(¢)s la persoana a Hla smguia: preznta aceleagi caracteristic: ca gi terminafia de plural -(e)s a sub- ° stantivelor: (0) se pronunti: [5] dupa consoare surde: He thinks [Oinks]; [2] dupa consoane sonore gi vocale: He studies [ stadiz]. He runs [ranz]; [ig] dupa consoane sibilante: She washes [ wafiz]. Verbole say gi do au la persoana a IIl-a singular o pronunfare deosebita fafa de celelalte persoane: I say [sei] — he says [sez]; J do [du:] — he does [daz]. * Vezi; Ioana Stefinescu, Lectures in. Baglish Morphology, T.U.B., Bucuresti, 1978, pp: 201-208.Din punct de vedere al ortografiei, mejoritatea verbelor adaugi -# la persoana a III-a singular: He walks. She sees. Desinenfa devine -e8 cind verbul se termina tn 8, x, % oh, ch, toh sau o: She watches. It buzzes. He goes. 7 ; Verbele terminate in -y precedat de consoani, schimba y in { gi adaugé -es: I try —he tries. 1.5.4. Intrebuintare. Prezentul simplu are mai multe intrebuingari: 1) Prezentul generic (Generic Simple Present) exprima actiuni genoraic care au loc intr-un interval de timp nespecificat, dar care include momentul vorbirii: ‘The Earth moves round the Sun, Birds fly. Three and three make siz. ‘Adverbele de freeventa tipice pentru propozifiile generice stat: always, never, regularly, ever: Wood always floais on water. 2) Prezentul simplu este folosit pentru acfiuni obignuite, repotate (Habi- tual Simple Present ), care au loc intr-o perioada de timp generalii sau speci- fick, mentionaté prin adverbe sau locufiuni adverbiale de timp ca: on Mondays, in summer, every day sau adverbe sau lecufiuni adverbiale de freevenf& ca: often, frequently, seldom, rarely, occasionally, sometimes, once a week|month{ year: I go to school every Asy. I usually watch TV in the evening. . Nota: Prezentul simplu desemnind achiuni repetate este aproplat de prezentat _goneric deoarece nici el nu individualizeaz4 evenimentele sau specitic’ momentul actiunii. Deosebirea intre cele dowd. folesiri ale presentuiui simplu este urmatoarsa: ‘care contin acfiuni repetate subiectel este individualizat, pe cind in cole yenerice subiectul este goneral: ¥ go skiing in winter. Water boils at 100° Centi- grade. 4 doctor works hard. 3) Prezentul instantaneu (Instantaneous Simple Present) ve referk acfiuni care sint vamate ca avind Joe in intregime in momentul vosbie Aceasta intrebuinfare a prezentului simplu se intilneste fn: a) comentarii: , The goal-keeper misnes the ball and one mare goal is seored. Portarul nu prinde mingea gi se marcbeaz’ thei un gol. I now mix the bn with the cord. Acuin b) demonstra} untul cu cacao. mestec c) exclamafii: Here comes our teacher ! fata (08) vine profesorel nestes! 4) Folosiros prézentului simpin eu atte yalori temporale A) Prezentul cu valoare de viitor este intrebuinjat in proporifii principale: a) pentru exprimarea datei: Tomorrow is December 21°!. Miine este 21 de- combrie. Tomorrow is Saturday. Miine este simbata. b) pentru redarea unor acfitni planificate, unér aranjamente conform unui orer sau program stabilit (de etemplu in excurs: mai ales cu verbe de migcare ca: go, come, leave, return, start, end, finish: We leave Bucharest at sight. We arrive in Predeak at tele. i Ja ora 8, Sosim in Predeal la ora 10, coam din Bucuresti 10B) Prezentul ew valoare de viitor este tntrebuintat gi in propozitii subordo- nate: a) de timp, introduse de when, after, before, as soon as: We'll get home before it gots dark. Vom ajunge acasi inainte si se intunece. b) condifionale, introduse de if, unless, provided, in case: If it rains on Sunday, I’ repair my bieyele. Dack o sk plonk duminick, am si-mi repar bicicleta. C) Prezentul cu valoare de treeut se foloseste: a) in naratiuni, pentru inviorarea povestirii (prezentul istoric): One day, the little boy goes to the woods. There he finds a buried-treasure. b) cu vorbe ca tell, hear, learn, write, pentru a sublinia efectul prezent al unei comunicari trecute: He tells me that you have won the competition. Imi spune ci ai cigtigat concursul. 1.6. Timpul treeut simplu (Past Tense Simple)* 1.6.1. Definitie. Past Tense, aspectul simplu, desemneaza un eveniment definit care a avut loc pe axa trecutului (évenimentul este amintit In momentul prezent). 1.62. Formi. Marca timpului Past Tense simplu este, ia verbele regulate, -ed: We listened to the concert last night. Am ascultat concertul aseara. 1.6.2. Pronunfarea si ortogratieren terminafiei -ed este tn functie de ter- minafia infinitivului. -ed se pronun{a: a) [d] cind verbele se termina tn vocala sau consoana sonora [b, g, 1, m,n, v, 2, dz, 3]: play — played (pleid]; arrive — arrived [2 raiva]; b) {t] cind verbele se terming tn consoana surda [f, k, p, s, f, tf] like —liked [laikt], cross —crossed {krost]; c) {id} cind verbele se termind in - sau -d: want — wanted ['wontid]; nod — nodded { modid]. Particularitafi ortogratice ale terminatiei -ed: a) consoana finali a formei de infinitiv se dubieazd cind vocala care o precede este scurta gi accentuataé: stop — stopped; prefer — preferred, Neti, 1. Consoana final se dubleaz 1a citeva verbe, desi silaba final au este accen- tuatd: kidnap — kidnapped; handicap — handicapped; worthip — worshipped; iar la verbe terminate in -fe, «0 se dubleaz& in -ck: picnic ~ picnicked. 2. fn engleza britanica, verbele terminate tn -1 dubleaz§ aceast& consoan&, indi- ferent de’ agcont: control — controlled; travel — travelled. : * tn aceast lucrare se utilizeaz termenul englezese de Past Tense (timp trecut) pentru a denumi echivalentul din limba englezd al timpului romanese Perfectul compus, cu scopul de a nu se crea confuzii. Timpul verbal din limba romAnd este un timp compus, asemanator ca forma cu Present Perfect din limba englezd, pe cind Past Tense ongiezesc oste o formA verbal’ simpla, asemén&toare cu perfectul simplu din limba roménd: He finished classes at 1 o'clock. El a terminat cursurile la ora unu. i$ fn varianta american’ a limbii engloze, -1 se dubleazi numai dack ultima silab’ este accentuat&: controlled, dar: traveled. b) verbele terminate tn -y precedat de consoand tl schimb§ tn -i: study — studied; : c) verbele terminate in -e adaugi doar -d: move — moved. 1.6.4. In ceea ce privegte verbele neregulate, acestea au fost {mpartite in gapte grupe, in functie de pronuntarea infinitivului, a formei de Past Tense i a_participiului trecut: 4. verbe de tipul: bum — burnt — burnt 2. creep —crept —crept learn — learnt — learnt leave — left — left lend —lent —lent spend — spent — spent 3, cast —cast — cast hit —hit — hit shut — shut — shut wet — wet — wet 5. mow — mowed — mown|mowed sow — sowed — sown|sowed buy — bought — bought catch — caught — caught 4, meet — met — met hang —hung — hung win —won —won sit —sat —sat 6. wear — wore — worn grow —grew — grown swell — swelled —swollen|swelled give —gave —given write — wrote — written © 1. begin —began —begun sing — sang —sung come — came — come go —went ~gone ‘Not: In funcfie de formele pe care le au verbele la Past Tense si la participiul trecut, ele se impart in verbe regulate si verbe neregulate. Verbele regulate formeazd Past Tense si participiul trecut prin ad&ugarea terminajiei -(e)d la forma de infinitiv: listen (a asculta)— listened (a ascultat) — listened (ascultat). : Verbele neregulate sint cele care au forme deosebite pentru infinitiv, Past Tense si participiul trecut, care trebuie invatate pe dinafard. Urmeaza o lista a principalelor verbe neregulate din limba engleza, cu traducerea fn limba romani ‘a sensului lor de baz&. Notafia R indica existenfa si a unor forme regulate. Verbe neregulate Partiipia arivo arose arisen a se ridica (a)wake(n) | (a )woke, (a)woken, (a)wak(en jed | (a)wak(en Jed | a se treai rogulat: awakened been swas)soere borne be tear bore She has horme three children. Ea a ndscut troi copii, Dar: He was bom i 1970. S-a nascut tn 1970, 12Infiniti beat a bend bid bind bite bleed Pow ‘real breed bring breil burn burst buy cast catch choose cling cone cost creep deat dig draw dream. drink drive dell eat fait feed. feel fight fine flee fling forbid forget freeze get give { 90 grind grow become forgive i | I | | | | si: bid, bade, bidden| Uneori, partieipinl tre, eee Eee sereste, a educa R. burned tn engleza| navali, a erapa BeBeBeE EES se tirl, a se furisa a trage, a desena R. dreamed — in spe- cial in engieza ameri- drunken — adj. a mina, a sofs dwelled (rar) in| engloza americana engl. britanied: ate (et); ate 4 fed primi, obsine | ongl. americani: get, |feel Observes | | saiivaist Infinitie Past Tense a ianged = a sph 2 hung avea 7 i i) hung had & cual Participiul ézocut | hang had heard j £2) sseande | Pericps dave heard hidden | i hear hid a lovi | hide hit a tine 7 | a a held a lovi, a rini, i 7 hel int I urea 4, 1 hola art 7 Uo tes pistes Rett cng | hurt kept | 2 ingenunchia | american tal kept | be de obicei B, jeer, knelt a tricota | dnsel | nit a sti, a cunoaste, c Rnit | nowon [a pune, 8 ages | 7 nit new | tava | 8 Eondace Bs teamed in pectin Jnow oid | led | arse aploca, gpelena sunericnal jay led | Teane i B. leaped — in special] lead | leant | | in ¢ i a | eat i | Xe | teap a | tearnt | iearnt | Lila a | | a peca,« tse | | ja feven tmpro- | deft | mat ite | a lent | | 2'dsa, 2 perite | ee ite |e apeinde ne! j : ie a | & sheen. s ao af | a ui { 1s piords | 4a hay | ioet | a face I lie ine | | a t lose | made 1 Fa (eo) intit } a smeani met wed | 3 cost i meas mee | mown, mowed Soh | meet | motwed | mow tates nl | men iP | 8 pus oagee i Pai } Fa citi 3 |B. vidd Bay [re j | a sede do, 2 reas | | descotores read. he t | iter nid | ed | ridden | 8 sane , | rade | eng | 8 risari, 2 se vide | rang | edge | ridiea ring | oe | tigen | ridica, rie ron i | ran sain, saved | ran | sawed } saw | said i said | 2 veden sey | sien | 3 caote save sought i ee sought 304 id sold sent send iP Seton, seed act | sewed shaken se shook dja tunds oi shake | horn, shearsil | a tund: Gaertn, sheared shear | shed su t shone one shine | shanInfinitiv Partieipia treat ‘Tradueerca sntiniiveda Observatit shoe shoot show shrink shut sing sink sit slay sleep sling slit smell spit split spoil spread spring atand Heal sick sting stink strew stride string strive sweat swear swing take shod shot showed shrank, shrunk shut sang sank sat slew slept slung slit smelt sowed spoke sped” spelt apent spilt spun | seat split spoilt | spread sprang stood stole stuck stun stusl strewed strode struck strung strove sweat swore ce swam swung 4} took shod shot shown shrunk, shut sung sunk sal slain slept stun aur! smelt sown, sowed spoken sped spelt spent spilt spun spat split spoilt spread sprang | stood stolen | stuck | stung stunk strode | struck strung striven sweat sworn swept swollen, swelled swum swung | taken | strewn, strewed 15 a a a BREE BEPE RB Beee a a petrere a varsa (lapte, ete) a a a a a a a a a a a a a mari a a a a a a a a a a poteovi impagea arta se stringe, 88 scoroji inchide cinta, se) senfunda sedea neido dormi arunea (se) eraipa mitosi semana vorbi srabi, accelera ortografia cheltui; a toarce seuips despica réstita (s0) tntinde invori; a sari sta (in picioare) fata, a se furisa pi intepa, mirosi urit prosira merge cu pagi lovi ingira (pe 0 afa) néizui transpira jura; a injure matura se umfla inota logiina Ina Uneoti _ortogratiat shew, shewed, shewn| shrunken — adj. sunken — adj, R. smelled —engleza americand si Ru: speeded R. spelled — englezal ameticand R. spilled — englen american’ Past Tense: span arhaic R. spoiled — engle: american ul trectit stricken — doar I pasiv si oa adjectiv eu sens tmetaforie: pa. nic-stricken; stricken by gout si R. strived si RL sweated @ swollen head (He i ily a helled head (He is conceited)~ tie | Past Tense | Patcp | Tiadusrey | tues teach taught taught, a invita (pe i tea Rha tear tore torn a rupe, a sfigia tell told told & spune, | 2 povesti think thought thought a (se) gindi Brive trove riven 2 prospera $i R.: thrived, in special in engleza americanil throw threw thrown @ arunca thrust thrust thrust, infige tread trod trodden ® cilea understand | understood understood a intelege wear tore teorn 2 parta leave | ove teonen 2 fese wed wed wed 3 (se) cununa, gi R. wedded weep ivept rept 2 plinge ‘wet wet wet a ada i R. wetted ‘ain ton won 2 cigtiga wind, wound weound a rasuci tring orang orang 3 stoaree torte turote writin 2 serie 1.6.5. Intrebuintare. Past Tense simplu este folosit pentru a exprima: 4) 0 acfiune s&virgita si incheiaté intr-un moment trecut: a) Momentul in care a avut loc acfiunea este de obicei menfionat prin adverbe de timp ca: two hours ago (acum doua ore), yesterday (ieri), last week (saptdmina trecuta), in 1970 (in 1970) eto.: J went to the opera last night. Am fost la opera aseari. Despre acest moment se pot cere informafii prin intrebéri incepind cu when, what time, how long ago: ‘When Cind What time : La ce ord ai trecut pe How long ago } 44 you call on him? Cy cits vreme ) la el? in urma yesterday. ieri. Poca chia at five o'clock. Am trecut | la ora 5. called on him a few days ago. pe la el acum citeva zile. b) Actiunea este sivirgita si incheiata intr-un anume moment trecut, chiar dacé acesta nu este mentionat, el putind fi dedus-din context. (In schimb se poate specifica locul acfiunii): He shook his head and said no. Dadu din cap dezaprobator gi spuse nu. I met him outside the museum. M-am intilnit cu el tn fafa muzeului. ¢) Actiunea este savirgita si incheiat& tntr-un moment trecut care este precizat ca rezultat al unei introbari gi unui rispuns la Present Perfect. A: Have you seen this film? B. Yes, I have. I saw it last week. A: Ai vazut acest film? B: Da, l-am vazut. L-am vazut siptimina trecuta. Not: tn acest context(c), Past Tense are 6 funcfie anaforic’, referindu-se la un eveniment deja introdus in vorbire si deci cunoscut: 1 have been to Constanta. J visited the Aquarium and watked down the pier. 162) o acfiune repetatd in treeut, care se traduce de obicei prin imperfect tn limba roman&: J often visited him. 1l vizitam adesea. Not: 1. O actiune repetata tn trecut se mai poate exprima gi cu ajutorul verbului modal would {cu valoare ,,frecventativa") + infinitiv, aceast& construcfie fiind caracteristicd limbit literare: He would sit for hours in front of his house, looking at the stars. Stitea/obignuia s& stea ore in sir in fata casei privind stelele. In vorbirea curent& se foloseste used to + infinitio: He used to slt for hours in frond of his house. Obignuia s& stea ore fn sir in fafa casei. 2. Past Tense simplu nu se folosegte niciodat& cu valoare genericd sau instantanee, ca Present Tense simplu. 3) Past Tense simplu poate fi folosit gi cu alte valori temporale: a) cu valoare de mai-mult-ca-perfect (Past Perfect), pentru redarea unor actiuni suegesive in trecut, in special in propozifii circumstantiale de timp introduse de when, after, etc.: He went out to play after he tinished his homework. T saw him before he saw me. Aceasté folosire a lui Past Tense este caracteristicd verbelor care exprima acfiuni (activity verbs): He addressed and sealed the envelopes. b) cu valoare de prezent, pentru a exprima « rugiminte politicoasd prin verbe ca wish, want, wonder, like, intend: I wondered if you could lend me this book. Ma tntrebam daci ati putea si-mi tmprumutati cartea. ©) cu. valoare de prezent, in vorbirea indirecta, dac& verbul din propozitia principala este la un timp trecut: He told me he was ill. 4) cu valoare de vitor, in propozifii circumstantiale de timp, daca verbul din propozitia principala este la un timp trecut: He told me he would show me the photos when he eame. Mi-a spus c&-mni va arata fotografiile cind va yeni. 1.6.6. Traducerea Ini Past Tense In limba romana, Past Tense se traduce: 4) in propozifiile principale sau independente, prin: a) perfectul compus (de obicei la persoana I gia II-a) gi per- fectul simplu (aproape exclusiv la persoana a IlI-a), ctnd Past Tense exprimé o actiune trecuta incheiata, insotita sau nu de perioada de timp: yesterday. Poe ieri, J lost my umbreliad a few days ago. Mi-am pierdut acum clteva zile, last week. s siptamina trecuté, He sald goodbye and lett, Spuse la revedere gi plecé. b) im pe rfect, cind Past Tense exprim& o actiune repetata in trecut, de obicei insofita de adverbe de frecventa: She often leit her English textbook at home. + Deseori {gi uita manualul de englez& acasa. 2) in propozifiile subordonate, prin: 4) prezent, in vorbirea indirect (dup un verb trecut): He told me he was ill. Mi-a spus c& este bolnav. b) viitor, tn proppzifiile temporale, end verbul din principala esto Ja un timp trecut: He said he would bring me the book when he came to my place. Mi-a spus ci-mi va aduce cartea-cind ma va vizita. 17 @ — Gramatica limbu englezePertectul present (Present Perfect) i. Befinijie. Present Perfect desemneazi un eveniment vazut din perspectiva axe prezentului, anterior momentului vorbirii, dar a cirui ante- Tioritate nu este fixatd, avind un caracter nedefinit: DPve painted a picture. 1.7.2. Forma. tn structura formei Present Perfect intré verbul auxiliar have la prezent gi participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: - I PL |= } nara « noise, Am/Ai/Au auzit un rgomot, They He She | _ } heard a noise. A auzit un zgomot. It Eatred injare. 1) Present Perfect este folosit, la fel ca gi Past Tense, pentru a desemna un eveniment anterior momentului vorbirii, Deosebirea intre cele doud timpuri este tn axa pe care se plaseazd vorbitorul: axa prezentului (Present Perfect) sau axa trecutului (Past Tense); si in natura evenimentului descris: a) nedefinit (Present Perfect) gi b) definit, unic (Past Tense): a) I’ve seen Mary. b) 1. saw her at the conference. 2) Folosirea lui Present Perfect este asociaté cu adverbe care exprimi o perioad’ de timp deschiss, neterminata! today, this waok, this month, etc. I’ve been to the theatre this week. pe cind folosirea lui Past Tense este asociat’ cu adverbe care exprimi o peri- oadé de timp Inchisd, terminata: J went to the theatre last week. 3) Present Perfect este uncori folosit cu valoare de Past Tense, pentru a exprima o actiune savirgita in trecut gi terminaté recent sau chiar inaintea momentului vorbirii: He has come. A sosit. ‘Aceast& intrebuintare a lui Present Perfect este adescori marcat& de adverbe de timp ca just (tocmai), already (deja), up to now, so far (pind acum), lately, recently (in witima vreme): He has just phoned. Tocmai a telefonat. "Cu adverbe ca today, this morning, this month, this year, recently, 82 poate foiosi fie Past Tense, fie Present Perfect, in iunctie de: a} caracterul actiunii (definit/nedetinit} gi b) ol perioade: de timp (Incheiat3/ fneincheiata): a) Did you hear Ion Voien play recently ? (on a certain occasion). Have you heard Ion Voicu play recendly? (in the near past, not a long time ego). b) Did you see him this morning? (Now it’s five o’clock p.m.). Have you seen him ‘this morning? (Now it’s 11 a.m.). 4) Past Tense este folosit pentru evenimente care au avut loc in trecut si ai cdror autori nu mai exist in prezent, pe cind la Present Perfect, evenimen- tele au avut loc In trecut, dar autorii sau efectele evenimentelor mai exista gi tn prezent: Past Tonse Present Perfect : Marin Preda wrote several novels Eugen Barbu has written several novels and short stories. and short stories. (Marin Preda is dead.) (Eugen -Berbu is alive.) 18Did you see: the exhibition? Have you seen the exhibition? (The exhibition is closed now.) (The exhibition is still open.) John injured his arm. John has injured his arm. (It doec not hurt. him any longer.) (It still hurts him.) 5) Present Perfect este folosit. gi pentru a exprima o acfiune inceputa in trecut gi care continua gi in momentul vorbirii, Coraplinirile adverbiale de timp caracteristive pentru aceasta intrebuinfare sint cele indicind: a) lungimea perioadei de timp: for a long time (de mult& vreme), for ten minuies (de 10 minute), for jwo days (de doua nile), etc. He has been here for half an hour. Nott Prepozifia for poate ti omisé In vorbive: He has lived in Bucharest ten years. b) inceputul perioadei de timp: since yesterday (de ieri), since December (din Decembrie), since you came {de cind ai venit), ote, He has studied English since the beginning of the school year, Studiazi engleza de la inceputul anului colar. i Serioada de timp redata printr-o propozitie temporal introdusi de siaco poate fi exprimata: a) printr-un verb la Past Tense, ctnd’se specific& momentul initial al perioadei: { 2 was born, I've lived in Bucharest since | my parents came to live here. J last met you. b) printr-un verb la Present Perfect, otnd cele doug actiuni sint paralele: It hasn't stopped raining since Y’ve boen in this town. I have never come across iny friends since V've stayed in this hotel. " Atentic! Doterminaros for...jsince ... este obligatorie pentra aceastié intebuinjare a perfeotului prezent. Folosirea lui Present Perfect Simple irk determinare temporalii cu for/since ... se referé la o acfiune incheiata (vezi intrebuintarile 4, 2, 4, 8) gi nwia una care continua gi in momentul vorbirii: He has lived in Bucharest (some time in his life: he may live there again, but he is not living there nom }. A loouit tn Bucuresti (ctndva tn viefa luis poate va mai locat seolo, dar nu locuieste in Bucuresti in momontul de faa), He has studied English (some time in the past, 30 bi but he is not studying it now}. A studiat engleza (cindva in tre z um). Nota: Diferenta intre cele dont ti i reiese si din moduli In care se traduc in Hmba romana: actiunea care coutinud gi tn momentul vorbirii — prin prezent, jar cea Incheiata, petreouta im trecut inty-un moment de timp nedefinit, deci nospo- cifieat - prin perfectul compus: He has stayed in this hotel. A stat in acest hotel. He has stayed in thie hotel for week. St& in acest hotel de o siptamtad. 6) Present Perfect poate exprima o actiune caracteristicd, repetat& ta trecut, prezent gi poate gi ta viltor: He has performed in public. A interpretat in public, Aceasti intrebuinjare este maroata de adve: {adesea), always (totdeauna), never (niciodata), has alten performed in public. 7) In propozifii subordonate temporal este folosit pontra q reda o achiune anter c& o gtie, dar nu studiazi be de freevenfi ca: often ymetimes (uneori), ete. He difionale, Present Perfect ii din propozitia princi igs aepala, clnd aceasta este exprimata printr-un verb la imperativ, indicativ pre- zent sau viitor: Ring me up when you have finished. Telefoneazi-mi cind ai terminat. He will help me if he has finished his own work. Ma va ajuta dacd-gi va fi terminat treaba lui. 4.8. Mai-mult-ea-perfectul (Past Perfect Tense Simple) 1.8.1. Definifie. Past Perfect este un timp folosit cind vorbitorul se pla- seaza psihologic pe 0 axi a trecutului, pentru a desemna un eveniment anterior unui moment sau unui eveniment trecut, care este amintit in momentul vor- birii: : by ten o'clock yesterday. 1 baad finished the book { BE the Simo "you came / 1.8.2. Form&. Mai-mult-ca-perfectul se formeaza din forma de Past Tense a verbului have + participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: 1{*3"} finished the book before you came. Terminasem cartea inainte s& vii tu. He had already lett by ten o'clock. El plecase deja la ora 10. 1.8.3. Tnirebuintare. Mai-mult-ca-perfectul este intrebuinjat pentru a exprima: 1) oactiune trecuta. incheiaté inaintea unui moment trecut: J had finished my Jetsons by ten o'clock yesterday. Imi terminasem lectiile inainte de ora ieri. 2) o acfiune trecuta, incheiata inaintea altei actiuni trecute: When Doris got to the theatre, the show had (already ) started. Cind a ajuns Doris ja teatru, spectacolul (deja) incepuse. Mother had cooked the dinner by the time father arrived home. Mama gatise deja cina cind a ajuns tata acasa. 1 3) o actiune trecuta, incheiata imediat tnaintea unei alte acfiuni trecute: Thad { py } got into the classroom when the bell rang. No sooner had I got into the classroom than the bell rang. Tocmai/de-abia intrasem in clas& cind a sunat clopotelul. 4) o actiune trecuta, sivirgita intr-o perioada de timp anterioara unei alte actiuni trecute, dar ajungind pina la aceasta (cu compliniri_adverbiale Incepind cu for sau since): He had been in the classroom tor two minutes when the teacher eame in. Era in clasi de doud minute cind a intrat profesorul. He had lived in Bucharest sinee 1975 when I met him. Locuia tn Bucuresti din 4975 cind lam cunoscut. Not: 1, Mai-mult-ca-perfectul este un timp utilizat mai freovent int limba englez decit in limba romana pentru exprimarea anterioritatii. (In limba romana se foloseste adeseori perfectul compus cu valoare de mai-mult-ca-perfect: The passengers got out as soon as the train had stopped. Pasagerii au coborit. de indata ce sa oprlt trenul), 2, In limba englead se poate folosi Past Tense in loc de Past Perfect in urmatoarele situafii: a) dup& conjunctia after, care indic& prin sensul et raportul de anterioritate, nemai- + fiind necesara i o forma vorbala special: The driver started the car after he cheoked the engine. Soferu} porni magina dupa ce verified motorul. 20b) tn prépozitiile subordonate temporale transformate. tn vorbire indirect cind verbul din principala este la un timp trecut: He told me he had seen a bear when he was in the mountains. Mi-a spus ch a vazut wh tirs-ctad a fost a munte. 8. In proporifiile subordonate introduse de after sau until, folosirea mai-mult-ca-per- fectului, prin contrast cu folosirea lui Past Tense, subliniazi raportal de anterioritate, faptul cd acfiunea din principala nu a avut Joc deoft dupa ce acfiunea din subordonats a fost Incheiata: The pupil on duty left the classroom AFTER, she had turned olf the lights. Eleva de servici a pirisit clasa (numai) dupi ce a sting lumina. The eaiter didn’t take the plates away UNTEL they had finished their dinner. Chelnerul n-a string farfurille pto& n-au terminat masa. Mai-mult-ca-perfectul mai poate fi folosit: 5) in vorbirea indirect&, pentru ‘a inlocui Present Perfect sau Past Tense, cind verbul din propozitia principal este la un timp trecut: Tom: I have spoken to Mary about it. I spoke to her last week. Tom said he had spoken to Mary about: it. He added he had spoken to her week before. 1.9. Mijloace de exprimare a viitorului Existé mai multe posibilitafi de redare a ideii de timp viitor in limba englezi: 4. Viitorul simple (Shall) Wil Future) 1.9.4, Definifie. Viitoral simplu desemneaza un eveniment posterior faf& de momentul vorbirii. 1.9.2, Forma In structura viitorului simplu intré verbul auxiliar shall la persoana I singular gi plural, will la persoana a TI-a gi a II]-a singular gi plurel, gi infini- tivul scurt al verbului de, conjugat: ive { shall go tothe seaside tomorrow, Voi, { merge la mare maine. You He ‘will go to the mountains next week. Vei[VetiVa/Vor { sepia ae In engleza britanic&. vorbita gi in engleza americana in general se folo- segte will gi la persoana I singular gi plural, fara nici o schimbare de sens: Ji { will go the seaside tomorrow. Yo { morge la mare mine. We Vor Forma contrasi a viitorului este 'U +infinitiv la toate persoanele: Tl go, He'll go, eto. Aceasta forma este intrebuinfatd cu precidere in engleza vorbité, mai ales cind subiectul este exprimat printr-uin pronume personal, » 212.9.3, Inteebuinjare. 1) Vintorul simplu este un viitor pur, indictnd doar c& actiunea are loc Intr-un moment viitor, mai apropiat sau adeseori mai indepartat, de momentul vorbiri Het come back { W™OFOW. Se va intoarce { Ml itor. 2) Viitorul simplu nu este de obicei intrebuintat in propozifiile subordo- nate, find inlocuit de prezentul simplu: He will come when he has time. Va Veni cind va avea timp. Viitorul simplu apare numai 4a propozifiile subor- donate completive directe sau prepozitionale, dupi verbele think, suppose, expect, believe, doubt, assume, hope, wonder, be sure, be afraid, pentru a exprima opiniile sau presupunerile vorbitorului despre -o acfiune viitoare: I'm sure you'll feel better tomorrow. Sint sigur c& te vei siroi mai bine rifine. 3) Viitorul simplu poate fi folosit gi cu valori modale (pct. 3—7). Viitorul simplu reprezentat prin wull + infinitiv, de exemplu, poate fi folosit, la persoana I singular gi plural, pentru a exprime: a) neaccentuat, o intentie nepremeditat’, spontand, apdrutaé in momentul vorbirii: A: It’s hot in here. B: I'll open the window. A: E cald aici. B: Am s&/MA duc s& deschid fereastra. b) accentuat, hotarirea, determinarea de a sdvirgi actiunea: A: Don’t sell that dictionary. It is very good. B: I will sell it, no matter what you are saying. ‘A: Nu vinde dictionarul, e foarte bun. B: Am_si-l vind/sint hotarit si-1 vind, indiferent ce spui. 4) Will +infinitivul poate fi folosit gi cu valoare de prezent habitual (,frecventativ): Every Sunday they will go to the seaside. In fiecare duminicé se duc obignuiesc au obiceiul Children will be children. Copiii tot copii. 5) La forma negativa, la persoana I gi a Hl-a singular gi plural, won't +- infinitiv exprima: a) neaccentuat, refuzul: J-won’t go there. Nu vreav si ma duc acolo. b) accentuat, refuzul absolut: Z won't go there. Nici nu ma gindese si mi duc acolo. 6) Will + infinitiv este folosit, la forma interogativa, pentru a exprima: a) ointrebare despre o actiune viitoare: Will they open the exhibition tomorrow? Vor deschide ei expozifia mfine? b) 0 invitafie (la persoana a I1-a): Will you come in, please? Vreti sa intrafi, va Tog? c) o rugdminte (de asemenea la persoana a II-a): Will you help me? Te rog s& ma ajuti. 7) La interogativ, Shall + infinitiv exprima: a) viitorul simplu: Shall I find them at home if I go now? Am sé-i gisesc acast dacé ma duc acum? b) solicitarea unei opinii: Shall 1 buy this watch? S& cumpar acest ceas? Datorita, in mare perte, implicafiilor modale pe care le prezinta, viitorul simplu nu este frecvent folosit in vorbirea curenta, fiind o forma caracteris- ticd limbii scrise (limbajul jurnalistic, emisiuni de stiri, anunfuri oficiale, limbajul literar, etc.). In vorbire, se prefera viitorul cu going to pentru expri- marea ideii de viitor apropiat sau czitoral continuu pentru redarea ideii de acfiune neutré, obignuitd, in desfagurarea normali a evenimentelor viitoare. }oa se duca{ la mare. 22B) Be about to-_ intinitiv 1.9.4, Be about to + infinitiv exprima un viitor imediat: We are about to leave. Sintem pe punctul de a pleca. C) Be to +- infinitiv 1.9.5. Be to +-infinitiv exprima: 4) un aranjament: J am to move house soon. Urmeazi si m& mut in ourind. oe ; 2) un ordin: You are to return before nightfall. Trebuie s& va intoarceti inainte de c&derea noptii. D) Viitorul eu going to (Coing to — future) 1.9.6. Viitorul ou going to se formeari cu ajutorul formei be going to la prezent, urmata de infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: I am going to ‘write letters tomerrow. Voi scrie scrisori miine. You ‘ E We { are going to see a film tomorrow, He {4s going to play tennis They She [“tomorrow. 1.9.7. Intrebuingere. Viitorui oo going io esté intrebuinfat pentra a exprima: 4)o achiune viitoare aprepiat& de momentu} vorbirii (vezi exemplele de mai sus). ‘Not: Verivele go si come nu pot fi precedate de going to. Pentru a reda ideca de vitor apropiat, ele sint Intrebuinyate Ja prezentul continu: Where are you going? Unde te duci? He is coming sonighe. El vine diseara, 2)0 actiune viitoare ce va avea ioc ca urmare a unei intenyii prezente: We are going to spend our holiday in the mountains. (We've already booked a room in Poiana Brasov). Avem de gind/ intenfiondm s& no petrecem vacanfa la munte. (Am rezervat deja o camera la Poiana Bragov). Nott: O intensio spontand, nepremeditat, se exprimé cu ajutorat verbului auxiliar will + infinitiv: 4: P'm thirsty. (Mi-e sete). B: I wili fetch you a glass of woter. (Ma due s8-fi adue un pahar de ap’). (7 2. pet. 3a.) 3)0 actiune viitoare care va avea loc ca rezultat aluneicauze prezente: It’s going to rain. Look at the cdouds. Cred a.jAre s& piou’. Uitd-te la nori, 4) Viitorul cu going to nu este folosit de reguli in propositille principale, oind ele sint urmate de o propozitie subordonata condifionald sau temporala (se foloseste infinitive! cu shall/wl}. Totugi, aceasta forma poate apirea tn Propozifii temporale, cind vrem si subliniem intentia vorbitoruhit: He 1s going to be a pilot when he grows up. Are de gindintentioneazi si se faci pilot oind va cregte. E) Prezentul continuu (Present Tense Continuous} 1.9.8. Prezentul continu, format din verbul be la prezent gi participiul prezent (forma in -ing) a verbului de conjugat, este folosit pentru a exprima 0 actiune viitoare care a fost planificata san proiectata intr-un moment prezent: ‘We are leaving éomorrow. (This is our plan.) Plecira mfine. (Acesta este planul nostrn.) 1.9.9. Prezental continws expri afit de un adverb de timp viitor aflernoonjlater. Avem|Vom avea se ind 0 actiune viitoare este de obicei 0 are having a meeting at 3 o’elock|this inf ls ora 3/dup& amiazA/mai tirziu, 231.9.40. Prezental simplu exprima: 1) © actiune viitoare definita, care va avea loc oa parte a unui program oficial, orar stabilit, etc.: The plane takes off at 7 p.m. Avionul decoleaza la ‘ora 19.00. Term starts in September. Scoala incepe in septembrie. 2) 0 actiune viitoare in propozitii subordonate temporale si conditionale (vezi § 1.5.4. pet. 4b). i: Atentic! Atit prezentul continuy cit gi cel simplu exprimé o actiune viitcare conform unui plan sau aranjament cind sint folosite cu verbe de migcare ca go, leave, arrive, come, ete. Deosebirea ests urmatoarea: We are leaving tonight. Plecim disear’. (Acesta este planul nostra personal). We leave tonight. Plecim diseara. (Acesta este programul oficial, stabilit (al excursiei, ete.)). }e. Viitoral perfect deseraneazé un eveniment anterior unui moment sau everiiment care este la rindul siu posterior momentului vorbirii, 2. Form’. Viitorul perfect confine in structura sa viitorul simplu al verbului have, urmat de participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: / shall/ will have done my homework by the time you return. Imi voi fi facut lectiile pina te intorei t 2yo2*. Viitorul perfect este folosit pentru a exprima: 4) 0 actiune viitoare care va avea loc inaintea unui moment viitor: He will have finished the book by Monday. Ei va fi terminat cartoa pin& luni. 2) o actiune viitoare care va avea loc inaintea unei alte actiuni viitoare: Ho will have finished the book by the time you come baek home. Ei va fi termi- nat cartea pind cind te intorci tu acasi. 3) 0 acjiume viitoare care va avea loc intr-o perioada de timp anterioara unei scfiuni viitoare, dar ajungind pind Ja aceasta: He will have worked in this factory tor forty years when he retires, Va fi lucrat in aceasta fabried timp de 40 de ani cind se va pensiona. **Viiterul perfect este o forma verbala caracteristica limbii scrise, fiind rar folosit, in yvarbirea curenta. * Evenimentele viitoare sint posterioare momentului vorbirii, care este now. Dar evenimentele pot fi posterioare gi unui moment trecut then, care este amintit ‘in momentul Yorbirii, De pe acoastd axd a trecutului, posibilitafile de exprimare a ideit de viitor sint urmitoatele: 4) would Fin fin itiv. (Constructie putin frecventa in vorbirea curenti, caracteristics stilului narativ literar): The time was not far off when he would realize his mistake. Nu era departe momentul cind igi va da seama de greseala. 2) be going to la Past Tense +infinitiv, adesea cu sensul de intenfie nerealizata: You were going to invite me to the cinema, (But you didn’t). Urma/Trebuia sé ma invifi la cinema. (Dar n-ai facut-o). 3) Past Tense aspectul continu (actiune conform unui plan, aranjament): 7 Was meeting them in Tulcea the neat day. li tntiIneam/urma sé-i intilnesc tn Tulcea a doua zi 4) Be to la Past Tense +infinitiv (oonstructie folosita tn engleza literarg, cu sensul de ,urma sé“; ,era aranjat“): He was to change his mind later. The festival was to be held at the end of term. 5) be about to le Past tense +infinitiv (,a fi pe punctul de“): She was about to cry. 241,10. Aspectul (Aspect) t 1.10.1. Definitie. In limba englez4, aspectul-este. categoria gramaticala specified verbului cure se, referd la felul in care este reprezentata acticnen exprimata de verb: ca avind durata sau nu, ca fiind:tepminata sau nu. 1.10.! ista doua contraste in limba englezi: durativ —non-durativ (denumit de obicei, continuu —non-continun) gi perfectiv —non-perfuctiv. In primul, opozitia este intre o actiune care are o anumita durata, este in desfagurare.intr-un anumit moment sau ntr-o anumita perioada de tirip gi este raportatA la momentul de referintd now, then etc., gi intre o actiune pentru care o asemenea informatie nu este importanta. Comparati: John is reading an English newspaper (now). John citeste un ziar engle- zese (acum), cu: John reads an English newspaper (every day). John citeste un ziar engle- zesc (in fiecare zi). In al doilea, opozitia este intre actiuni vazute ca terminate in momentul vorbirii: J have read an interesting article on. pollution. Am citit un artica? inte- resant despre poluare. si intre acfiuni despre care nu se dé o asemenea infortnatie: J have been reading sincé 10 0 clock, 1.10.3. Pentra a analiza contrastul durativ —non-duratiy gi perfectiv — non-perfectiv in limba engleza, trebuie pornit de 1a sensul lexical al verbelot A) Verbele care exprima activitafi in limba englead (activity verbs) sint de doua feluri: verbe de activitate durativa (exprimind actiuni a caror sayirsire necesita 0 anumitd durata in timp): eat, dress, drink, read, walk, etc. * —verbe de activitate non-durativa, care exprim’ actiuni momentane, fara durata, fiind Incheiate aproape in acelagi timp cu efectuarea lor: catch, hit, kick, slam, slap, snap, ete. Notii: Adeseori sensul non-durativ al unor verbe este semnalat de prezenja unor particule adverbiale ca down, out, up, care le deosebesc de verbele de activitate durativa. Comparaji: . sit — sit down drink — drink up stand — stand up pick — pick up La rindul lor, verbele de activitate durativa se impart in: —verbe care nu implica nici un seop: rub, run, walk, ete. —verbe care implica atingerea unui scop: iron a shirt, make a dress, read a book, write an essay. B) Pe ling& verbele care denumeso activitati (durative sau non-durative) exist gi verbe care denumesc s t Ari. Acestea sint durative,deoarece exprima existenja unor fapte pe o perioada indelungata de timp: be clever, be able, Know how, exist, live, Aspectul Continuu (The Continuous Aspect ) 1104, Forma, Timpurile aspectului contimin se formeazi dintr-un timp al verbufui be gr participiul prezent (forma tn -ing) a verbului de conjugat: Present Continuous : J am reading Past Continuous : Z was reading Present Perfect Continuous : J have been reading Past Perfect Continuous : I had been reading Future Continuous : I will be reading Future Perfect Continuous :J will have been reading Ibid, pp. 231-243 251,10.5. Ortografia participiului prezent depinde de forma verbului Ja . infinitiv: a) consoana finala se dubleazi daci vocala care o precede e scurta gi accentuata: stop ~ stopping; refer — referring. Notii: In engleza britanicd, 4 final se dubleaz’, indiferent de accent: control ~ con- frolling; travel — travelling. In engleza americana, -I final se dubleazd numai daca accentul cade ye ultima silaba: controlling; dar: traveling; b) -y final se pistreazé, indiferent dacé este precedat de consoand sau de vocala: study — studying; play — playing, iar -te final se transforms fn -y: lie lying; die — dying; e) -¢ final se omite: have — having. Exceptii: agree —agreeing; be —being; see — seeing; dye — dyeing (a vopsi). 1.10.6. Intrebuinfarea aspeetului continua a) Folosirea aspectuhii continuu ou verbele de activitate durativa fari scoop araté c& acfiunile denumite de verbe sint in desfigurare po axa pre- zentului, a trecutului, sau a viltorului: They are walking in the park now. He was swimming in ihe lake ai this time yesterday. b) Cu verbele de activitate durativa care implic atingersa unui seap, fo! sirea aspectului continuu arata c& scopul nu a fost atins, actiunes nua fi terminata: He is reading a book now. Citegte c carte acum (Nu a terminat~ She was ironing a shirt, Ba cilos o c&maga. c) Verbelo de activitate non-durativé araté o actiune repetata atunci ctnd sint folosite la aspectul continua: He is kicking. Da din picivare. d) Verbele care exprimé o stare arat& cB aceasta stare este limitata, atunci cind sint folosite la aspectul continun: F live in Brasov (that’s where my house is). I'm living in Bucharest this year. Anul acesta locuiese in Bucu- regti. Intrebuintarile aspectului continuy ia diverse timpuri sint csle enumerate ta §1.10.6, Diferentele de la un timp la altul coastau in momentul In care are lor actiunea gi in momentul de referii 1.19.7, Pregentul continuy este u i) cu verbe de activitate durati: a) © acfiune in desfajurare in mome bathroom! Asculta! Cinta in bai Aceasta Intrebuintare este marcata de obicei de adverbe de timp ca (acum), right now (chiar acum), at this moment (in acest moment): A: W. ts Dan doing? 2: He is shaving right now, dar poate aparea yi [ara ele momentul de fat& al actiunii reiegind din forma continua a yerbul A: What is Dan doing? B: He is shaving. A: Ce fece Dan (acum)? B. Se barbiereste. b) o actiune obignuitd, repetata, prezentatdin desfagurarea ei im anumite ciccumstanje: J always take my umbrella when it ig raining. Totdeauna imi iau umbrela cind plowd. J never read while 1 am eating. Niciodata au citesc in timp ce maninc. J meet hun whenever I am wail in the Bote nical Gardens. 11 intiInese ori de cite ori m4 plimb in Gradina botunica. 2) cu verbele de activitate durativa implicind un scop, 0 acfiune care nu a fost terminata la momeniul vorbirii: He is doing his homework. Igiface tera 3) cu _verbe de activitate non-durativa, o actiune repetata in momeatui vorbirii: He is knocking on the door sau o actiune repetata In mod frecvent, aura a exprima: fara. scop: sul vorbinli: Listen / He is singing in the now 26care deranjeazd sau irita pe vorbitor: My neighbour is always starting his car when I want to have a rest. Vecinul meu totdeauna tgi pornegte magina cind vreau s& m& odihnesc. Aceasta folosire a prezentului continuueste obligatoriu insotita de adverbe de freeventi ca: always, forever (totdeauna), continually, all the time (tot timpul). Peete se agaza intre auxiliarul be gi forma in -ing, cu exceptia lui all the time care ocupa pozitie finala in propozitie: That little child is continually erying. dar: He is crying all the time. 4) cu verbe care denumesc o stare, 0 actiune cu caracter temporar, care are loo pentru o perioada limitata de timp, (incluzind si momentul vorbirii): Ann is attending the Poly. Ana urmeaza politehnica (studiaza politehnica). Complinirile adverbiale pentru aceasta intrebuintare a prezentului con- tinuu sint: today (astazi), this week (siptimina aceasta), these days (zilele aces- tea), this month (luna aceasta), this year (anul acesta), ete.: My father usually teaches geometry, but he is teaching algebra this year. Tatal meu preda geometria de obicei, dar anul acesta predi algebra. 5) Prezentul cqntinuu este de asemenea folosit pentru a desemna o acti- une viitoare planificata din prezent (vezi § 1.9.8.): We are leaving tomorrow. Plecdm miine. 1.10.8. Past Tense Continuous exprimi 1) eu verbe de activitate durativa [ara scop: a) o actiune in desfagurare intr-un moment trecut, amintita in momentul vorbirii: cas walking { 2 {0 e’elock yesterday. 7 was walking + at this time last week. Notd: Aceasta forma verbali este freevent folosit’ in descrieri, pentru redarea unor activitati durative, in desfasurare, care contrastenz’ cu activitaji, non-durative, succesive si terminate, pentru redarea cirora sé foloseste: Past Tense simplu (forma caracteristick naratiunilor]: ¢was a cold winter evening. Outside, the wind was blowing and it was getting colder and colder. Yet the drawing roam was warm and comfortable. A big fire was burning in the fireplace. The old women came in and went near the fire She warmed her hands and sat dawn. b) o actiune durativa in desfagurare, intrerupta de o actiyne non-durativ’, momentana: when } { eind He came in { white f 7 as eating, A intrat {tf tims } ce mincam. When ke rang up 1 was (just) going out. Cind a telefonat (tocmai) leseam. He called me just as I was leaving. M-a strigat exact cind plecam. v) doud actiuni paralele tn desfagurare in trecut: She was eating while I was washing. Ea minca in timp ce eu ma spalam. Not: Daca nui ne intereseazd aspectul de desfasurare, de duratd al actiunilor, ci doar ci actiunile au avut loc Intr-un moment din trecut putem spune: She ate while J washed. sau: She ate while £ was washing, (ace ~ actiunea a fost mai scurth, termi- nails was washing acfiune ~ mai de durata, neinchelata In momentul in care cea~ alta a fost Incheiat} 2) eu verbe de activitate durativa care implicd atingerea unui scop: ~~ 0 actiune trecuta, dar neincheiats: He was reading a book last night. Citea carte aseara. (Comparati cu: He read a book last night. A citit o carte aseara. A terminat-o). 273) cu verbe de activitate non-durativa, 0 actiune repetatd in trecut. iritanta pentru ceilalfi,( + always, forever, continually, all the time): He was always coming ‘late to the English lesson. Totdeauna intirzia la ora de engleza. 4) ou verbe care exprimi o stare, ° 9 acfiune trecutd cu caracter temporar: He was living in Brasoo when I met hi 5) Past Tense aspect continuu Tei Poate exprima gi o actiune viitoare, planificaté intr-un moment trecut, fiind subinteleasd neindeplinirea ei (Vezi § 1.9.15. pot. 3.): We were leaving the next day. 1.10.9. Viitorul continuu (Future Continuous) 1) cu verbe de activitate durativé fri scop, viitorul continuu exprima: a) 0 aciune in desfagurare intr-un moment vitor, posterior momentului vorbirii: L shall be walki at two o’clock tomorrow. will Walking | at this time next week. miine la ora doud. Ma voi plimba { saptamina viitoare la ora asta. b).o acfiune in desfagurare in viitor intrerupta de o actiune momentan’: When he comes, I will be eating. Cind va veni, eu voi fi in mijlocul mesei. c) o actiune in desfagurare in vitor, in paralel cu o alta acfiune in desfagurare, de asemenea in vitor: She will be walking while I am sleeping. Ea se va plimba in timp ce eu voi dormi. Atentie! A doua actiune viitoare in desfagurare nu poate fi pus& tot la viitorul continuu deoarece face parte dintr-o propozifie subordonata tempo- rala (in care nu se folosegte viitorul in limba engleza). 2) cu verbe dé activitate durativA care implic& atingerea unui scop, o actiune neincheiata: She will be having her piano lesson when you come. 3) Viitorul continuu exprimé gi ideea de actiune viitoare care va avea loc in desfigurarea fireasca a ovenimentator: Tl be seeing him tomorrow mornii (This happens every morning). 1] vid miine dimineata. (Il vad in fiecare dit neat). /'ll be passing the grocer’s on my way to school. Trec prin fata bacaniei in drum spre gcoala. 1.10.10. Traducerea formelor aspectului continua in limba romana: Verbul romanese nu are o categorie mareata formal. pentru redarea con- trastului aspectual contiauu/non-continun. Ideea de desfagurare sau duratd limitata a actiunii este redata tn limba romani cu ajutorul adverbelor de timp: He is teaching now. Preda/Are ori acum. He is teacknig arithmetic this year. Preda aritmetica anul acesta. Singura forma verbala din limba romana care exprima, ca gi aspectul continuu din limba engleza, o actiune neterminata la un moment dat, sau-de duraté limitata, este imperfectul i acesta este folosit de obicei pentru traduce- rea lui Past Tense continuu in limba romana: She was working in the garden when I arrived. Muncea in gridina cind am sosit. Mai dificil& insa este traducerea imperfectului in limba englez&, deoarece existd tendinta de a folosi Past Tense Continuous $i atunci cind imperfectul romanesc are alta valoare, cea de actiune repetata in trecut, pentru care limba englez& foloseste Past Tense Simple: Romana: Munceam in gradina cind ma duceam la bunici. Englezi: J worked the garden when I went to my grandparents. 2811. Verbe care nu-pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu. Existé mai matte a ae Fete nara dt fi folosite a Tor texieall nu pot fi foloite ne aspectul continuu. Acestea stint: A) verbe de activitate non-duratiy, care sint conside- rate afi Incheiate in momentul tn care au fost inifiate: He kicks, slams, bangs the door. B) verbe care exprima actiuni desfagurate atit de rapid sub oohii vorbitorului, inelt pot fi considerate non-durative: score, shoot, place in -the oven. Aczesta se intimpla de obicei in comentarii sportive sau demcnstratit practice (aga numitul prezent simplu instantaneu — vezi § 1.5.4. pet. 3.) 7 C) verbele care exprimé un adevar universa! sau o carac- teristic’ generala: Fish swim. Cows give milk. The Danube flows into the Black sea, D)verbe care exprim& o perceptie senzorialad (Verbs of inert perception): see, hear, smell, feel, sound. The flower smells nice. Floarea are un miros plicut, At ont ie! Verbele de perceptie se folosese cu verbul modal can pentru a reda o acfiuhe unici, concreta, in desfasurare: J can soe him now. {l vad aun. 1 see him every day. Il vad in fiecare zi, + Verhele care redau percepfia senzoriala pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu daca ele indic& o folosire congtient& a simfurilor: a) prin folosirea unor perechi sinonimice:: listen to, look at, watch: -Aspectul simplu: Aspectul continuu: J (can) hear music. J am listening 10 music. I (can) see him. Zam looking at him. J (can) seo the TV set, 7 am watebing TV. b) prin folosirea tranzitiva (ca activitati) a unor verbe care exprimé o calitate Permanenta (folosite intranzitiv): The cake tastes good. Jam tasting the cake. ©) vorbele de perceptic pot avea forme ale espectului continuu cind sint folo- site cu alte sensuri: Pve beon hearing ail about her exams. Arn auzit (Misa spus totul) despre examenele ei. (hear = a primi vesti). I’m seeing him tonight. Ma tntilneso cu el disearé. He is seeing the sights. Viziteara obiect, vele turistice. (see =a intllni, a vizita locuri turistice). E) verbele care exprimk o activitate mintal& (Verbs of cognition): believe, know, think, imagine, mean, mind, remember, recollect, recall, suppose, forget, suspect, guess, presuppose, realize, understand. sAveste verbe stnt urmate de obicei de o propozitie subordonata introdusd do that sau de un cuvint relativ tncepind cu wh-: I think (that) you are right, Cred cf ai dreptate. I don't remember what he said. Nucmi amintese ce a spus. Unele din ele pot fi folosite 1a aspectul continun daca sint folnsite ca verbe de activitate: A: What is he doing ? B: He is thinking of his future A: Ge tare el? B: Se gindeste la vitor. F) verbo care exprimi sentimente, stiri sufletesti: Inve, Tike, care for, adore, huts, dislike, detest, regret, prefer, wish. I Whe my job. tori 29place sexvieiul mon. 7 detest lacy people. Detest oamenii lenegi, dar gi: are you Uking the trip ? Cum thi place oflétoria/Cum te distrezi? G) verbe exprimtnd o selatic: apply to, be, belong to, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, inclade, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess, have, require, resemble, seem: Phis book belongs to him. Acoast’ carte ti aparfine lui. He owns this house. Aceastd casi e proprietatea lui len. resembles her mother. Hlena seamana cu mama e!. ‘Aceste verbe nu pot fi folosite Ja aspectul continuy, cu excepfia hui de si have cind ele wa oxpritnd siarca, respectiv posesia: He is kind. El este amabi Gin general). Why, he is boing kind today! Ni, so poartd cu amabilitate (cr amabil astazi!) (este o-situalie necaracteristicd, temporari), He has a Bike. Ave o bieisleta noud. He ie having a ride now. Se plimbé cu bicicleta acum. In vorbirea curenti, verbs sa resemble, cost, ebe, sint uneori intrebuints Je aspectul continuu, dacé exprima o intensificare treptat& a acfiunii: Peter resembling his father mare and more. Potre seamaaé din ce in ce mai soult fatal siu, Groceries in Britain are evsting so muck mare these days! tn Ang! preful articolelor de bécinie a cresowt aga de rault tn zilele noastre! H) verbe care exprimio sonzatie fizica (Verbs of bodily senso tion}. Aceste verbe pof fi folosite Ia aspectul continuu sau simple, cu mici diferenfe de sens: ,, { de you feet How 9 are you feeling | Lisdey? Cum te simti astézi? 11GAB, Definigte, Asnectal perfectiv arat& ci wn eveniment {o acfiune nowt stare) este reprezentat oa incheiat de cAtre vorbitor in momentul fn o este discutat, 10.48, Intrebainjare. In fmefie de sensul lexical al verbelor i de adver- hele care le Insofesc, aspec otiv are traditional mai multe valori jpaspectul perfestiy revultativ (Resuleative Perfcst) apere cu verbe de activitate dv va once implicd un scop gi araté cf acest scop a fost atins: a) J have brekew vhe case. b) He had vead J In coneecintg, vorbis anterioare: a) The vase is broken now. Vora este spart& acum. b) He knew what the book was about, Stia despre ce este vorba in carte 2) aspectul porfectiv continuativ (Conlinuutive Perfect) ente folosit cu verbo care exprima o stare gi sint insofite de adverbe de dure‘, pentru a exprima o acfiune inceputa tnainie gi care continua gi fd momentul wezent, aminti¢ sau anticipat: We bave lived tx Bucharest for ien yee: Focuim in Bucuresti de 40 ani. London hes stood on the Thames for thous ands of years. Londra este situatX pe Tamisa de mii de ani. remultatul unei scfiuni 3) aspoctul perfectiv al experiengei (The Perfect of Experience) araté c# actinnea @ avvt loc odatit seu de mai nzulte oi in expe Fieafa vorbitorului: They bad lived in several towns in Romania. Locuiseré in mai multe orage din Romania, Whenever I have asked my father a ques 30T have received a straightforward answer. Ori de elte ori i-am pus tatalui mou © intrebare, am primit un raspuns fird ocoliguri, 1.10.14. Aspectul perfectiv si aspectul continua sint combinate in urma- toarele forme verbale: perfectul prezent continuu, mai-mult-ca-perfectul continuu gi viitorul perfect continuu. Perfeetul prezent continun (Present Perfect Continuous) este aloxtuit din forma de Present Perfect a verbului be urmata de participiul prezent (In ing) al verbului de conjugat: 1 {23° } eon reading for three hours. Citose de trei ore. He { has } been reading for three hours. Citeste de trei ore. Aceasti forma verbal exprimi: 4) 0 actiune inceputa intr-un moment trecut, care continua in prezent gi poate gi in viitor: They have been playing tennis for half an hour. Joaca tenis de jumatate de ora (= They began playing tennis half an hour ago. They are still playing tennis and they may continue dving so). Aceasti intrebuintare a lui Present Perfect continu poate fi redata gi cu ajutorul lui, Present Perfect simplu !n cazul unor verbe ca live, stay, work, study, etc. ‘olosinen aspectului continuu, prin contrast cu cea a aspectului simplu, seoate in evidenfa continuitatea, caracterul neintrerupt al actiunii: He has lived in Bucharest for ten years. He has been living in Bucharest for ten years, Un alt contrast poate fi cel de actiune tocmai incheiata — actiune nein. cheiata: J’ve worked on this composition since five oclock. (I've just finished it). J’ve heen working on this composition since five o'clock. (and I’m still working). 2) o actiune repetata frecvent, intr-o perioada de timp care se tntinde di ‘trecut pina in prezent: /'ve been riding a bicycle for three years. Merg cu bi cleta de trei ani. He has been writing poems since he was a child. Scrie Poezii de eind era copil. In aceasta situatie (2) se foloseste Present Perfect simplu (51 nu continuu) daca se specifica de cite ori a fost sivirbité-actiunea repetata: I've ridden my bicycle hundreds of times. Am mers cu bicicleta de sute de ori. He has written, fifty poems. A scris 50 de poezii. Intrebuintarile 1) gi 2) ale lui Present Perfect sint marcate de compliniri adverbiale indicind: a) lungimea perioadei de timp: for ages (de multa vreme), for a few minutes (de citeva minute), for three hours (de trei ore), etc. b) inceputul perioadei de timp: since December 25% (de 1a 25 decembrie), since last year (de anul trecut), since Monday (de luni), ete, 3) 0 actiune trecuta, incheiata recent, care este cauza unui efect simfit in Prezont: A: Why are your hands dirty? B: I've been repairing my bike. A: De ce ai miinile murdare? B:.Mi-am reparat bicicleta. 1.10.15, M, ultea-pertectul continnn ai. Berfece se formeaza din verbut o¢ la mai-mult-ca-perfect gi din Batticipiul in -ing al verbu- lui de conjayat. El are aceleagi valori ca gi Present Perfect continuu, momentul de referinga find ins axa trecutului, 31Aceasté forma verbala exprimi: ; 41) 0 actiune trecut&, tnceputd tnaintea altei actiuni trecute gi continulnd ping la ea: : : Thad been waiting for my friend {jeer as hoan feng Fmalty 11 agteptim po prictemut mou { $2 je.eFtat, ado ora f ctnd tn stlrit x sont 2) 0 actiune treouta incéputa tnaintea unui moment sau a unei actiuni trecute, continuind pin& tn acel moment sau pin& la acea actiune gi poate gi dupa aceea: The boys were still playing football at noon. all morning. They had beon playing football { Sen ten Sctock, Baiefii mai jucau fotbal la ora prinzului. Ei jucaser& fotbal toata di- mineaja. | Ei jucau fotbal de la ora 10. 3) 0 actiune repetata frecvent Intr-o perioada de timp trecutd, anterioar& unui moment sau unei acfiuni de asemenea ttecute: He had been writing poems for two years when I met him. Scria poezii de doi ani cind I-am cunoscut. Atenfic! Daci se face o precizare numerica, se foloseste Past Perfect simplu: He had written fifty poems when I met him. Scrisese 50 de poezii cind am cunoscut. : 4) o actiune anterioard unei alte actiuni, de asemenea trecuta, terminata cu pujin tnaintea ei, si find cauza acesteia: He was carrying a hammer and nails because he had been mending the fence. Avea in min& un ciocan gi cuie pentru c& reparase gardul, 5) Present Perfect si Past Tense continuu devin mai-mult-ca-perfect con- tinuu in vorbirea indirect, dupé un verb trecut in propozitia principalé: “Pve been reading for three hours.” She said she had heen reading for three hours. Atentie! Timpul Past. Tense continuu devine Past Perfect continuu numai daca se referd la o actiune incheiata (Vezi § 26.3.9.): “I was thinking of going away, but I have changed my mind.” He said he had been thinking of going away, but he had changed his mind, Altminteri, Past Tense aspectul continuu ramine neschimbat in vorbirea indirect, mai ales dac& el apare tntr-o propozitie subordonata temporalé (Vezi § 26.3.8. pet. f): “When I was attending the secondary school in Craiova, J often met Dan.” He said that when he was attending thé secondary school in Craiova, he (had) often met Dan. 1.10.16, Viitorul perfect continu (Future Perfect Continuous) 8@ for- meaza din viitorul perfect al verbului be §i din participiul in -ing al verbului de conjugat. ; Viitorul perfect continu exprima o acfiune in destégurare in vitor, inainte gi pind la o alta acfiune viitoare (gi poate gi dupa aceea): When the bell rings, ie shall/will have heen writing for fifty minutes, Cind va suna clopotelul, noi vom fi fost ocupafi ou scrisul / noi vom fi scris de 50 de minute. 32 -. Atentiet! Acfiunea sivirgita tn aceast& perioad’ de timp viitoare, anterioar& unui moment sau unei acfiuni de asemenea viitoare, este la viitorul fect continu dacd se specifica lungimea perioadei de timp sau inceputul ei: By sia o'clock p.m. she will have beon selling blouses for elght hours. Pind Ja ora 48 ea va fi vindut bluze timp de opt ore; gi Ja viitorul perfect simplu dack este prezenti o precizere numericd in legituré cu actiunea: By siz o'clock p.m. ‘she will have sold eighty blouses. Pind la ora 18 ea va fi vindut 80 de bluze. Noth: Viitorul perfect continu este rar folasit tn vorbire, fiind o forma caracteris- ticd limbii scrise. : Diateza este categoria gramaticali specifics verbului care exprimé raportul dintre verbul predicat, pe de o parte, si subiectul si obiectul (complementul direct sau de agent) al verbului predicat, pe de alti In limba englezi exista doud diateze marcate formal: diateza activa gi diateza pasivi. a netive Fos) Verbul este la diateza activa cind subiectul gramatical sivirgogte actiunea, care, la verbele tranzitive, se ras- fringe asupra obiectului: Luey (subiect) has written (predicat) a letter (obiect), Lucia a scris 0 scrisoare. : Pentru clasificarea verbelor din punct de vedere al tranzitivitiii, veri § 1.5. — 14.8 Dintezn pase’ “Pa .-Verbul este la diateza pasiva cind subiectul gramatical sufera actiunea sivirgita de obiect: This letter (subiect) has been written (predicat) by Lucy (obiect). Aceasta scrisoare a fost scrisd de Lucia. LA Bet p svecut. Indieii formali ai diatezei pasivé sint: a) verbul be sau uneori get, b) complementul de agent introdus de Pprepozitia by. a) Verbul be marcheazi sategoriile de mod, timp, persoana si numir la diateza pasiva. El este urmat de un verb notional la participiul trecut: She was met at the station by my brother. Ea a fost agteptata la gard de fratele meu. (Was —modul indicativ, Past Tense, persoana a IlI-a singular). Conjugarea unui verb la diateza pasivi, modul indicativ este: Aspectul simplu: Present : Iam seen. He is seen. We are seen. Past : I was seen. We were seen. Present Perfect : J have been seen. He has been seen. Past Perfect : ZT had been seen, Future : I shall be seen. He will be seen. Future Perfect : J shail have been seen. He will have been seen, Aspectul continuu este folosit la diateza pasiva doar la Preseni gi Past Tense. : Forma continué la diateza pasiva are in structura ta verbul be la aspoctul continu (timpul Present sau Past) gi participiul trecut al verbului do conju- 33 3— Gramatica limbit englezegat: The classrooms are being cleaned now. Se face curitenie in clase acum. The school was being eleaned when we wanted to visit it. Se facea curiitenie in gcoala cind am vrut s-o vizitim. : In alari de verbul be se mai poate folosi gi vorbul get pentru formarea diatezei pasive. ‘Vorbul get ++ participiul trecut este utilizat, mai ales in vorbirea curenta, pentru a indica trecerea dintr-o stare in alla: Her skirt got eaught in the door. Ts-a pring fusta in ugi. AU our glasses got broken when we moved. S-au spart toate paharele cind ne-am mutat. Un sinonim al verbului get cu sensul de schimbare treptata este verbul become, insotit deseori de more and more, increasingly: The production of this factory is becoming increasingly specialized. Productia acestei fabrici devine din ce in ce mai specializats. Complementul de agent introdus de pre- posifia by indica came a sivisgit actiunea suferita de subizetul gramatical al propozitiei: The poem was recited by Mary (not by Lucy or Ann). Poezia a fost Tecitatd de Maria (nu de Lucia sau Ana). Complementul de agent este considerat subiectul logic sau real al propotitiei, deoarece el sivirseste actiunea. Complementul de agent nu este mentionat in majoritatea propozifiilor pasive. El se omite cind: a) nu se cunoagte subiectul real, cel care a sivirgit acfiunea: AU villages in Romania are supplied with electricity. Toate satele din Roménia sint alimentate cu curent electric. A doctor has been sent for. Au/s-a trimis dup& doctor. b) vorbitorul nu doreste sk menfioneze subiectul real al actiunii: This subject will he treated fully in the nest chapter. Aceasta problema va fi trataté pe larg in urmatoral capitol. ©) subiectul real al actiunii se poate deduce din context: He was elected Presi- dent of the Teacher-Parent-Association. A fost. ales pregedinte al comitetului de paringi. In aceste cazuri, subiectul verbului la diateza activa este de obicei expri- mat printr-un pronume personal cu valoare generic’: you, they, one, printr-un pronume nehotarit: everybody, somebody, all, sau printr-un’ substantiv ca people: Activ: a } speak English all over the world. Pasiv: English is spoken all over the world. Complementul de agent se omite gi cind forma pasiva este get + participiul trecut: The little boy got hurt on his way to school. Baie{elul s-a lovit in drum spre gcoala. In limba englez&, ca gi in limba romana, se folosesc constructii pasive gi nu active cind intentia vorbitorului este de ase sublinia actiunea si nu pe cel care a savirgit-o: ‘Activ: Millions of people have seen this film. (Aceentul cade pe subiect: Milioane de-oameni au vizut acest film). Pasiv: This film has heen seen by millions of people. (Accentul cade pe verb: Acest film a fost vazut de milioane de oameni). Constructiile pasive sint intrebuinfate mai frecvent in limbajul stiinfific gi fn cel jurnalistic, caracterizate printr-o exprimare impersonal, obiectiva. 34Diateza pasiva se folosegte cu majoritates verbelor tranzitive gi cu unele verbe intranzitive cu prepozitie obligatorie in care verbul formeara. o unitate semanticS ou prepozifia, devenind practic echivalent cu un verb tranzitin Verbele cel mai frecvent folosite din aceasta categorie sint: care forjlook after = tend, come to = reach, deal with = analyse, laugh at == ridicule, listen to = hear, look upon — regard, rely on = trust, send for = call, talk of = dis- cuss, think of = consider. ’ This matter will be dealt with at once. Ne vom ocupa indati de aceasta problems. An alternative was not thought of. La o alternativA nu s-au gindit. Pe plan sintactic, trecerea unei propozitii de la diateza activa la cea pasivi aduce cu sine mai multe schimbiri: Diateza activa: Our form teacher has lent me this book. Diateza pasiva: 7 a) subiectul activ al actiunii devine complement de agent pasiv (care poate fi is In cazurile de la §1.11.7.): This book has been lent to me by our form teacher. b) obiectul activ (complementul direct sau indirect) devine subiectul verbului pasiv: This book has been lent to me by our form teacher, sau: I have been lent this book by our form teacher. c) prepozitia by este introdusi tnaintea agentului: J have been lent this book by our form teacher. Pentru descrierea-transformérilor pasive, vezi § 14.8. Un verb engle- zesc la diateza pasiva se traduce de obicei tot printr-o constructie pasiva: The car was repaired yesterday. Magina a fost reparaté iori, In cazul verbelor urmate de un complement direct si unul: indirect, se pot folosi gi construcfii reflexive cu valoare pasiva cind complementul indirect al persoanoi devine subiect: The teacher was offered flowers by her pupils. Pro- fesoarei i s-au oferit flori de catre elevi. Verbele intranzitive cu prepozitie obligatorie se tradue prin diateza pasiva, diateza activa sau prin forme reflexiv-pasive, de la caz la caz: The children ‘Were well looked after. Copiii au fost bine ingrijiti. A doctor has been sent for. Au trimis/S-a trimis dupa un doctor. In a englezd existA o categorie aparte de verbe intranzitive folosite la dinteza activi cu valoare pasivd si care se traduc tn limba romana fie prin construcfii reflexive pasive, fie prin verbe la diatezapasiva: The book has sold very well. Cartea sa vindut foarte bine. The cake cuts easily. Prajitura se taie usor. The clause reads both ways. Clauza poate fi interpretata in doua feluri. Spre deosebire de verbul romAnesc, verbul englez are pufini indici formali care si marcheze persoana gi numérul, Singura desinen}ii specifica este -s pentru persoana a III-a singular, indi- * cativul prezent, addugata la forma de infinitiv a verbelor nofionale. (Verbele modale nu primesc -s): He plays the piano. El cinta la pian. Datorita absen{ei formelor flexionare, persoana gi numérul tn limba englez& sint identificate de obicei cu ajutorul s iectului, mai ales cind acesta este exprimat printr-un pronume personal. 35 a”In consecinti, subiectul este de regula exprimat in limba englezi, mai ales cind este un pronume personal, spre deosebire de limba romana: T'work very hard. (Eu) muncesc foarte mult. We work very hard. (Noi) muncim foarte mult. Modul este categoria gramaticala specifict verbului care arat& felul in care vorbitoral considera acfiunea din punctul de vedere al posibilitafii de indeplinire a ei tn realitat Pentru redarea acestui raport al acfiunii cu realitatea, limba engleza di pune de doud moduri marcate formal: indicativul (actiune reala) si subjoncti- ‘vul (actiune posibila sav presupus’). Unele gramatici menfioneaz gi modurile con ditional si imperativ. In aceasta lucrare, formele de conditional (prezent gi trecut) sint tratate in cadrul modului subjonctiv (vezi § 4.19.10, § 1.43.42.) datorita formei identice cu unele forme ale subjonctivulai analitic si functiei similare (acfiune posibila sau presupust, tn acest caz condifionata de tndeplinirca unei alte actiuni), iar folosirea condifiona- Tului este tratatl In cadrul Sintazei frazei: § 25.444, Formele folosite pentru exprimarea unei actizni poruncite (asa-numitul mod impe- rativ) sint analizate in cadrul capitolului Felurile proposijiilor, Propositia impera- tiod, § 23.4. Dup& categoria gramaticald a persoanei gi a posibilitatii de a forma pre- dicatul unei propozifti, formele verbale in limba englezi se tmpart In pe r- sonale (indicativul gi subjonctivul) si nepersonale (infinit participiul si Gerund-ul). Modul indicativ prezinta actiunea, starea, etc. exprimataé de verb ca read, indeplinita chisr. Modul indicativ are urmatoarele timpuri, in ,inveci- narea lor cronologica: Pe axa trecutului: Pe axa prezentului: Pe axa viitorului: Past Present Future Past Perfect Present Perfect Future. Perfect Future in the Past Fature _ He returned the book to the library after he had read it, A inapoiat cartea la biblioteca dupa ce a citit-o. J ean return the book to the library now. I have read it. Pot si inapoiez cartea la biblioteca (acum). Am citit-o. He will return the book to the library next Monday. He will have read it by shen. Va inapoia cartea la bibliotec& lunea viitoare. O va fi citit pind atunci, +Pentru analiza folosirii timpurilor, vezi: § 4.5. — § 4.9. ; ; Modul subjonctiv prezinta actiunea ca posibild, otnd actiunea este provectata in ¢titor, sau ca virtuald, nerealizata, deci ireald, cind actiunea trebuia sé aiba loc in treeut. Modul subjonctiv in limba engiezi are forme sintetice i analitice. He ; Subjonctival sintetic are forme de prezent gi trecut. 36aijenctivul present (7 Jj este identic ca he here, come in time. Present ie iss j forma eu infinitival scurt al verbului: It és neeessary that he { 8a fie aici. Este necesar ca el {8 vind la timp. Subjonctivul prezent exprima o actiune considerata posibils, deci nu contrara realitatii. Subjonctivul prezent este putin folosit tn engleza contemporani, fiind de obicei inlocuit de alte construcfii: subjonctivul analitic, infinitivul, lntrebuin. farile lui sint limitate la: 4) propozitii principale continind: a) urdri: Long live peace! Traiascd pacea! b) anumite expresii, in constructii fixe (Formulaic Subjunctive): So be it then I Asa sa fie! Sulfiee i to say that... Este de ajuns s& spun ca. 2) propozifii subordonate introduse de that, cind propozitia principala exprima 0 recomandare, decizie, rugiminte, speranfa sau intenfie pentru vitor ori un sentiment de surprindere (Mandative Sudjanciive). Astfel, subjonctivul sintetic este folosit in urmitoarele tipuri de propozi subordonate: a) in propozitii subiective: /t is necessary that the chairman inform the com- mittee of the decision. Este necesar ca presedintele si informeze comitetul asupra deciziei. b) in propozitii atributive apozitionale: There was a proposal that he be elected chairman. Exista o propunere ca el si{ fie ales presedinte. c) in propozitii completive directe: They suggested that steps he taken to con- solidate peace and security in Europe. S-a propus luarea de masuri pentru consolidarea pacii gi securitatii in Europa. 4) in propozitii condifionale sau concesive introduse de 0 conjunctie: If this Tumour be true, we cannot stay here. Dacd acest zvon e cumva adevirat, nu putem ramine aici. Though everyone desert you,-I will not, Chiar dack toata lumea te va pardsi, eu'nu o oi face. Folosirea subjonctivului prezent este caracteristicd stilului oficial, find intilnité in tratate, rezolufii, regulamente sau in stilul tehnico-gtiintific. Subjonctivul prezent oste mai freovent folosit in engleza americana (literara si vorbita). Engleza britanicd curenta prefera constructii cu: a) infinitivul: Jt is necessary for him to come in time. b) should + infinitiv: They suggested that steps should be taken. : Subjonctivul treout coincide ca forms eu Past Tense simplu, modul indicativ: J wish he told the truth. Ag dori sé spun& adevarul. Verbol be are o form unied pentru toate pensoanele: were: 1 wish { 82} were here, In vorbirea curenta insi, exista tendinja de a1 inlocui pe were cu was la were persoana I gi a Ill-a singular: If he { __ } il, I would send for the doctor. Dac& ar fi bolnay, ag trimite dupa doctor. Forma de subjonctiv trecut poate fi folosita si la aspectul continua. Ea confine in structura sa forma were urmata de participiul in -ing al verbului de 37conjugat: I wish he were revising for his exam now. Ag dori sa repete pentru examen acum. Subjonctival trecut este folosit in propozifii subordonate, pentru a exprima o actiune contrar& realita{ii: a) in propozitii eubiective, dupa it's (high) time: It’s time you went to bed. E de mult timpul s& va ducefi ja ouleare (Este foarte tirziu), Comparafi ou: It’s time + infinitiv: It’s time for you to go to bed. B timpul s& vai duceti la culcare. (E ora de culears b) in completive directe, dup& verbul wish: 7 wish you were telling the truth. ‘Ag dori s& spui adevarul. ¢) in propotifii condifionale: It 1 saw him, 1 would give him your message. Dacd l-ag vedea, i-ag transmite mesajul téu. 4) in circumstafiale de mod comparative: Ske talked as if she were ill. Vorbea de parca era bolnava. 0) in propozitii concesive: Even though he were i Chiar daca ar fi bolnav, n-ar lipsi de la scoala. Subjonctivul trecut este utilizat atit in stilul literar cit gi in limba vorbita. El este confundat de obicei cu Past Tense, cu care este identic ca forma. In capitolele de sintaxi a frazei s-a folosit termenul de Past Tense gi nt de subjonctio weeut in. discutia propozifillor subordenate in care apare aceasta forma, pentr simplificare si ugurarea memorari he would not miss school. Forma de mai-muit-ca-perfect a indivativu- ini are gi valoare de subjonctiv perlect, olnd exprim’ o achiune contrara unei realitali trecute, deci iteala, in unele propozitit subordonate: a) in propozitii completive directe, dup verbul wish: I wish J had been there too. (but I wasn't). Ag fi dorit 88 fiv gi ew acolo. b) in circumstanfiale de mod comparative: He talked as if he had seen ber. Vorbea de parca ar fi varui-o. ) in proposifii conditionele: If he bad read the book, he would have written a better term paper. Daci at fi citit cartea, ar fi seris o tex mai bun’. In limba jonctivul analitic, mai pte sau actiuni ipote- concesii sau a unui englezi contemporana exist’ tendinja de a folosi 5 freevent deel subjonctivul sintetic, pentru a exprima tice, sub forma unor presupuneri, indoieli, ur scop. Formele urmate de verbe no ; Exist’ mai multe posibilitafi de exprimars a subjonctivului an o forma unic& pentra toate persoanele): should + infinitio : should leave should -+ infinitivul perfect: shouid have left would | infireitio : would leave would -+ infinitioul perfect: would Raye left may leave may have left might leave : might have ieft eould leave could have left may + infin may -+ infinitionl perfect might + infinitiv might -+ infinitioul perfect could + infiniti could +- infinitioul perfect 35Formele de subjonctiv aleaituite din verbe modale urmate de infin: prezent se refera la o actiune simultana sau posterioara actiunii din propozitia principald, pe cind cele urmate de infinitivul perfect redau o actiune ante- rioara actiunii din. propozitia principala. Aicn til Degi congin verbe modale, formele subjonctivului analitic si-au pierdut in multe cazuri intelesul modal, verbele modale devenind simple verbe auxiliare: He left early so that he might arrive in time. A plecat devreme ca sé ajunga Ja timp. 898.8, Trost e+ Formele de subjonctiv analitie sint folosite atit in propozifiile principale, oft si in propozifiile subordonate. t Folosirea acestor forme tn propozitiile principale este limitata de obicei Ja exprimarea unor urdri, in expresii fixe, sau pentru exprimarea ideii de con~ ditional: May he Live long! I should like to go now. Formele subjonetivului analitic (mai ales should + infinitio) stnt- mai frecvente in propozifiile subordonate (in special cele introduse de that), pentru a exprima_o acfiune posibila, presupusd, pentru a sublinia ideea de actiune gi nu actiunea propriu-zisd sau indeplinirea ei, care sint redate prin indicativ. Comparagi: The idea is that sport facilities should be improved. Ideea este si se imbu- natajeascl baza material pentru sport. (Aceasta se poate intimpla sau nu.) The fact is that sport facilities will be improved. Faptul este c& baza materials pentru sport va fi imbunatafiti. (Aceasta se va intimpla). : Should +infinitivul este folosit: 4) tn propozifii principale, in alc&tuirea formelor de condifional prezent gi trecut: a) Should +infinitivul prezent este utilizat pentru a reda condie Fionalul prezent tn limba englezs, Ia persoang I singular si plural: yy } \ should like to see him. au} dori si-1 vedem, fn vorbirea curenta exist tendinta de a folosi would in loc de should: a } would like to see him. b) Should +infinitivul perfect este folosit cu functie de condi- tional treout Ia persoana T singular gi plural: by, } should have tikea 1 see him. $i aici este prezentd tendinfa de a inlocui should cu would: Wwe would have liked to see him. ©) Tot tn propozifii principale, should + infinitivul este folosit pentru expri- marea unei atitudini emofionale, in intrebari incepind cu why sau how: Why should we quarrel about such a trifle? De ce si ne certim pentru un asemenea fleac? 2) ta propozifii subordonate: a) tn propozifii subicctive introduse it is/was necessary, strange, unusual, important, impossible, natural, (un)fortunate, remark le, surprising, etc.: 39It is necessary that the chairman should inform the committee of the deci- sion taken. Este necesar ca pregedintele si informeze comitetul despre decizia luata. b) in propozifii subiective introduse de it is/was a pity, shame, surprise, wonder: It is a wonder that they should come so early. E o minune ca ei si vind aga devreme. c) in propozitiile atributive apozitionale, dupa substantivele reason, supposi- tion, thought, idea, hint: This is no reason why he should be late. Aceasta nu este un motiv pentra care si intirzie. a) in propozitiile completive directe dup& verbe care exprim& un ordin, o sugestie, o hoturire: order, command, demand, request, insist, suggest, propose, offer, arrange, agree, setile: They demanded that the meeting should be held without delay. Au cerut ca gedinta si fie tinutd fird intirziere. e) in propozifii completive prepozitionale, dup’ adjective ca: I am glad, pleased, anzious, sorry etc., care redau sentimentele vorbitorului: She was anzious that they should see her dancing. Era neribdatoare ca ei s& o vada dansind. £) in propozifii condifionale, pentru exprimarea unei condifii putin probabile: It he should come, tell him to wait in the sitting room. Dac& vine cumva/se intimpla si vind, spune-i si agtepte in camera de zi. g) in propozifii circumstanfiale de scop negative introduse de lest, for fear (that), in case (that ), urmate de un verb la forma afirmativa: He hurried for fear he should be late. Se grabea de frict si nu intirzie. h) in propozifii concesive introduse de though, although, whatever pentru a exprima o acfiune ipotetica: Whatever he should do, he is not likely to succeed. Orice ar face, nu are ganse si reugeasca. i) in propozifii subordonate temporale (rar): He was advised to keep a diet till he should feel better, A fost sfatuil si find regim pind se va simfi mai bine. Subjonctivul analitie exprimat prin may|might -+-infinitivul prezent sau perfect este folosit: 4) in propozitii principale, pentru a exprima o urare, dorinja: May you live long / Sa& trdiegti multi ani! Oh, that he might recover soon! O, de s-ar insinatogi repede! 2) in propozifii subordonate. Dac& verbul din propozitia principala este la un timp pre- zent, in propozitia subordonata se poate folosi may sau might ++ infinitiv (perfect). Utilizarea lui might + infinitiv indic& o nesiguran}& mai mare dectt may: it is possible that he may come later. Este posibil/Se poate si vin’ mai tirziu. Zi is possible that he might come later. S-ar putea si vini mai tirziu. Might +infinitivul este intrebuinjat intotdeauna dupa un verb trecut in propozitia principala: He spoke loudly so that everybody might hear him. A vorbit tare ca s&-] aud’ toata lumea. May|might +infinitivul (prezent sau perfect) este folosit in urmatoarele tipuri de propozitii. subordonate: 40a) in propozitii subiective introduse de it is/was possible, probable, likely, la “ forma afirmativa: It was possible that they might have visited the Exhibition the day before. Era posibil cai ei 84 fi vizitat expozitia cu o zi tnainte. “tiiLa forma interogativa sau negativa, aceste constructii sint urmate de should +. + infinitiv: Was it possible that they should have visited the Exhibition already? Era posibil ca ei si fi vizitat deja expozitia? by in_propozitii completive propozitionale dup’ be afraid: He was afraid J might turn down his offer. Se temea si nu-i resping oferta. c) in propozifii circumstanfiale de scop introduse de conjunctiile that, so that, in order that: She repeated the explanation so that the pupils might under- stand the lesson hetter. A repetat explicatia ca elevii sé infeleaga mai bine lectia. 4) in propozitii concesive introduse de though, although, whatever, however, no matter etc., pentru areda‘o actiune nesigura, presupusa: However tired he might be, he must come down and taik to us, Oricit de obosit ar fi, trebuie s& coboare si vorbeasc& cu noi. : Subjonctivul analitic exprimat prin would --infinitivul prezent sau perfect este utilizat: 4) In propozifii principale, pentru construirea formelor de conditional: a)condifionalul prezent, la toate persoancle, este format din would +infinitivul prezent: They would like to come now. Ei ar dori si vind acum. b) would +-infinitivul perfect este intrebuinfat pentru formarea con dic fionalului trecut la toate persoancle: They would have liked to come now. Ei ar fi dorit s& vind acum, 2) in propozitii subordonate: a) in propozitii completive directe, dup& verbul wish, pentru‘a exprima o acfiune dorita, dar avind putine ganse de realizare in vitor: J wish he would Tend me his book. (but don’t think he will ). Ag dori si-mi tmprumute cartea. (dar nu cred c& o va face). b) in propozifii circumstangiale de scop introduse de so that: She kept the food in the oven so that they would eat it hot. A finut mincarea In cuptor ea s-0 minince caldi. Could + infinitival este folosit de obicei in Propovifiile circumstantiale de scop, ca o alternativa a lui may/mizht -+ infini- tivul. Deosebirea dintre cele doua constructii este urmitoarea: may/might esto mai formal gi indicd un grad mai mare de nesiguranta; ould este utilizet tn vorbire gi indica de obicei o actiune real&: She sent him money s0 that he could buy the dictionary. I-a trimis bani ca s& poat cumpira/sd cumpere dictionarul. In unele din situafiile de mai sus in care se intrebuinjeaza subjonctivul analitic, se poate folosi si indicativul, Acesta este utilizat de obice? cind acfiunea este mentionata ca un fapt real si nu ca o presupunere: It’s a pity you have missed such an opportunity. E Piicat ci ai pierdut o asemenea ocazie (faptul s-a potrecut). I's a pity you Should have missed such an opportunity. E paca s& fi pierdut 0 asemenen ocazie, (Se subliniaz& ideea de a pierde 0 asemenee ocazie). Penwri analiza mai detaliaté a folosirii modurilor si timpurilor in propozifiite subordonate, vezi Sintaza frazei, § 25.4. — § 25.17. 41Formele nepersonale ale verbului in limba engleza sint infinitivul, participiul in -ing, forma Geruna (gerunziul) si participiul trecut. Formele nepersonale aie verbului nu au categoriile gramaticale de mod, persoang yi numar si nu pot indeplini in propozitie functia de predicat. In unele sittatii insi, ele pot forma constructii cu caracter predicativ, tn care forma verbaii se afld-inte-un vaport predicativ implicit fafa de elementul nominal: Father eoiming home early, we went for a walk, Tata venind devreme acasi, ne-am dus la plimbare. The preparations for the exam completed, the candidates were allowed fo enter the examination room. Pregatirile pentru examen (find) terminate, ii s-a pormis candtlatilor sa intre tn sala de examen. Formele nepersonaie ale verbuivi an atit caracteristici verbale, eit si caracteristici nominale. mune cu cele ale formelor porsonale, sint: 2) Formele nepersonale ale verbului au traditional categoria de timp, diatez’, jar infinftivul are qi categoria de aspect. b) pe plan sintactic, pot evea subiect (formind constractii predicative impli- cplement direct. (dupa verbe tranzitive) sau complemente circum- si formele personale: J can imagine them worrying abowt it. imagines na-gi fae pronieme despre acest lucre. Having read the book, nod :t ta the library. Dupa ce a citit cartea, a inapoiat-o la biblioteca. one pupils running in the playground. Am observat cifiva elevi cuirtea gootii oeste caracteristici verbale, infinitival si Gerund-ul_au datavitd cérara ele pot indeplini in propozitie tantivului, tar participiul are gi caracteristici adjecti- grora s8 poate comporta ca un adjectiv in propozifie: To see her again was his only desire, S-o vada din now era singura lui dorinté. Running is good for you. Crosul iti face bine. He would add stamp after stamp to his ing collection of od Romanian stamps. AdSuga timbru dupa timbru la eolectia ini in erestere, de vechi marci postale romanesti. There is the Lost Office, Acolg este Birws si gi functii vale, datos} Infinitivul are dowd forme: infinitivul lang Tafinitioe), marcat de particula to gi infinitivul sourt (The Short Infinitive }, turd particula to. Intinitivul eu advord interealat (The Split Infinitive). Gramaticile mai men- fionenz’ si infinitivul ou adverb iatercalat,o coustructie destul de Pceeventa in engleza contemposand, aloatuita dintr-an infinitiv lung si un adverb de mod, agezat Intre to si verbul principal, De exewp 0 clearly understand = a inteley appreciate ~ a aprecia cy y refuse = a rel rie ote. Phey cams to tully realize the importance of she event. Au pe deplin de impertenta evenimentul m trebuia ajuns sisi dea seama 42LSS, Caracteriefieitc vordvte 5 4 4) Infinitivul are categoriile gramaticale de timp (prezent gi perfect), aspect (simplu gi continu) gi diatezd (activa gi pasiva). Infinitival (timp, aspect, diatez’) “oes pie “epee wntiove Pree Distera activt | Diesa pas Diaters astra Prozent seash be washed be washing a-spila a fi spalat 2 opi Perfect have washed have been washed have been washing afi spalat | me 8 fi fost spalat i 8 fi spill Ba, cen te Shien In propozifie, infini- tivul indeplineste de regula functiile unui substantiv. Infinitival este folosit: 4) la inceputul propozitiei: a) cu functie de subiect: To err is human. A gregi este omeneso. -tn vorbirea curenta, subiectit! exprimat printr-un infinitiv este anticipat de Pronumele it: It ie quite easy to learn English, Fste destul de usorsa inveti englezeste. ) ca element independent in propozitie, in construcfii parentetice: to be sure, to put it mildly, to speak frankly, to tell the truth etc.: To tell the truth, I don’t like him. 2) dupa substantive, indeplinind functia de atribut: He is not the man to do it. El mu este omul (care) s& fack acest lucru. New houses will be built in this area in the years to come, In anii ce vor veni se vor construi case noi in aceasta zona. : sx Unele dintre aceste substantive provin din verbele de Ja § 1.153., pot. 6: atiempt, decision, intention, wish etc.: He announced his DECISION to resign. $i-a anunfat hotarlrea de a demisiona. 3) dupa verbe modale, ca parte a predicatului: a) infinitivul Jung, dupa: ought (10), have (to), be (to), used (to) gi uneori dupa dare si need (vezi § 1.20.5. si § 4.20.11), ca parte a predicatului: We HAVE 10 get up early every day. Trebuie sine sculim devreme in fiecare zi, b) infinitival scurt, dupa can, may, must, need, dare, shallishould, will|would: You SHOULD seo a doctor. Ar trebui si mergi la doctor. 4) dupa verbe copulative (in special be), Indeplinind funcfia de nume predica- tiv: To see her IS to like her. A o yedea inseamnd a o plicea. 5) c& 0 complinire a unor adjective care exprima stdri sufletesti, folosite predicativ: afraid, certain, content, eager, glad, pleased, sorry, sure, Grong etc.: He is EAGER to help you. Este dornic 84 te ajute. I'm very GLAD to. have seen them. ‘Sint foarte bucuros c& i-am vizut. 6) dupa verbe tranzitive: arrange, attempt, decide, learn, offer, promise, refuse, want, wish etc. ttdeplinind funcfia de complement direct, a) singure: They HAVE DECIDED to repeat the experiment. Au hotirlt si repete experienta. b) im constructia Acuzativ cu infinitiv, dup& verbe exprimind © activitate mintald, (believe, consider, think eto,), permisiunea (allow, Permit}, un ordin sau o rugiminte (order, command, request, beg, ask etc.) We requested them to complete the survey. Le-am cerut s& termine ancheta, 43Dup& verbele de porcepiie: hear, see, watch, nolice, observe perceive si dup’ have, let gi make ta constructia Acuzativ ou infinitiv (Ver § 18.3.4.) se foloseste itivu! scurt: J BBARD them come. J-am auzit venind. J MADB her work herder. Am fijeut-o s{ munceasci mai mult, 1. Verbul notice poate fi urmat sf de infinitival cu to: Z noticed them (to) come, J-am observat, venind. 2. Verbele de lo pet. 6.c] stat wemate de infiniti constractiei Acuzatiy cu infinitiy — Nominativ She wes made to works harder. nul cu to tn transformarea pasiva a infinitiv: They wore heard to come. 7) in constructia Infinitivul eu for —to: They were anzious for her to begin her song. Erau nerabdatori ca ea sd-gi inceapa cintecul. 8) tn constructia Nom nitiv: They were reques- ied to complete tho survey. Li s-a cerui sé termine ancheta, 9) dupa verbe tranzitive sau intranzitive, indepliaind functia de comple- ment cireumstantia! de soop: 7 came to talk to you. Am venit (ca) 84 stau de vorba cu tne Infiaitival ea tone} jement circumstantial de scop poate fi precedat, de in onder to, $0 a3 to: He repeated the new words everyday (In order} nat to forget them, Repeia cuviniels noi tn fier nativouin 10) pentru « istooui o prop 8 un pronume/ adverb inter nu deo {where te go. {what to buy Thow to de Le Verbub Anow ca sensul de 4 git gum of. este urmat de how + infinitio: She imows how to captivate ner Stie cum s8-si captiveze auditoriul. t, learn si teach sink foiosi milar: She taught me how to cateh butter- Show me He has tol bey). how I showld éo it). me un verb care a fost deja mengem, B: Nu vreau (88 mentionat: A: don’t wan mergem). She bow, artes desi i Forma in fe. -ung i Gerund-a ing reprezinté yaa forme verbale distincta: participiul Acestea au for 4 identicd, putind fi diferentiate numai pe baza determiarilor pe dupa fanctiile pe eare le indepiinese in propazil care He at nstruiegte din infinitivul verbului de conjugat, la care > read reading erying; ite ~ = lying; sit + -0 eg acestei forme verbele, vezi § 1.40.5,} rite sbi ~ing = writing ; . Pentru orto- 44Functiile indeplinite de cele doux forme verbale deriva din caracteristi- cile lor: participiul in -ing are caracteristici verbale gi adjectivale : He is sleeping. El doarme. The sleeping child. Copilul care doarme. iar Gerund-ul, caracteristici verbale si substantivale: We had the advantage of working in a factory near our school. Am avut avantajul si lucrim intr-o fabric ling’ scoala noastra. Working in a factory is useful for our future careers, Munca in fabrica este folositoare pentru viitoarea noastr& profesiune, Participiul in -ing sau participiul prezent (the -ing Participle, the Present Participle) exprima o actiune in desfagurare sau o stare nelogate de un agent prin categoriile de persoané sau numar, Baa Le salie. ve ; a) Participiul tn -ing are categoriile gramaticale de timp gi diatez Participinl in -ing (timp, diatez’) Distexk rae ee aetiet I pat Present Participle reading | being read | | Participinl Prezent citind find citit Perfect Participle having read having been read find citit 1 | Participiu! Perfect citind Participiul prezent exprima o achiune simultand cu verbul Ja mod personal din propozitie: Running across the park, he heard somebody call his name. In timp ve traversa pareul In tug, a auzit pe cineva strigindu-] pe nume. Perticipiul perfeet* se formeazi din participiul prezent al verbului have si din participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat. El exprimé o actiune ante- rioard verbului predicativ din propozitie: Having run across the park, he felt tired. Dupa co a traversat parcul In fugit s-a simlit obosit. b) Participiul tn -ing este folosit pentru formarea aspectului continuu al verbolor: They are going home. Se duc acasi. J was playing chess when the telephone rang. Jucam gah cind a sunat telefonul. , ¢) Pe plan sintactic, participiul In -ing poate avea subiect, complement direct (dupa verbe tranzitive) si complemente circumstantiale, ca si formele personale: 7 saw him reading an English book in the library. L-am vazut citind o carte englezeasea 1a bibliotec’. Participiul in -ing poate fi folosit gi ca adjectiv. El se agazi inaintea substantivului, daca * Participiul perfect (Perfect Participle) si participiul trecut (Past Partioiple) nu sint una gi aceeas: forma verbala. Participiul perfect reprezinth forma perfecté a participiului in -ing, indicind 0 acfiune sivirsiti anterior actiunii exprimate de verbul predicativ: Having Tinished the book, he went to bed. Deoarece / Dupa ce a terminat cartea, s-a dus la eileare. Participiul treeut reprezinté alta forma verbalt, lipsita de categoria de timp, si care denumeste actiunea ca rezullat: The furniture made in Romania is exported 'o many countries. Mobila fabricatd in Romania este exportata in multe {ari Participiul trecut intra in structura formei de participin perfect: Having made a useful suggestion, he had our support. Deoarece a fAcut o propunere ulild, (el) s-a bucurat de sprijinul nostru 45se accentueazi latura sa adjectivala gi dup& substantiv, dac& letura verbala este mai evident’: All sleeping children are beautiful {sleeping = not awake). Toti copiii adormifi sint framogi. The child sleeping in the next room is my baby brother (sleeping = who is sleeping) Copilul care doarme in camera alaturata este fréfiorul meu. Participiul in -ing este folosit (singur sau precedat de conjunctii, in special when sau while ): 1) in expresii parentetice: generally speaking = in general, judging by appearances = judecind dupa aparente; beginning with September 15 = ince- pind cu 45 septembrie, considering the circumstances == luind in considerare condijiile. Judging by appearances, nobody is te blame. Judecind dupa aparenje, nimeni nu este vinovat. 2) ca nume predicativ, dupa verbele stand, sit, lie: Ske STOOD gazing at the brightly lit shop windows. Se uita cu admiratie la vitrinele viu luminate, 3) ca inlocuitor al unor propozitii subordonate, indeplinind in propozitie functia de: a) atribut: She looked at the children playing in the garden (= who were play- ing...) Se uita la copiii care se jucau in grédind. b) parte dintr-un comploment direct complex (Acuzativ cu participiu in sing): She heard somebody knocking at the door. (= that somebody was knocking). A auzit pe cinova batind la uga ¢) complement ciccumstanfial, mai ales de: “Arriving at the station, he started looking for his friend (= when ) Sosind la gard, a inceput sd-gi caute prietenul. uza: Having read the book, ke was able to comment on it, (= As he had read the book...) Deoarece citise cartea, a putut so comenteze. —imprejuriri insofitoare: She came out of the room wearing along ovening dress. (She came out... She was wearing...) A iegit din camer& purtind o rochie jungi de sear. ntului circumstantial printr-un participiu tn -ing ick. ongiezei literare. fn vorbire se prefer propozifiile e (Vari parantezete} ‘a ~ing se traduce tn limba roména printr-un jo subordonata: Passing the shop, ke saw his gerunziu sau printr-o p in timp ce trecea prin fafa magazinului, o vazu pe mother inside. mama sa inguntry, Gerund are, la fel ca gi participiul in -ing, caracteristici verbale: a) ere categoriile gramaticale de timp gi diateza: Diateza activa: Gerand: I enjoy learning English. Imi place 8a Invat engleza. Perfect Gerund: He denies having taken the books. Neaga ci luat carfile. 46Diateza pasi Gerund: He can't stand being interrupted. Nu Poate suferi s& fie intrerupt, Perfect Gerund: He denies having been invited to the Party. Neag& c& a fost invitat la petrecere. Gerund denumegte do reguld o actiune simultand cu actiunea verbului predicativ (cu exceptia situafiilor in care Gerund-ul este precedat de prepo- zitia before sau after). The teacher enjoyed taking the children to the museum lait Sunday. Profeso- rului i-a facut plicere si-i duc& pe copii la muzou duminica trecuts. Forma perfecta (Perfect Gerund) denumegte o actiune anterioar’ verbului predicativ. Aceasta forma este mai rar folosita decit Gerund gi ea apare mai ales dup& verbul deny: He DENIES having seen her. Neagi ci a vazut-o. In cam altor verbe, mai ales remember, excuse, forgive, thank gi dupa prepozifiile on, after, without, raportul de anterioritate poate fi exprimat $i de Gerund: doing 1 can't remember { FOE ang } this exercise before Nu-mi amintesc s& mai fi facut acest exercitiu, ic helping FE 7 T thanked him for { having helped ™¢. T-am mulfumit ck m-a ajutat. Sensul pasiy al Gerund-ului este redat de obicei prin forma pasiva: The children enjoyed being taken to the museum. Copiilor le-a facut placere sd fie dusi la muzeu Dupi verbele want, need, require, deserve, si dupa adjectivul worth se foloseste inst Gerund-ul activ pentru redarea sensului pasiv: Your shoes NEED mending. Trebuie siti repari pantofii/Pantofii tai trebuie reparafi. What is WORTH doing is WORTH doing well. Ce meritt tout meritd facut bine. . b) Pe plan sintactic, Gerund poate avea subiect, complement direct in cazul verbelor tranzitive, complemente circumstantiale: J can't imagine him driving a car in this weather. Nu mi-l imagines conducind magina pe 0 asemenea vreme. Spre deosebire de participiul in -ing, care are gi caracteristici adjectivale, Gerund are gi carac- teristici substantivale: a) poate fi determinat de articole, adjective, substantive la cazul genitiv sintetic: a loud knocking on the door The sound of | her coming in | ncrraped their discussion. a baby’s crying i. Dac un verb tranzitiv + complementul sdu direct este folosit la Gerund precedat de un articol, complementul direct se transforma intr-un atribut ‘prepozi- fional cu of. Comparafi: The strengthening of peace and security in Europe is an essential pre- requisite for strengthening peace and security throughout the world. Intdrirea picii gi securitafii in Europa este o condifie esenfialA pentru intarirea pacii gi securitaii in Tumea intreaga. 47Res books } takes a great deal of time. Sorierea cfirfilor ia foarte malt timp. b) este intrebuinfat dup prepozijii: AFTER walking for an hour, we went to the cinema. Dup& ce ne-am plimbat o ori, ne-am dus la cinema. He is in the habit OF going fishing every week. Are obiceiul/Obignuieste si meargi a pescuit in fiecare saptamind. ©) pe plan sintactic, Gerund-ul indeplineste funcfii proprii substantivului: 1) subiect: Camping is the ideal way to spend a holiday. Subiectul exprimat printr-un Gerund este adeseori introdus de un it antici- pativ: It’s no good worrying. It’s hopeless trying to get this car going. 2) parte dintr-un preditat verbal, dupa verbele indicind inceputul: begin, start; continuarea: continue, go on, keep (on) gi sfingitul acfiunii: stop, end, finish, cease: BEGAN He { WENT ON } searching for the document, FINISHED 3) nume predicativ (rar): Seeing is believing. 4) complement direct: Fancy meeting you here! 5) parte dintr-un complement prepozifional: He has succeeded in collecting all the “material. 6) parte dintr-un complement complex: T ean imagine { Maryry } getting upset 7) parte dintr-un complement circumstantial (precedat de 0 prepozitie, care indic& gi felul complementului: —de timp: After eyeling down the avenue, he turned right. | —de mod: He won the competition by guessing all the answers. 8) parte dinti-un atribut prepozifional: J had the pleasure of travelling with them. 4) Forma Gerund este folosita: a) dupa prepozitii ca after, before, by, for, from, om, ete. care indica relatii tem- poraie, cauzale, de mod, de scop, ete.: ON waking up, he found himself in a hospital ward. Cind s-a trezit, s-a vazut intr-un salon de spital. Read your paper again BEFORE handing it in. Citeste inc o data lucrarea inainte sho predai. You'll get a ticket FOR parking here. Ai sd primesti amend& pentra ca ai parcat aici. She keeps healthy BY keeping a sirict diet. Isi men- fine sinatatea finind un regim strict. b) dupa parti de vorbire urmate in mod cbligatoriu de anumite prepozifii: —substantive cu prepozifie obligatorie: —doubt + about; —cause, reason + for; — belief, confidence, delight, difficulty, expe- rience, faith, interest, luck, pride + in; — charge, favour, habit, hope, inten- tion, opportunity, point +- 01 contribution, objection, opposition + to; etc. He has a lot of EXPERIENCE IN foreign ianguage teaching. Are muita expe- rien} in predarea limbilor straine. adjective si participii trecute cu prepozifie obligatorie (vezi § 8.2.5}: —angry, anzious, certain, enthusiastic, 48happy, optimistic, pleased, sure, worried + about; — angry, astonished, bad, clever, delighted, expert, good, pleased, skilful, surprised +/at; —eacel- Tent, famous, responsible, sorry, suitable, useful ++ tor; — consistent, correct, diligent, experienced, expert, fortunate, helpful, interested, late, prompt, quick, right, slow, successful -- in; — afraid, ashamed,. aware, capable, certain, fonscious, convinced, fond, guilty, proud, tired +-ot; —based, dependent, intent, keen + on; —accustomed, equal, equivalent, opposed, used + to; "— annoyed, bored, content, delighted, furious, disappointed, happy, pleased, satisfied, sick, upset + with. I'am DELIGHTED AT her winning the first prize. Sint incintat ca a clstigat premiul intti. a { USED TO Iai } getting up early. Sint obignuit si ma scol deyreme. —verbe cu prepozifie obligatorie: —complain, dream, learn, worry + about; —aim, hesitate + at; —fight, struggle 4- against; —begin, conclude, end +-by; — apologize, care -+-for; — prevent, recover, refrain, retire + trom; — believe, consist, delight, participate, succeed -+- in; accuse, approve, boast, complain, consist, hear, think + of; — agree, concentrate, congratulate, count, decide, focus, insist, live, rely + on: — agree, contribute, look forward, object, resort + to; -- agree + with. T OIECEITO: an your leaving earlier than the others. Nu stat de acord sa pleci mai devreme decit ceilalti. J won't HEAR OF buying a new TV set. Nu vreau si aud si cumparim un telovizor nou. D’m LOOKING FORWARD TO seeing you again. Astept cu neribdare sa te vad din nov. These measures CONTRIBUTE TO strengthening peace and security. Aceste masuri contribuie la intarirea pacii si securitati 2) Gerund este tntrebuin{at dupa substantivul wse in constructia it is no use sau there is no use gi dup& adjectivul worth: This book is WORTH reading. ‘Aceast& carte morita citité. IMS NO USE trying to mend the vacuum-cleaner, Degeaba incerci s& repari_aspiratoru . 3) dupa verbe tranzitive: admit, avoid, consider, deny, detest, dislike, escape, fancy, finish, give up, cannot help, keep (on), don't mind, miss, post pone, practise, put off, resent, resist, risk, cannot stand, stop, suggest, etc. You must AVOID being late in future. Trebuie si eviti si inlirzii In viitor. He HAS GIVEN UP smoking. S-a lasat de fumat. J CANNOT HELP laughing at his jokes. Nu pot sa nu rid la glumele lui. J CANNOT STAND being interrupt- ed in'my work, Nu pot suferi s& fiu intrerupt din lucru. 4) dupa verbe exprimind 0 activitate mintala: forget, remember, under- stand, etc, sau o stare sufleteasca: cannot bear, dread, hate, like, love, neglect, prefer, regret, etc. in alternan}a cu infinitivul (vezi si § 4.4 I remember being disappointed. Imi amintese ca am fost dezamagit. [ FATE their arriving late, Nu-mi place ci fntirzie. : 5) dupa verbe indicind un proces: plan, tr start; continuarea: continue sau sfirgitul actiuni nitivul (vezi § 1.17.8.) undertake; inceputul: begin, cease, in alternanta cu infi- STARTED They { CONTINUED f comparing notes. 7 CEASED. 49 4 — Gramatica timbil engteze1.17.4, Traducere. Forma Gerand nu are un corespondent perfect in limba yomand. Ea se traduce de obicei, in funofie de context, prin: a) un gerunziu: He ended his speech by thanking everybody for their attention. Si-a incheiat cuvintarea mulfumind tuturor pentru atentie. b) un substantiv: Swimming keeps you fit. Inotul te mentine in forma. c)o propozitie subordonata: He is fond of reading aloud. Ii place s& citeascd cu glas tare. 1.47.5. Infinitivuleu to siforma Gerund. Infinitivul cu to gi forma Gerund ‘au unele caracteristici substantivale gi verbale comune, datorita carora: a) pot avea: —subiect: I want you to go first. I can't stand Tom interrupting me all the time; —complement direct: J intend to read this tomorrow. I remember spending a holiday with them. . complement circumstantial: We wanted to go to the theatre. He had the benefit of studying at a Romanian university. : b) pot indeplini aceleagi functii in propozitie: —subiect, nume predicativ: To see her is to like her. Seeing is believing. — complement direct: J love to swim in the sea. I love swimming. : —atribut prepozitional: He has no desire to go. He has no intention of going etc. In alte cazuri ies, numai una din cele dowd forme este posibilé. Vom ana- liza deci cazurile: 4) cind se foloseste numaivinfinitivul; 2) cind se folosegte numai forma Gerund; 3) cind se poate folosi sau infinitivul sau Gerund-ul si care sint diferentele de sens. ail a) dupa verbele enumerate la § 1.15.3. pet. 6: arrange, ask, attempt, choose, decide, demand, etc. + agree, aim, consent, determine, hope, manage, etc.: DECIDED they { AGREED } to make another attempt. CONSENTED b) dupa verbe, substantive sau adjective, pentru a exprima scopul: hurried We { had no time } to explore the cave. found it exciting ©) in constructia Acuzativ cu infinitiv, dupa verbe care exprima un ordin sau o rugdminte: ORDERED el REQUESTED | us to leave immediately. ASKED a) dupa verbele enumerate la §1.17.3. pet. 3: He AV OLDS mentioning the subject. Why do you PUT OFF telling her the truth? I DON’T MIND doing it again. b) dupa prepozitii: BEFORE going out, switch off the lights please. He is keen ON reading poetry. c) dupa adjectivele worth, like gi dupa there is no: J's WORTH listening to him. THERE 18 NO accounting for tastes. 501.17.8. In alte situatii, se poate folosi fie Infinitivul eu zo si formaGerund Deosebirile principale intre cele doud forme, in anumite situatii, sint urma- / toarele: a) Gerund indic& actiunga in general, infinitivul — savirgirea actiunii in anu- mite cireumstan’ t's no use to deny that I was frightened at first. Nu are rost si neg cA mi-a fost teamé la inceput. Ji’s no use erying over spilt milk. b) Gerund indic& o acfiune anterioaré verbului la mod personal, infinitivul — o acfiune viitoare: J remember giving her the parcel. {mi amintesc ca i-am dat pachetul. J must remember to give her the parcel. Trebuie s& nu uit si-i dau pachetul. 7 c) Gerund indica 0 actiune anterioara, infinitivul —scopul actiunii exprimate de verbul predicativ: He stopped reading. S-a oprit din citit. He stopped to read the advertisement. S-a oprit s& citeascé reclama. d) Gerund-ul se refera la o actiune deliberata, infinitivul, la o actiune involun- tard: She began speaking. A inceput sa vorbeascé. She began to weep. A Inceput s& plinga, ete. Deosebirile de intrebuinfare dintre infinitiv gi forma Gerund, detaliate pe verbe, sint urmatoarele: cia da btrebuintove totes labinifiv gf Gerund a + itn T Gerund : sata, | |r _____ ahr om Beem tem taemata hate, like, dis- | —ou refenre la| I hate to get up| —actiunea va-| I hate getting like, prefer © anumitd oca-| early on Mondays.| 2uti in ge-| up early. zie: T like to go to con-| eral: T like going to certs conducted by | concerts. Tan Voicu. | | remember —aefiune pos-| I must remember to| —aetiune an-| I remember post- forget terioard: ost, the leer, terioaré:’ | Ing the letter. forgot to phone | | PU never forget Aer ao nights | seeing her dance. regret —aotiune si-| regret’ to say if] Z regret saying multand cu} wasn't true. ‘it wasn’t true. regretul: i Begin —actiune invo-/ i began to rain| —actiune de-| He began writ- cease Iuntara: while” they were liberata: . |.ing when he was walking. fifty. He began to realize his mistake. | | | 7 | slop —scopul actiu-| He stopped to talk| —incetarea ac-| He sloped talk. | nif: to her. (= in order| —_ jiunii: ing. (He became to talk) silent). continue, dread, | —freovent in| I intend to spend| —inlimbascri-|-I intend spend fev, intend, ne- | yorbire gi in| the holidays af the} 4, literara:| ing my holidays exprimarea | seaside, at’ the seaside, serisk fami- 7 iar: deserve, need, infinitiv pa-| His statement needs | — constructia | Your shoes need require, want to be checked, cu Gerund | mending. mai freeven- th decit eu infinitivul 51Vorb, | a | subtitn, | Adjectiv ‘Sens ‘Exempla ‘Exempla hoy —a Incerea, a| Try to write with) —a trove prin, | I tried writing | face un efort: | your left hand. a oxperimen-| with my left | (your right hand is| ta: hand when Tas | + | an plaster ) a child, i mean —a intentiona:| I meant to tell you,| —ainsemna: | His coming to- | | but I forgot. ‘morrow “means | mother's work- | ing extra hard | today. | allow, permit + complement | He doesn't allow/| —far& comple-| He doesn't al- | indirect al per-| permit pupils to| ment —indi-| low/permit talk- soanei: talk during teste.| rect: ing during teste, opportunity + yerbul be=| Thie will be a good| — posibilitate: | I had the oppor- un moment con-| opportunity (for tunity of mee- venabil, ocazie:| you) to mest him, ting him. afraid —tntr-o anu-| I’m afraid to dis-| —{n general: | I can’t play re- mité situa-| turb him at this peords here at Dm tie: late hour. afraid of alsturh- | ing him. LATS. Exista gi situafii in care folosirea infinitivului cu to sau a Ge- rand-ului nu implica diferente mari de sens: a) Unele substantive, ca ambition, chance, charge, honour, intention, possibility, pot fi urmate fie de infinitiv, fie de of + Gerund: We had the HONOUR OF meeting the great singer. Am avut onoarea de a fi prezentati marei cintarefe. I do-not have the HONOUR to bélong to this association. Nu am onoarea de a fi membru al acestei asociafii. She had no INTENTION OF going on the trip. Nu avea nici o intentie s& mearga in excursie. She left at eight, with the INTENTION to go to bed early. A plecat la 8 cu intenfia si-se culce devreme. ). Unele substantive, adjective sau verbe pot fi folosite uneori fara prepo- zifie, gi atunci sint urmate de un infinitiv, iar alteori cu prepozifie gi atunci sint urmate de un Gerund: She AGREED to come. A fost de acord sa vin&. T AGREE TO her coming. Sint de acord si vina. We DECIDED to visit the exhibiti Am hotarit si vizitim expozitia. We DECIDED ON visiting the exhibition. You were quite RIGHT to refuse his offer. Ai avut dreptate s-i refuzi oferta. She was RIGHT IN refusing him. (Ea) a facut bine ca la refuzat. Atengie la urmatoarele situatii care prezinté deseori dificultafi pentru elevii romani: a) manage ++ infinitiv; sueceed -+in + Gerund: He MANAGED to set every- thing right, dar: He SUCCEEDED IN setting everything right. bd) aim ++ infinitiv; aim + at + Gerund: This book { ame treeiving f a description of the structure of present — day English. . ¢) occasion -+infinitiv; opportunity + of +Gerund: J hope I won't have OCCASION (= reason for/need to) to punish you. Sper c& nu voi avea motive si te pedepsesc. Jf J have OCCASION to meet him, J'U give him your 52message. Daci_am motiv sé-l intilnesc, am sa-i transmit mesajul tau. If [ have an OPPORTUNITY OF meeting him, I'll give kim your message. Daca se ivesle vreo ocazie/Dacd am posibilitatea s&-l {ntlinesc am sé-i transmit mesajul tau. 4) (un)able + infinitiv; (un)eapable + of + Gerund: He was (UN)ABLE to do it. He was (UN)CAPABLE OF doing it. 1 treeut (The Past Participle) '.Participiul trecut este forma nepersonala a verbului care denu- meste actionea ca rezultat. oe Participiul trecut al verbelor regulate se formeaza de Ia infinitiv, la care se adaugi lerminatia -ed: listen — listened, move — moved, carry — carried, stop — stopped, et : (Pentru particularitajile fonetice si ortografice ale formei in -ed, veri $1.6.5 Pentrn forma de partivipiu trecut a verbelor neregulate, veui jista prinei- palelor verbe neregulate, pp. 12 — 46. L. fuvaciscistietis verhate ale partielpiului tr a) Participiul trecut, este folosit la formarea diatezei pasive, impreund cu verbul be: Fresh fruit and vegetables are sold here. Aici se vinid. fructe gi jegume proaspete. b) Participiul trecut este intrebuintat la formarea tampuruor pertecte ale verbelor, impreuna cu verbul auxiliar have Present Perfect : He has read the book. El a citit cartea. Past Perfect : He had read the book. El citise cartea. Future Perfect : He will have read the book. El va fi citit cartea. Past Conditional: : He would have read the book. El ar fi citit cartea. ‘Verbul go si mai rar come pot reda ideea de perfect prezent si respectiv de mai-mullca-perfect, ea ajutorul verbului be la prezent sau Past Tense (in loc de, auxiliarul have): The plumber is come. A sosit instalatorul. The guests were gone Musafirii plecasera, trecut are gi caracteristici adjectivale, putind i propozitie. Sublinierea, fie a naturii verbale a participiului trecut, fie a celei adjecti- vale, reiese din pozitia acestuia. Cind se accentueaza caracterul verbal, participiul urmeaza substantivul, funcfionind ca un inlocuitor al unei propozitii relative: The things not wanted were given away (= which were not wanted). Cind este accentiiat aspectul adjectival al participiului, el se agazé tnain- tea substantivului: These are portraits of wanted persons. ut Participiul unctiona ca un adjectiv in + kaet Unele verbe au forme speciale pentru participiile treeute folosite adjectival: 8) participiile unor verbe regulate (aged, beloved, learned, cursed, blessed) igi schimba pronuntia, addugind 1m [id] silabie? 53Participiu trecut: ‘Adjectiv din participiu: He has aged. {eidsd] He is an aged [ ‘eidsid] man. He was beloved {bilavd] by his Our beloved [bi lavid] country. students. ‘He has learned {ia:nd) this He is a learned [ ‘lo:nid] man. lesson. b) Unele verbe neregulate au doud forme le participiul trecut: una folositt ca partivipiu, cealaltd ca adjectiv (care poate apdrea fie singur, fie in anu- mite combinatii): | Pasticpin trout: | __Adjeotiv ain pactcipia: ‘The tills child was heaton by ths bigger boys. | He was doad-bext (mort. de obeseali) afler | the day's work. | A aranken man is unpleasant to ook at. (ioiosires atributiva a adjectivulai) dar si: He was halt — drunk. Molosirea predicativa a adjectivalui) Molten steel/gold/lava (atributiv), pentru metale, dar: melted butler/snow. We have drank tuo nucl coffe ‘The stect hug melted grief Hie was nt stricken (folosit predicativ). error He ous etricken with fever. Mowa grass/hay (doar atributiy) A handsewn dress. 4 cloanshaven man, | | | | | The tree was struck By Hightning. 1 i | | | i ‘Phe lown was mown/mowed yesterday. She hae sewa,sowed « dress. | | \ i | ' 1 He has juet shaven. | i \ They hare sharaishesred fhe shee 4 whore lamb. | The shiel fas abamk. Shrunken clothes. The ship has sunk. | Sunken eyes. He has sownjsowed the field, | Sown seeds. He has spilt/spllled the amt. Spilt milk | They have spoilt! A spoilt child They have werked Wrought iron; wrought-up nerves. Participiul trecut intactios de: a) atribut: {here is the Lost Property Office. Acolo este biroul de obiecte gisite. as anpresced by her kindness. A fost impresionat de indeplineste func{ii t complox (Acuzativ ou parti 2 aceasta si fie facut imediat. iroumstantial (de timp, cauzi, condifie, Juncilile when, if, as iffas though, ete. , she turned und looked at kim, Impresio- itea in vovea lui, (ea) se intoarse gil privi, She if puraled dy my words. Tacea ca gi clad cuvintele mele i-ar treout se traduce de obicei in limba romana zifie subordonata: He looked at the clerk. hent over the pap: arul aplecat peste hirtii. The preparations for the birthday party completed, 7 went out to buy a birthday cake: Dupa ce am terminat pregatirile pentru aniversare, am iegit. si cumpar un tort. 5438.2 3 verbal call intern actied Tipit \speotul 5 Aepeetul \spectu ; ‘inp conta ‘imo ative Indicatival I am being preront Teall, | £ am calling Tam called called Perfectul T have I have been I have been - present called calling called Past Tense | I eailed I was eatling I was called T was being called | Mai mult Thad called | I had been Thad been | ca perfect: calling called 7 I | Viitorut Tam going | Lam going @ | I am going to apropiat ‘to ealt be calling be called = | Viitorul T shalijwitt | 7 shaitfwitt ° }°T shallfwill, simplu ‘all be calling be called as rub T shalljwill T shalljwill have Z shalljwilt perfect | have called | been calling have been called oe I call I be calling I be called Subjonetivat | I should call | I should be calling | I should be called - ete, ete. ete. Conditionalu) | I should/ T should}would L shouldjwould present would call | be cling be called ~ Conditionalul | 1 shoulay I shouldjwowd | 1 shouldjuould trecat would have | have been calling | have been called = called | Imperativul Let me call! Let me be calling! | Let me be called! Call! | Be calling | Be called t Infinitival call be calling be called = prevent, Infinitivul have called have been calling | have been called _ perfect, Partieipiul \ present calling a being called ~ si Gerund Participiul Si Gerund-ul | having - having been — perfect, called called Participiul | trecut called ~ called = 5510.1, Verbele auxiliare au urmatoarele caracteristici: 1) sint golite de sens lexical: J shall leave after he comes. Voi pleca dupa ce vine el visUnele verbe auxiliare (will / would, shall} should» may | might) pot fi folosite si ca verbe modale: Fou should see this film. Trebuie si veai filmul acesta. Alte verbe anxiliare pot fi folosite si ca verbe notionale, avind un sens lexical proprin in xnumite contexte: J Wave a book. Am o carte. Do this translation, please, will you. Fa te rog aceasta traducere 2) indeplinesc functia de marci a categoriilor gramaticale de diatezi, mod, timp, persoana si numara verbele pe care le insotese: She was offered flowers. 1 s-au oferit flori. 3) inlocuiese verbele notionale in réspunsurile scurte gi fatrebarile dis- junctive (la fel ca gi verbele-modale): A: Do you like this book? B: Yes, I do. He has written a good composition, hasn’t he? 4) din punct de-vedere al pronuntatii gi ortogratiei, verbele auxiliare apar adesea sub forme-teduse, contrase, ele fiind de obicei neaccentuate in vorbire. Folosirea formelor contrase este caracteristica vorbirii curente gi exprimsrii famifiare in scris. Unele forme contrase sint cazacteristice exprimarii dialectale saw vorbirii necultivate: He ain’t no fool (= He is no fool) Hi au e-prost detoc. seecte din punet de vedere gramatical in vaport cu limba fle apar ca forme standard, constau in scurtarea verbelor auxiliare la forma alirmativa si a negatiet not Ja forma negativa: I’ve got a book. I haven't got a book. O forma contras& poate avea mai muite valori: He’s come = He has come. He’s here = He is here. Formele contrase ale verbelor auxiliare gi modale (Ia afirmativ gi la negativ cu adverbui not contfas).sint urmatoarele: { : i i | | Forma oxninsi fa too de Fora contrss | tu too €o | | | I i | | tee (Pre, yowee ete.) | have {| haven’e | dave not i {os Che's tee.) | 1) has 2) as hadn't | isd rot [oa | VD had | isn't [i not | | | 2) showla 1 aren't | arent i i ; 3) would i] eats | | ea | asa | re (you're ete.) |. are | eren't | teore ‘not |W (PI, you'll ete.) | 4) shalt |} skan’e | shail not | 2) will | | don't do ol | | doesn’t daes ‘ot Hl shouldn't | should not {didn't aed not | won't | will not | | wwonldn't | sould not i | daren’t | dace not | needn't need not | | | cannot |) iets ef us | | couteén’e | could not |] “lemme” et me i | aust must not || ain'e | 1) am nol | i I | 8) ae not I i j | 56 jsinter Formele contrase ale verbelor auxiliare Ja afirmativ nu pot fi folosite: ile scurte: Has he got a new bicycle? Yes, he has. interogative:,Shall we go to the cinema? Where did he go? c} in partea finala a intrebarilor disjunctive: He wasn't there; was he? a) oind sint accentuate, pentru subliniere: He was at the conference. I did see him there. St Teese wemsshicen (a fo} Verbul be, Past Tense: was, were, parti- cipiul trecut been, apare in structura: a) aspectului continuu (be + participiul prezent): Diateza activa: Diateza pasivi: Infinitive: be reading. Present: He is reading. It is being read. Past: He was reading. dt was being read. Future: He will be reading. al Conditional: He would be reading. = Infinitive Perfect: Have been reading = Present Perfect: He has been reading. - Past Perfeet: He had beon reading. ae Future Perfect: He will have heen reading. - Conditional Perfect: He would have been reading - b) a diatezei pasive (be ++ participiul trecut): Infinitive: be read Perfect Infinitive: have been read Gerund: being read. Perfect Gerund: having heen read. Present: It is read. Present Perfect: It has been read. Past: It was read. Past Perfect: It had been read. ° Future: It will be read. Future Perfect: It will have been read. Conditional: It would be read. Conditional Perfect: 11 would have been read. Verbul have, Past Ten: trecut: had, apare, atit la diateza activa, cit si la cea pasiva, melor perfecta : + had, participiul in structura for- Diateza activk: Diateza pasivi: Perfect Infinitis have read have been read. Perfect Gerund: having read. having been read. Present Perfect: He has read. It has heen read. Past Perfect: He had read. Jt bad been read. Future Perfect: He will have read. Jt will have been read. Canditional Perfect: We would have read. It would have been read. apare: a) la ambele diateze, in structura timpurilor viitoare, modul indicatiy gi ale timpurilor modului conditional, la persoana I singular si plural: : Diateza activi: Diateza pasivi: Future: I shall give I shall be given Future Perfect: I shall have given I shall have been given 57Conditional: I should give I should be given J should have given I should have been given ‘Not&: Should + infinitiv este folosit si ca viitor-Intrecut (Future in the Post): I said X should do it. Am spus c&-am s-0 fac. b) la toate persoanele, pentru formarea subjonctivului analitic: It’s strange that they { stants Be he Bae a intra tn componenfa aceloragi forme verbale ca i shall, should (viitor §1 condifional), la persoanele a Il-a gia Ill-a singular fi plural’, iar in vorbire, gi la persoana I singular si plural: Diateza activa: Diateza pasivi: Fature: He will give He will be given, Future Perfect: ‘He will have given * He Will have been given Conditional: He would give He would be given mad: nal Perfect: He would have given He would have been given Would + infinitiv este folosit gi ca viitor-tn-trecut: He said he would do it. A spus ci 0 s-o faca. apare in structura subjonctivului analitic, folosit mai ales in propozifiile circumstantiale de scop: Hurry up, so that we may arrive in time. Grabeste-te ca si ajungem la timp. They hurried so that they might arrive in time. S-au grabit ca si ajunga la timp. apare in structura imperativului, persoana I gi a Ill-a singular gi plural: me Let{ | think! them a) forma de Past Tense intra in aledtuirea formei interogative gi negative a verbelor nofionale la timpul Present Simple, respec- tiv Past Tense Simple: Do you live in this town? Lacuiesti in acest ora? Does he work here? Lucreazé aici? Did he attend this school? A urmat aceasta scoala? I don’t like it. He dovsn’t understand. They didn’t go. Verbul auxiliar be primeste auxiliaral do la imperativul negativ: Don’t be silly! Nu fi prost(ut)! 2. Verbul have formeazi interogativul si negativul cu ajutorul lui do tn engleza ‘vorbitd si In varianta americana a limbii engleze: / don’t have enough time to do this. N-am destul timp ca s& fac asta. b) Do apare in structura formei negative a modului imperativ: . bet let’s { listen to that nonsense. c) Do este intrebuinfat pentru sublinierea predicatului la forma afirmativa a indicativului, timpurile prezent si Past Tense gi a imperativului, in care situatie este accentuat: She does make all her dresses herself. Intr-adevar tigi face toate rochiile singura. Do read this letter to me. Citeste-mi, te rog, serisoarea. 581.20. Verbele madate (Moda 1.20.4. Verbele modale exprima atitudinea vorbitorului fata de enunt, actiunea din cadrul acestuia fiind vazuta ca posibila, probabila, necesara, obligatorie, de dorit, ete. : 11 might rain later. S-ar putea sd ploud mai urziu, You must meet him at the station. Trebuie sil agtepti la gard. Din punet de vedere al caracteristicilor formale, verbele modale engle- zesti se impart in: i)verbe notionale exprimind modalitatea (want, wish, order, oblige, advise, intend, mean, prefer, ete.) care se comport ca cele, lalte verbe notionale: He wants to see the play. Vrea si vada piesa. Don’t oblige him to do this. Nu-l obliga s faca asta. 2)verbe modale defective (Defective Modal Verbs) (can/ could, may|might, must, have to, shall|should, will}would, ought to, be to, used to, dare), care exprima de asemenea modalitatea, dar care din punct de vedere formal, prezinta anumite caracteristici. vi: Termenul de verbe modale folosit pe parcursul lucrarii se refera la verbele modale defective. Verbele modale au urmatoarele caracteristici: a) sint defective, adica le lipsesc anumite forme verbale. In consecin}a, nu pot fi conjugate la toate modurile gi timpurile. Formele pe care le au verbele modale pot fi folosite pentru redarea mai multor timpuri gi moduri. Can, may, must, need si dare, de exemplu, exprim indicativul prezent: I can help you. Daca ele sint ins& urmate de un adverb de timp vitor, actiunea exprimata de verbul Ja infinitiv se refer la un moment vitor: J ean only help you next week. Am 8a te pot ajuta ab.« saptimina viitoare. Formele aparent trecute ale verbelor modale au valoti: — de Past Tense, conditional gi subjonetiv (could, would, might): I could skate when I was a child. Stiam & patinez cind eram copil. 1 eould help you of you wanted me to. Ag putea si te ajut daca ai dori. She lent him the camera so that he could take photos on the trip. I-a imprumutat aparatul de fotogra- fiat ca sa facd fotografi in excursie. Might poate fi folosit cu valoare de Past Tense doar In vorbirea indirectA: She said you might go. — de conditional gi subjonctiv (should): I should like to come tomorrow if you don’t mind. Ag dovi sa vin mine, daca nu te deranjeaz’. He demanded we should come the next day. A cerut 34 venim a dova zi. — la unole forme care le lipsesc, verbele modale sint inlocuite de pe ri- fraze modale, de anumite constructii cu sens modal (Modal Equi- galents ): ean — be able to; must — have to; may — be allowed to|permiited to: Prezent: You may go now. Poti/Ai voie sa pleci acum. Past Tense: He was allowed to go. I s- permisjdat voie si plece. Past Perfect: He had been allowed to zo out and play before they left. 1 se permisese si iasd afara si se joace Inainte ca ei si plece. b) nu primese -s la persoana a III-a singular (cuexceptia lui be to gi have to): He must see this play. Trebuie sa vada aceasta piesa. ©) formeaz& interogativul si negativul fara ajutorul auxiliarului dojdid (cu exceptia Tui have to): Must you do this? Trebuie si faci asta? 59She cannot sivim. Nu gtie si inoate, dar: Do you have to type that report? Trebuie si dactilografiezi raportul? d) sint urmate de infinitivul scurt al verbelor nofionale (cu excepfia lui be to, have to, ought to): She can eook. Stie si giteasci, dar: He has to get up early every day. Tre- Dbuie sa se scoale devreme in fiecare 21. Cind sint urmate de infinitivul prezent, verbele modale se refers la o achiune prezenta sau viitoare: He might be there now. S-ar putea ca el sa fie acolo acum. She might come Jafer. Ea s-ar putea sa vind mai tirziu. Cind sint urmate de infinitivul perfect, actiunea exprimata de verbul no- fional are un caracter trecut, de anterioritate: He might have been here before we arrived. S-ar putea si fi fost aici tainte sa sosim noi, e) pe plan sintactic, verbele modale defective aleatuiese un predicat verbal compus impreuna cu un alt verb Ja infiniliv: You ean buy a 1'V-set in instal- ments. Poji 84 cumperi un televizor in rate. In cadrul predicatului verbal compus, verbele modale indeplinesc 0. funetie dubia: —functia gramaticalii de marca a Limpului: He ean skate now. Stie si patineze acum. He could skate when he was a child. Stia sa patineze cind era copil. — fanctia lexicala de exprimare a modalitatii: She can type. Stie sé bala la magina. You needn’t type this. Nu este nevoie s& bafi asta la magin’. Can este folosit pentru toate persoanele Ja indi- cativ_prezent. Could este folosit condifionel. Can | could poate exprima: t)capacitatea (fizicd sau intelectuala) de efectuare fa unei acfiuni: Tom ean speak three foreign languages. Tom stie trei limbi straine. J could run faster than you last year. Puteam sa alerg mai repede dectt tine anul trecut. (an urmat de un verb de perceptic senzorial& (see, hear, ete.) corespunde aspectului continuu al verbului respectiv: J can see the car now. {ean hear footsteps. (veri gi § 4.40.44. pet. D.) Gan exprimind capacitatea fizick sau intelectual (ability) este inlocuit de be able tolbe capable of know how to: Prezent: 1 ean ski now)! am able to ski now. (mai putin freevent) Past Tense: / could skate when I was a child. Stiam s& patinez cind eram copil. (capacitatea de a patina In general). Although 1i was very cold yester- da, we were able to skate for an hour. Degi a fost foarte frig ieri, am reusit sit patin&m o ork. (capacitatea de a patina — manifestata in anumite conditii, in special nefavorabile). Viitor: I'l be able to skate next year. Conditional: Wontdvrn be able to f manage by yourself if it was necessary? To-ai putea descurca singur dat ar fi nevoie? Diferenta de sons intre could gi wasjwere able to se pierde Ia negativ sau cu verbe de percepjie: I { couldn’t tru toate persvancle la Past Tense $i subjonctiv- wasn’t able to I { couldn’t } ski yesterday as the weather was very bad. wasn't able to } see him in the dark. 602) Can este folosit pentru a exprima’ permisiunea, cao alterna- tiva a lui may in oxprimarea familiard: A: Can I burrow your umbrella? B: Of course you ean. Pot 8 iau umabrela ta? Desigur. Could este folosit pentru a exprima permisiunea in trecut: On Sundays we could stay in bed until ten o'clock. Duminic&d aveam voie si stam in pat pind la ora 10. ; In acest sens, can/could poate fi inlocuit de be allowed to, be permitted to; On Sundays we were allowed to stay in bed until ten o'clock. 3) Posibilitatea datorita circumstantelor se exprima astfel: Prezent: You ean ski at Predeal now.. There is enough snow. Past Tense: Weeould ski at Predeal last year. There was enough snow. Vitor: fwilhe possible for 4" Vig ski at Predeal, there’ will be plenty of snow in December. ‘ Forme de conditional: It’s fogsy. The airport could be closed. If he had enough money he could buy a bicycle. 4) Canjcould sint tolosite pentru aexprima: 0 cerere, rugiminte politicoasa: am you wait a few moments? Could este mai politicos decit can. 5) Could +infinitivul perfect este folosit pentru a exprima capacitatea nerealizata de efectuare a unei actiuni in trecut: Ske eould have helped me. (But she didn’t). Ar fi putut si ma ajute. 6) Can'ticouldn’t+infinitivul prezent al verbului de exprima o deductie negativa despre un eveniment prezent: A: I'm hungry. B: You can’t he hungry. You've just had your dinner: Can't|Couldn't -infinitivul perfect exprima o deductic nega- tiva despre un eveniment trecut: A: Did Ann type the report? B: She can’t/eouldn’t have typed it. She hasn’t learned to type yet. May este folosit Ja toate persoanele cu valoare de indicativ prezent gi vitor, Might este folosit pentru toate persoanele cu valoare de conditional gi subjonctiy. Might este intrebuin' recta. “/¢ may rain late May este folosit: 1) pentru a cere(a) sau a acorda(b) permisiunon (mai oficial dectt can) a) May / go? Pot sa plec? b) You may go. Poti s& pleci. Forma negativd de neacordare a permisiunii este may not, rar mayn’t: A: May J go out? B: No, you may not. Must not (mustn't) este folosit pentru, a exprima interdictia, mai ales in regulamente, instrucfiuni: You mustn’t walk on the grass. Nu caleati pe iarbi. Echivalentul modal pentru exprimarea permisiunii este be allowed to/ be permitted to: allowed permitted {cu valoare de Past Tense doar in vorbirea indi- he said. He said it might rain later. He was }t0 Bo. I s-a permis/l s-a dat voie si plece, 612) May|might poate exprima o cerere, 0 rugdéminte poli- ticoasa. (may este mai politicos si oficial dectt can/could): Mey I use your phone? Imi dati voie sa dau un telefon? olosirea lui might-in acest sens indici un grad de nesiguranta mai mare dectt may (cu privire la réspuns): Might J use your phone? Ag putea s& dau un telefon? 3) Maylmight -+infinitivul present exprimi o posibilitate pre- zenta sau viitoare (in sau dupa momentul vorbirii): may toda: So poate } ....., f azi He { me } come { eee } S-ar vata f sa vind { miine. Might este folosit: a) pentru a exprima o posibilitate mai indepartata (s-ar putea...) b) dupa un verb trecut, in ‘vorbirea indirecta: He said he might come. ¢) in Irazele continind subordonate condifionale: If you shouted, he might hear you. Daca ai striga, s-ar putea si te auda. La forma interogativi si megativ, may exprimind posibilitatea este inlocuit de constructiile do you think ++ prezent|vittor sau be likely ++ infinitiv: Do you think he'll come today ? Is he likely to come today? } croai cdo sa vind asta? May|might + infinitivol perfect este folosit pentru a exprima o speculafie despre o actiune trecuta: may 47 $e poate He { Midye } hace arrived. Siar putea 4) Might mai este folosit: a) in cereri insistente sau atunci cind vorbitorul este iritat de neindepliniea unei actiuni (might + infinitivul prozent): You might give sear capyof that paper. ( Please give me a copy. I’m annoyed that you. haven't given me one.) : b) pentru aexprima iritarea, reprogul in legiturd cu necfectuarea vrei actiuni trecute (might -+infinitivul perfect): You might have told me what had happened. Ai fi putut si-mi spui ce s-a intimplat. Must este folosit Ja toate persoanele, la } 88 fi sosit. indicativul prezent gi vitor. ‘Have to este folosit ca inlocuitor al lui must exprimind obligatia, iar need este folosit cu valoare de prezent gi viitor, mai ales in propozifsi negative gi interogative. Must se folosegte pentru a exprima: t) obligatia: They must stop because the traffic light is red now. ‘Must exprimind obligatia poate fi inlocuit de have to sau ‘ve got to. HAVE TO. Intre must si have to exist urmatoarele diferente de sens: - a) Must exprimé o obligatie impusi de ciitre vorbitor, pe cind have to exprima o obligajie impusi din exterior: J must go. (It’s my decision ). We have to go. (The shop is closing ). b) ‘Must exprima o obligatie importanta, urgenta: J must be at the hospital at two. It's most important. ‘Hace to exprima o obligatie obignuita, repetaté (habitual obligation ): T have to b¢ at the hospital at seven o'clock every morning. I begin work at seven. Prezent: You must stay in bed for a few days. You've got flu. You have to stay in bed when you have flu. 62Past Tense: He had to stay in bed last week. He was quite ill. Viitor: You must stay in bed tomorrow if you don’t feel better. You'll have to stay in bed when you feel feverish again. HAVE GOT TO In vorbirea familiard, se adaugit got la have to, iar have se contrage, obtinindu-se J’ve got/I haven’t got to phone her. : ~ " Aceasta formi exprima de obicei obligafia implinirii unei singure actiuni, Forma must not (musin’t) exprimi interdictia, sau un sfat la prezent sau viitor: You must not move. You mustn’t walk on the grass. You mustn’t miss that film, it is very good. : Lipsa obligativit &fii se exprima cu ajutoral lui needn’é, sau not have to[not need to: needn’t You} don't have to f come carly. Forma negativi a lui have to exprimi o obligatie externa sau repetata, habituala: We don’t early on Sundays. (We don't go to school won't | have to get UP fon Sundays). Need poate fi folosit Ia mai multe timpuri (ca gi not have to): Prezent: A:Need J go there now? B: No, you needn't, A: Do Z need to come here every day? B: You don’t need to. Past Tense: Did you need to go there yesterday? I didn’t need to go. Viitor: You needn’t/won’t need to go there tomorrow. Tn propozifiile interogative, folosirea lui need in Jocul hui must arata ca vorbi- lorul se asteapl la un raspuns negativ: A: Need I wash the dishes? (1 hope not.) set! ©" Need gi needn't sint urmate de infinitivul scurt. Celelalte forme sint urmate de infinitivul lung: You needn’t come. He didn’t need TO come. She won’t need TO come. Needn’t 4-infinitivul perfect exprima o actiune care a fost efectuata in trecut, degi nu era necesara: You needn’t have bought two loaves of bread. I’ve bought a loaf myself. Need poate fi folosit si ca verb principal, insemnind: He needs help. Are nevoie » de ajutor. Did she need the dictionary? A avul nevoie de dictionar? 2) Must poate exprima gi deductia logic a: She must be at home. She left'an hour ago. Deductia negativé se exprima cu ajutorul lui cannot/ean’t + infinitivul prezent al verbului to be: She left ten minutes ago, she can’t be at home now. Must --infinitivul perfect exprima o deducyie logica (in prezent) despre o acfiune trecuta: She's got @ ten in her term paper. She must have worked very hard. Deductia logicd negativa se exprimi cu ajutorul lui can't/couldn’t + infinitivul perfect: ste { Courant } have baked this pie. She can’t cook. In vorbirea indirect se foloseste must sau have to dupa caz, dupa un verb declarativ la un timp trecut: She said she would have to leave early. in the morning (obligatie). We thought she must be il, Am crezut ef este bolnava (deductie logica). 631.20.6, SHALL/SHOULD. Shall este folosit: 1) pentru a exprima o bligatia, in stilul oficial —acte, regulamente, ete. la persoana a II-a gia Ill-a: The seller shall supply the spare parts in dus time. . Vinzatorul { ye tae este obligat si furnizene } piesele de schimb in timp util. 2) Shall este folosit in propozitii intero gative, la persoana I singu- lar sau plural: a) pentru a cere un sfat, 0 sugestie, un ordin: Where shall we put the flowers? ‘Unde 88 punem florile? Shall we go to the cinema tonight? (Ce spui), mergem la cinema diseari? What shall I do? Ce trebuie si fac? b) pentru a face o oferta: Shall / help you? Sa te ajut? Should este folosit” pentru a expruma: 1)obligatia, necesitatea Togica de tnfaptuire a unei actiuni, de obicei sub forma de sfat dat de ciitre vorbitor: The book is very interesting. You should read it. Cartea e foarte interesanta. Ar trebui s-o citesti, He shouldn't teil lies. N-ar trebui si minta. 2) o presupunere (indicind un grad de nesiguran{a mai mare decit will): He should be there by now. Ar trebui sa fi ajuns acolo deja. He should have left by now. Ar trebui.si.fi.pleoat aeja: : 3) Should este frecvent folosit in propozitii sub or donate (vezi cap. 25): a) in propozitii subiective: It's strange that he should behave like that, b) in propozitii completive directe: J suggest we should leave at once. ¢) in propozifiile conditionale pentru a exprima o conditie mai pufin proba: bila (§ 1.13.40. pet. f): If she should come, tell her to wait for me. Dac& se intimpla sd vind, spune-i si ma agtepte. 4) in propozitii de scop, in parale! cu would: She put on her sun glasses so that no one should/would see her tears. Igi puse ochelarii de soare ca $4 nu-i vada nimeni lacrimile. e) in propozitiile de scop negative, dupa lest si uneori dupa in case: She was afraid in case she should slip on the icy road. li era team si nu- alunece pe drumui inghefat. ‘Should +-infinitivul perfect exprima neindeplinirea unei obli- gayii sau a unei actiuni in trecut: You should have sent her a telegram. Why didn’t you? Ar fi trebuit s&-i trimiti o telegrama: De ce n-ai facut-o? 126.7. OUGHT PO. Ought to indica obligatia sau datoria, de obice: sub forma de stat dat de catre vorbitor (la fel ca should ): A: You ouglit to finish the book before going on holiday. A: Ar trebui si termini cartea inainte s& pleci in vacanta. I know J should: B: Stiu c-ar trebui. Exprimarea unui sfat, a'unei recomandari, sugestii, prin ought to/should este mai putin puternica decit prin must: Comparati: You { het to f see « doctor. Ar trebui sa te duci la doctor. You must see a doctor. Trebuie si te duci la doctor. Ought to +infinitivul perfect exprimi.o datorie neindeplinita, © actiune care ar fi trebuit efectuatd (la fel ca should): You { $yea” } have erossed when the lights were green, 64Ar fi trebuit s& traversezi cind lumina semaforului era verde, ‘ You { Speman? } have crossed when the lights were red. N-ar fi trebuit sa traversezi pe lumina ‘rosie a semaforului, Ought to/should rémine neschimbat tn vorbirea indirecta, dupa un verb la un timp trecut: He toid me you { SnBNa" } auend the conference Mi-a spus c& ar trebui sa vii la conferinta. 1.20.8. WILL/W OULD. Will este folosit pentru a exprima: 4) 0 comanda impersonal& (similar cu must, be to): You will come here at once. Vino incoace imediat. 2) insisten$a, hotarirea de a efectua o actiune: He will study chemistry whatever his father says. Va studia | este decis s& stu- dieze chimia, indiferent de parerea tatalui sau. 7 3) o achiune repetat, un obicei al unei persoane (will ,frecven- tativ*): He will sit on the bench for hours and gaze at the stars. Obignuiegte sk stea ore-n gir pe banca si s& se vite la stele (vezi § 1.9.3. pet. 5)). 4) 0 invitafie, in propozifii interogative, la persoana a II- you have another sandwich? Mai vrei /ia te rog un sandvig. 5) 0 cerere sau rugaminte (pe un ton politicos, dar mai autori- tar decit would): Will you sign the register? Va rog si semnafi in registru. 6) 0 intentie spontanad, nepremeditata, in momentul vorbirii (Vezi $1.9.3. pet. 3 a)), la persoana I (de obicei contras in Ul): A: I’m thirsty. B: I'll fetch you a glass of water, A: Mi-e sete. B: St-ti aduc un pahar de apa. Wil devine would sau infinitiv tn vorbirea indirecta, in functie de sens (vezi § 26.3.7; 26.3.10; 26.3.1): Would este folosit: 4) pentru a exprima o cerere, orugaminte politicoasa: Vreti Va rog : Wil Would you do me a favour? } si-mi facefi un serviciu? Nota: Would like este de obicei folosit in locul lui want, fiind ¢ forma de exprimare mar politicoasa: I { would like to talk to the manager. want Ag dori si vorbese cu directorul. Would you like to talk to him, now? Dorigi sA vorbifi cu el acum? 2) Ca forma de Past Tense a lui will, would este folosit pentru a exprima: a) inten fia (in -vorbire indirecta): J said, “7 will help her”. I said I would ‘help her. b) intenfia negativa (refuzul): Present: He won't help me. Nu vrea sé m& ajute, Past Tense: He wouldn't help une. Nu voia 84 ma ajute. 65 3 — Gramatica limbii engieze2) insistenta, hotarirea de a efectua o acfiune tn trecut: He would keep silent for hours, no matter what arguments I used. t tivitate repetat&, un obicei in trecut (would ,,frecven- -! iv"): She would ‘wait for me in front of the school gates. “ould este folosit gi pentru a exprima probabilitatea: That he their car, Probabil c& aceea este magina lor. (Aceea trebuie s& fie r). Yaz rather |). oer sae 5 listen to the concert thaie see the films. ‘Ag nesfera si ascult concertul decit s& vid filmul, 4.20.9. USED TO. Used toeste folosit doar la Past Tense, peniru aexprima: ne repetaté, un obicei trecut, care nu mai bieat in prezent: J used to swim in the Ol river when but £ dot do this any longer. Obignuiam sk inot in Olt cind cpil, sar acum nu mai tnot. june repetaté, un obicei trecut, care mai sete n prezent: They ved to spend their holidoye te the y likely they still do it} Used to poate fi inlocuit de would ia se would spend their holidays in the mountains. jetveacn } Yavenfele la munte. Used to ma are forma de present. Pentru 9 exprima un folositi prezontul simplu: 1 (usually) spend my holideys Wrould este } 7 f petrec vacanele la munte. ia este folosit penta i efin Ve ‘Trebuie Urmeaz’ f ae planificat& (constructic des folosita ta 1 ompriition is 16 start in a week's th Sin sau o comandé, in vor come”. He says that J ain te wait Rere till he eames. 2, be poate fi urmat: prement: He was to go. Urma 8& cere nu oflém dac& sctiunea planifica: Ject, pentru a exprima o gofiuns plénuite have gone (but he didn’t}. i" 681.20.11. DARE. Dare se foloseste cu sensul de avea curajul, tn special in propozifii interogati dare you contradict me? Cum indraznegti sé mA contras: not tell his father what he had done. Baiatul n-a tndréc: su ce a facut. La afirmativ, dare se conjuga ca un verb principal: Prezent: dare, dares; Past Tense: dared. La negativ gi interogativ, dare poate fi conjugat cn ca un verb modal: Dare he speak? Indritzneste si vorbex speak? Dare ca verb modal este urmat: a) de infinitival f&r& to dupa forma invariabila dare (p sau Past Tense): I wonder whether he BABE coin, va indrazni si vind. He felt that he DAREN’T try. n-are curajul s& incerce. b) de infinitivul cu to; dupa participiul prezent sau dups per singular: Now he dares to attack me / Acum indr&znesic 24 ma atacei c) de infinitivul cu sau fara to dupa forma de infinitiy a Past Tense dared gi participiul trecut: He wouldn’t N-ar Sndr&ani sX-mi spund acest lucru. He dared (to) « A avut curajul si scrie despre’ acea problema. He hea me. Na indraznise niciodata si ma intrebe. Atentie! Verbul dare este urmat de infinitivul ox ca verb principal: He dared me to compete with him. M-a » ai, for 1322 ‘ EXERCITH I, Ortogrofiayi urmdtodrele verbe la persoana a I]}-a s Past Tense, forma in -ing gi participiul treeut: study, play, pay, writ g0, do, begin, cry, see, stop, cut, travel, oceur, die, egret, free, tie, lie, lay, saw, HL Puneti verbele din parantezt ia timpul poirivit. 1, Look! It (rain). Take your umbrella. 2. Why (1 He usually (drive) very carefully. 8. It (start) to rair the park yesterday. 4. The telephone (ring) just as he (20. ago. 5. The weather (be) bad this week. 6 Last night trees down. 7. It (snow) for three days now. 8 (You, }: No, I haven't. 9. I (just, speak) to her. 1 (speak) to i 10. Last night she (lend) me the book only after I (asi: } (be) in Predea} for more than a week when we (arrive) (Live) in Bragov for two years when I (meet) him in 107° (be) fine tomorrow, we (go) on a trip to Poiana Brasov good we (ski) from ten to twelve o'clock. 18. We (ski) time we (have) lunch at twelve o'clock. 16: What (you, a party. Lalways (have) a party at the end of term. 17. ¥ 67 Be ,leave)? Yt (leave) at 8 o'clock according to schedule. 18. What (you, do) there? I (look) at some photographs. How long (you, look) at thom? 1 (look) ab therm since I (come) back home. What time (you, come) back home? I-(come) back home at 6 o’elock. Wl. Traducefi in limba englecd: 1. Ploud. Ploud adesea toamna. 2. Ploud de cind ai venit. 8. A plouat. 4. A plouat gi ieri, 5. Ploua oind m-am uitat pe fereastré. 6. Plouase cind am jest afard. 7. Ploua de multa vreme. 8. Sta s& ploud. 9. Sigur o sa ploud azi. 40. Va ploua cind te vei intoarce de la servici. 11. Vom face o plimbare dupa ce va fi stat ploaia. 12. Nu vom merge in parc dacd nu va sta ploaia. IV. Trece}i urmétoarele propozifii la diateza pasivd, transformind complementul persoanei in subiect. Exempla: They offered her flowers. She’ was offered flowers. j 1. The guide is showing them the museum. 2. They have appointed him president. 3, The teacher asked the pupils several questions. 4. The captain ordered the soldiers to stand to attention. 5. She has given me-a good dictio- nary. 6. They will tell you what time the bus leaves. 7. I'll pay the carpenter for his work. 8. He promised them new bicycles. 9. The form teacher has lent me this book. 10, We shall offer the singer flowers. Y. Traducefi urmatoarele proposifii in timba englecé, folosind verbe la diateza pasivd: 1. Aceasté problema trebuie analizata. 2. Nu s-a dormit in acest pat. 3. Copiii au fost bine ingrijiti. 4. Clinele a fost célleat de un autobuz. 6. Vor ride de tine daca vei purta rochia asta. 6. Sticlele goale nu trebuie _aruncate. 7. Nu s-a baut din acest pahar. 8. M-a picalit purtarea lui, 9. Trebuie si dai socoteala pentru fiecare moment. 10, Nu-i place si se holbeze Iumea Ia ea. VL. In propozitiile de mai jos, inlocuifi subjonctioul sintetic cu sudjonctivul analitic cu should sau" may: Exemplu: a) It is vecessary that he send the letter at once. It is necessary that he should send the letter at once. b) Whoever the woman be, you must send for a doctor. Whoever the woman may be, you must send for a doctor. 1, Father insisted that his son read books on Romanian history. 2. It is imperative that they exceed production, 3, The doctor recommended that the old woman keep to bed for a few days. 4. Long she be happy! 5. The chairman demanded that proposals be made. 6. They required that. a solution be found to the problem. 7. It is important that all litigious issues between nations be settled by negotiations. 8. He suggested that they do the exercise in writing. 9. It is right that the best pupil be given a prize. VEL. Traduceti in limba englect folosind forme ale subjonctivului sintetic sau analitic: 1. Este recomandabil sé fii acolo Ia ora 8 fix. 2. Ei cer ca trupele inamice si fie retrase de pe teritoriul lor. 3. De ce si facem noi asta? 4, Dorinfa lui ca - noi si devenim profesori s-a indeplinit. 8. Fie ce-o fi, voi porni motorul. 6 Ag dori sa fii mai linigtit. 7, Ag dori ca ei s& fie acum aici. 8. Ag fi dorit ca ei si fie prezenti la conferinta. 9. Ce-ai face dacd ti-ar oferi aceasta shujba? 10, Daca 68se intimpl& s-o caute cineva, spune-le ca este plecata. 11. Mama mi-a dat nigte bani ca 84 cumpar dictionarul de care aveam nevoie. 12. Am sé-fi dau numarul lui de telefon ca si] suni. 18, A muncit foarte mult de teama 8A nu cada la examen. 14. Oricit de tirziu ar fi, telefoneazi-mi. 15. Oricite gregeli ar fi facut, lucrarea lui este cea mai buna din clasa. . VILL. Puncfi verbele din paranteze ta infinitioul lung (cw to) sau scurt (férd to). Exemplu: You must (help) him. ‘ ‘They want (come) now. ®) You must help him. ) They want to come now. 1. He has decided (become) a mechanic. 2. Will you (come) to the theatre with me? 8, You ought (revise) for your exams this week. 4. We can (wait) for you here. 5. I saw them (cross) the street. 6. [ asked her (repeat) the question. 7. I'd rather (wait) for you outside. 8. He is (return) tomorrow. 9. They were seen (compare) notes. 10. This book is too difficult for her (understand). 11. He dared me (compete) with him. 12. He looked at her not daring (say) anything. 13. I'm sure that he daren’t (try). 14. I'm sorry (hear) this. IX. Completayi spatiile libere cu prepozitiile necesare, Puneti verbele din paran- teze la forma Gerund. Exemplu: We finally succeeded ... (sell) his old car. He finally succeeded in selling his old car. 1. The bad weather prevented him... (leave) last Monday. 2. Our teacher doesn’t approve... (study) late at night. 3. He worries... (lose) his position. 4. He finally succeeded ... (post) the letter. 5. She insists . .. (do) everything herself.” 6. This research aims... (find) a more efficient method. 7. I’m looking forward... freceive) your answer. 8. You can’t rely... (get) help from him. 9 They congratulated the pianist... (play) so beautifully. 10. The policeman accused the driver... (drive) carelessly. X. Puneti verbele din paranteze la forma Gerund. Punefi pronumele personale la acuzatie (pentru o exprimare familiard ), san transformafi-le tn pronume posesive (pentru o exprimare mai literari). Exempla: 1 can’t understand (he, forget) to come to the meeting. T can't understand { Hela } forgetting to come to the meeting. 1. My mother hates (/, read) while I'm eating. 2. 1 don’t remember (he, come} late before. 8. Excuse (f, interrupt) you. 4. L don’t like (she, wear) my dresses. 5. I object to (they. make) so much noise. 6. He doesn't agree to (we, come) late to school. 7. I don’t like (you, go ow!) alone at night. 8. Can you imagine (she, act) on the stage? 9. I don’t mind (they, play ) in the garden, 10. It’s no use (he, pretend) to be asleep. 1. It’s no good (you, try) to find excuses all the time. 12. He is surprised at (we, work) so late. XI. Puneji verbele din paranteze ia infinitivul cu to sau forma Gerund in functie de sens: 1. I will remember (give) vour mother your message. 2. I remember (meet) him at your birthday last year. 3. Please stop (interrupt) me in the middle of a sentence. 4. He stopped (talk) to his former pupils. 3. Did you forget (gicc) him that message? 6. [ definitely recall (leave) my Coat in this room. 7. I like (eycle). 8.1 like (walk) in the rain. 9, I don ¢ like 69air up so early. 10. I meant (ell) you, but 1 forgot. 1L.The road repair means (walk) to work every day. 12. He tried (sell) news- vork ) in caié and various other jobs before he took up (write ). 18. He ake ) himself understood. 14. Why don’t you try (write) more clearly? ways loved (sing). 16. I'd love (hear) you sing this aria again. hair wants (cut). 18, 1 want (go) to the hairdresser’s with you. c+ {walk) to (travel) by bus, 26. Upreter (go) by bus today if you ad. 81. Late (see) little Tom dirty. 22. I hate (see).dirty childre zulations don’t allow (smoke) in school. 24. The headmaster doesn’t ‘eachers (smoke) in the teachers’ room. je din paranteze la forma corectd: participiu in «ing sau rect. ngla: a) We saw an (entertain) programme on TY lest night. Wo saw an enleriaining programme on TV last night. b) The carpenter repaired the (break) chair, The carpenter repaired the broken chair. ¥ell have to work hard the (follow) weeks. 8. The police were on t i the (follow) man. 8. That was a very (interest) book. 4. The : ries signed the agreement. 8. They sell (freeze) goods here. is below (freeze) point. 7. Where is the (ride) school? are of high quality. 9. Romania is both ‘aa import) 10, The (tire) woman set down to resi for 2 minute. {lice) work indeed. 12. The (accuse) man was found not asi mean faecuse) look. 44. 1 like (bake} apples. 15. The [time of this tram is 8.15, 16. He made some fastonish) (lose) child was crying for his mother. 18. (Frighten } horses 19. It was a (frighten) sight. 26. Raisins are {dry j grapes. oa a (crowd) bus. i in limba englesd: imprumutate de la bibliotec’ trebuie tnapoiate la timp. &. Fe- ai se deschideau spre o terasi cu privire la mare. 3, Auzind ind. 4. Toate lucrurile pe care le stim de mult ne sint d mirat de purtarea mea. & Dupi ce a terminet co-avea 7. Apoi plee%, clinele urmindu-l. ‘ind ea exercitiul it s-o ajute pe batriag. 1 ise cartea de ulitea ori fusese si invete cuvintele noi, ‘age atentia auditoriului. #8, Imi pare rau cA te-am deran- 14, Incepu s&-i tremure vocea de emotie. 18. Am promis 16. Am vazut-o plingind. 17. Imi pare rau. N-am vrut 8. Nimeni nu este de vind, 19. Aceasta problema este prea difi- m rezolva. 20. Neaga cd a fost acolo. i cuvintele scrise eursiv cu verbe modale potrivite ca sens gi verbe la infinitivul prezent sau perfect. ve are obliged to de our homework every day. 2 to do our homework every day. Leen permission to leave. 2. Perhaps they have heard the news. went to Oradea on business. 4, Children are forbidden to play 79with matches. 5. She didn’t forget about the appoint: 6. As you don’t feel well it’s good for you to see a doctor. 7, to repair his bicycle himself but he didn’t; he took it & sho says is most probably true. 9. Although your obligate home as soon as you arrived, you didn’t even write a; students were obliged to take a test last week. XY. Traducefi tn limba englezt, folosind verbe modale 1. Vrei si-mi aduci ziarul, te rog? 2. S& cumpar ai s& cumperi niste portocale. 8. Vreti si semnati in re, si ma ajutati la bagaje? 5. Doriti o ceagca de cafea? o.ceagcd de ceai. 6. Ea nu gtie ined englezeste dar va s citiva ani. 7. Ar fi putut invafa poezia, dar n-a yrut. 8. £ neze mai tirziu, 9. Pot sa imprumut aceasta carte ? Da, merg la inot in fiecare zi cind eram mai tinar. 11. Se p dar nu sint sigur. 12. Ar fi trebuit si plece mai devrem. ¢ trenul. 12. E un concert bun la televisor, N-ar trebui absent azi. Cred c& e bolnav. 15. Nu aveti voie si vA ji 46. Nu crod c& a fost plecat din ora sAptamina trecut multe oti. 17. S-a dus Ja culcare la ora 8 aseara. Cr 18. Copiilor li s-a dat voie 88 iasd afard cind a sta’ ploai s@ spund asa ceva? 29. Nu era nevoie s&-{i iei amabrels: impossible. the ability 8. What 2. SUBSTANTIVUL (The Noun) 2.1. Definitie Substan: Us a} denumegte obiecte tn sens foarte tang, adicd (man, chair, snow, walk, wisdom }; b) are categoriile gramaticale de gen, numar g 2} poate indeplini in propozifie funcfiile de subiect, Con i, element predicatiy supiitaen 2.2. Clasificare Substantivele din limba englez’ pot fi clasi de vedere, 2.2.1. Din punet de vedere. al formarii a) substantive simple: boy, meal, day; b) substantive formate prin derivara cu suf disgust, unhappiness; ©) substantive formate prin compunere (sub boy, classroom ;4) substantive formate prin conversiune, din alte pari de vorpire: — adjective: the good, the evil, the rich, the poor —verbe la infinitiv: cook, fall; —verbe la Gerund: reading, boxing; —verbe la participiul trecut: the injured; e) substantive formate prin contragere: ad (advertisement), fridge (refrigerator), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), lab (laboratory), lio (living- room), poly (polytechnic), pram (perambulator), pub (public house); f) abrevieri: MP (Member of Parliament), Dr (doctor), Mr Brown (Dl. Brown), Mrs Brown (dna Brown), Miss Brown (dra Brown), Ms Brown (abelativ pentru femei, cisatorite sau necasatorite). 2. Din punct de vedere al gradului de individualizare, substantivele in limba engleza se impart In doua clase mari: substantive comune gi substan- tive proprii. A. Substantivele comune sint lipsite de posibilitatea de a individualiza prin ele insele. Ele denumesc un element dintr-o categorie de obiecte de acelagi fel: table, school. Substantivele comune se subclasificd in: a)substantive apelative, care denumesc un element dintr-o categorie: table, school : b) substantive colective, care denumese obiecte constind din mai multe elemente de acelagi fel: family, people; ce) substantive concrete, care denumese obiecte sau substanta constitutivd a unor obiecte: table, wood, steel; d) substantive abstracte, care denumese abstractiuni: difficulty, worry, peace, love, music. B.Substantivele (numele) proprii au capacitatea de a individualiza un obiect dintr-o categorie de obiecte de acelagi fel, denumind in principiu un singur element dintr-o categorie. In limba englezd, substanti- vele proprii denumese: a)nume de persoane: Churchill; b) denumiri geografice: —nume de localitati: London, Bucharest; —nume de fari gi continente: Romania, Britain, the United States, Europe; —nume de ape gi munfi: the Danube, the Black Sea, the Suez Canal, Lake Michigan, the Carpathians; ce) diviziuni temporale: —lunile anului: January; —ailele siptiminii: Sunday; — s&rbitori: Independence Day; d)nume de cari, ziare, reviste: Hard Times, The Times, The Sunday Times; e)nume de institufi British Museum. The Grand Hoiel, the National Theatre, the Ortografia substantivelor preprii. In limba englezd, substantivele proprii se scriu cu liter& mare, ca gi in limba roména: Helen — Elena; Rome — Roma; Great Britain —Marea Britanie. Exosti insi unele situafii in care uzajul in limba englez& este diferit de cel in limba romana: 72a) numele lunilor anului gi ale zilelor siptaminii se scriu cu jiterd mare tn limba englezi; find considerate substantive proprii: April — aprilie, Sunday — duminiea; b) toate cuvintele (cu exceptia articolelor, prepozifiilor si conjunctiilor) dintr-un substantiv propriu exprimat printr-o perifrazi substantivald se scriu cu litera mare in limba englezé: : —titluri de cari: Dombey and Son —Dombey i fiul; —titluri de ziare: The Daily Mirror; —titluri de reviste: English Language Teaching Journal; —titiuri de capitole, articole, lucrari, institugii, etc.: The Conference for Peace and Security in Europe —Conferinja pentru pace $i securitate in Europa; the United Nations Organization — Organizatia Nafiunilor Unite, c) numele de nafionalitati gi limbi-se scriu de asemenea cu liter mare in limba englezit: He speaks English. (El) Vorbegte englezeste. We are Romanians. Noi sintem romani. 2.3, Numirul substantivelor (Number of Nouns) Substantivele in limba englez au categoriile gramaticale de gen, numar si car. Numarul este categoria gramaticalA care se recunoaste cel mai ugor, datorita desinenfei -s, specifies pentru forma de plural a substantivelor. Din punct de vedere al ideii de numar, substantivele in limba englezi se impart’ in numarabile (Count nouns) si nenumarabile (Mass nouns). Substantivele numarabile sint de obicei variabile ca forma (Variable nouns), avind atit singular cit gi plural, iar cele nenumarabile sint de regula invariabile ca forma (Invariable nouns), avind forrad numai de singular sau numai de plural. 2.3.1, Substantivele numdrabile (Count Nouns). Substantivele numarabile denumesc nofiunile ca unitati separate, care pot fi numarate: a boy, two boys, a few boys, etc. Substantivele numarabile au urmitoarele caracteristi a) sint varigbile ca forma, avind atit numérul singular, ctt si numarul plural: museum — museums, child — children ; b) pot fi precedate de numerale cardinale sau cuantificatori: one book, care books, several apples, a lot of brushes; ¢) la numérul singular se acorda cu verbe la singular: The book is on the table. iar la numérul plural, cu verbe la plural: The apples are in the basket. 2. Clasificarea substantivelor numirabile. Substantivele numarabile pot fi: apelative: garden, pencit; sau coiective: committee, audience; concrete: child, school;sau abstracte: difficulty, question. Substantivele colective sint o subdiviziune a substantivelor numarabile. Ele se comport: 1) ca substantive numarabile propriu-zise cind denumese o colectivitate considerata ca un intreg.: The two football teams are in the field now. Cele doud echipe de fotbal sint acum pe teren. \ In acest caz, ele au numarul singular si numérul plural gi se acord& cu verbe la singular sau la plural: His family is larger than mine, Familia lui este 73maai numoroasé decit. a. mea..On each floor live two families. Joouiese dou familii. <0 emcee 2) Cind-aceste substantive se refers la membrii componenti ai colecti +t8tji ele se comporta'ca eubstantive colective propriu-zise...In aceasté situati Jetantivele. colective se folosesc cu forma de singulat, réferirea fiind Ja colectivilate: family, team, care se acorda cu verbul la plural, referirea, fii Ta membrii colectivitapii: My family are at home, Familia mea este acas (L All the members of my family... es. | Din grupa substantivelor colective fac parte substantivelebarmy, assembly.g audience, class, club, committe, company, orem, eroad, family, government Jury, party, press, public, regiment, troop, flight (of birds, insects, planes) Hock (of sheep), herd (of cattle), pack (of wolves), poultry, shoal (of fish), swar (of -bees). : : 2.8.8, Formarea pluralului substantivelor numdrabile. Substantivele numa rabile au dowd forme: o-form& de singular gi. forma de prural. Forma de singular este nemarcata: book, bos, child. Formele de plural sint de dou’. feluri: ots i ‘A. regulate, ctnd pluralul so formeaza prin adiugarea desinentei -s la forma de singular: book — books. B neregulate, cind plurehil se formeaza in alte moduri. A.Pluralul regwiat al substantivelor se formeazi prin adiugareo dosinentei -s la forma de singular a substantivului. 2.3.4, Pronunfarea pluralului regulat este urm&toarea: a) {-s} dupa consoano surde [k], (1, (ph [4] 51 [0]: books, proofs, lamps, carpets, ‘months; . b) [-z] dupa consoane sonore gi vocale: gloves, tables, boys, trees; 6) fiz] dupa sunetsle [s], (21, Uf], [tf], [da]: etasses, noses, brushes, matches, i villages. 2.3.5, Ortogratia pluralului regulat 4) Desinenta -s se scrié -s dup& majoritatea substantivelor, inctuzind substantivele terminate in -e mut: book — books, table — tables. 2) Exceptiiz Exista unele situafii care fac excepfie de 1a aceasta regula generala: a) Substantivele terminate in -8; -; -x; ~ch; -sh adaugii 08 : bus — buses; glass —glasses; buzz — buzzes; box —bowes; watch —watches; brush — brushes; b) La ctteva dintre substantivele din acest grup se dubleazé consoana finala: fei — feases, quiz — quizzes. c) Substantivele terminate in -o : — adauga desinenfa -8 + —cind -0 e precedat de o vocal&: cuckoos; kangaroos; radios; scenarios: studios; 2008; —Ja substantive proprii: Filipinos; Eskimos; Neros; Romeos; —in abreyieri: kilos (Kilogrammes), photos (photographs), pros (profes- sionals); —la unele substantive stréine: concertos, dynamos, pianos, solos, sopranos, tangos, tobaccos; — adaugs -e8 iz substantive ca: echoes, heroes, mosquitoes, Negroes, potatoes, tomatoes; 14~~ au dou’ forme de plural: banjos — banjoes; buffalos — buff ‘aloes; cargox = eargoes; mementos — mementoes; mottos — mottoes; valcanos — vo). canoés; zeros — zeroes ete,; d) Substantivele terminate tn -y Pprecedat de o conscani transform in | gi adauga -98 + city — cities; factory — factories, Transtorman joc: — dupa vocale: bey — boys, play — plays; — {a substantive proprii: the Kennedys; >is substantive compuse: stand-bys; e)Literele, numeralele gi abrevierile formenzk pria edaugarea unui sposteol gi <8: A’s, 1989's; MP's: There and three 8's in the number of that English car. There are wa 2 iohby, fn onglena contomporané exista tendinfa ca numeralele i at 98 formeso plurelui gi prin adaugarea doar a unui -# la singular: 1 t} MP (Member of Parliament) ~ MPs; Mt (Mountain) — ji (volume) — vote; tb. (pound) —ibs; PO (Post Office, Postal Onder ; Forma de plural {ara apostrof este mai freevent folosi apoztrof. 3) Plursiul substantivelor compuse a) Majoritates substentivelor compuse adaug& -s la ulti room classrooms; forget-me-not — forget-me-nols; —¢1 sp8; horse race (oursi de cai) — horse races; raze horse (cal de ¢ Barace; merry-go-round — merry-go-rounds; 5) Uneie substantive compuse, do obicei cele aledtuite dintr-un $i ¢ consteuctic preposijionala, adaug& -s la primul cl Jaokess-on; maiher-in-law —- mothers-in-law; passer-by — pi ©} substentivels compuse in care primul element este man sat « fermi ta plural embele elemonte: man singer — men sing: — werner doctors. Neti: Clué cubstantivul compus este alestuit din dou sub cu ral de adjectiz oste de obicei le singular: @ canna nt; @ ten-minute film; & tooth-brush; a two-piece oerdss. Adesoori ins’ aceste substantive igi pastreard forme de are munal formé de plural, fie cind este folosit ou sons de pi §he gomee iiotrasa; goods train, 2 sweets vendor: The Public Rela ‘The United Nations Organization; The United States Congress. 2.3.6. B. Pluralul neregulat al substantivelor formeax% in mai multe feluri: 8) eousoans surdé [6], [f] sau [s] in care se termina substantiy im poveches i sonor&: [€}, {v] sau [z] (voicing) la uncle substex 4) th[6] ~ the [e2): bath — baths; mouth — mouths; path —~ pau youths; 2) fe) [f] > ves va): calf — calves; elf — elves; half ne Baines; leaf —leaves; life — tives; loaf —toaves; self — solves: ahslvess thief — thieves; wife — wives; wolf — wolves, 3) -s2 [8] — see fiz}: hovse — houses. 1%Atentiel Acest fenomen de sonorizare a consoanei finale nu se produce la toate substantivele terminate in [6], [f] sau {s]. Exist’ gi forme de plural regulat gi oscilafie intre cele doud forme: Plural regulat (4): Forme duble (4)! consoang + -th: vocala +--th: berth — berths cloth — cloths ' earth — earths death — deaths oath — oaths length — lengths faith — faiths truth — truths Plural regulat (2): Forme duble (2): belief — beliefs dwarf —- dwarfs — dwarves ef —chiefs handkerchief — handkerchiefs ~ handkerchieves cliff — cliffs hoof — hoofs — hooves proof — proofs scarf — scarfs — scarves roof — roofs wharf —wharfs — wharves safe — safes —Sonorizarea lui (s}] se produce numai le ntivul house. 5) vocala sau diftongul final se schimba in alté vocal sau diftong (mutation): man —men; woman — women; foot — feet; goose — geese; tooth — teeth; mouse —mice; louse —lice. Nota: Compusii cu substentivul man eq orlogratia difera: 2 postmen f'paustman} — « man (‘igglifman] — evo Englishmen {'inglifmsa), gi plurel, j, on English. c) Trei substantive adauga desinenja -en (cu sai on — owen; child — children; Sroticer —breibron. Noti: Brother (frate) are plural regulat: Erothers (iraji). Pluralul este folosit doar cu sensu! de ,membru al unei socistafi religioase. d) Unele substantive numérabile ax. aceeagi forma la singular si p.vral desinenja zero —plural zero). Not: Substantivele cu desinenjs zero la plural so deosevesc de subs! bile care au numai singular (music) sau numai plural (catele) pri attt cu un verb la singular cit si cu ua ve road. E 0 oie ratacité pe drum. 7. oi rétécito pe drum, ntivele invaria- tui cA se acorda There i6 2 stray sheep on the trey sheep on the road. Stntofteva Pluralul zero este folosit: —cu unele substantive in -s: barracks —Dbarack; headquarters ~sediu; means —mijloc; series —serie; species — specie; works — uzin&: This is an army barracks, These are army barracks. The bus, trolleybus and the underground are modern means of transport, Autobuaul, troleibuzul gi metroul sint mijloace moderne de transport; —cu numele de nationelitati terminate in -ese: the Chinese, the Japanese, the Portuguese, the Vietnamese: He is speaking to a Portuguese. El vorbegte cu un portughez, The Portu- guese live in Europe, Portugheaii traiesc in Europa; 6cu substantivele denumind animale. Acestea pot avea: 4) doar pluralul zero: carp —carp; deer — deer; game — game; grouse — grouse; sheep — sheep; pike — pike; plaice — plaice; salmon — salmon; trout — trout. Nott Substantivele carp, deer, pike, trout au gi forme de plural regulat: caxpe, deers, pikes, trouts, care sint folosite rar. 2) pluralul zero (folosit mai ales in limbajul vinatoresc) gi pluralul regulat in -s, folosit pentru indicarea unor varietafi: antelope — antelope — antelopes; cod —cod —cods; duck —duck (rato silbatice) —ducks (rate de ferms); fish — fish —fishes; herring — herring — herrings; mackerel — mackerel — mackerels 3) doar pluralul regulat: cow —cows; dog —dogs; hen —hens; horse ~ horses; monkey — monkeys; sparrow — sparrows etc. ey Plurale strdine (Foreign Plurals). Exist méi multe desinente de plural de origine strdina care sint folosite in limba englezi, mai ales tn limbajul stiintific: Plurale straine t Singular | Plural | a | as stimulus ] stimu | corpus j corpora. genus genera i alga | algae larva larvae coe | i | codox | codices | thesis j theses | criterion, phenomenon criteria, phenomens tableaa tableaux | chamois, chassis, corps chamois, chassis, corps | | graffito | a graffiti (de obicei plural) Unele dintro aceste desinenje sint mai bine reprezentate in limba englezit: us ---{: stimulus —stimuli; bacillus — bacilli. ~um -a: addendum — addenda; datem — data; agendum — agenda; erratum — errata; bacterium — bacteria; stratum — strata. sis 0s: analysis — analyses; ellipsis — ellipses; azis — axes; hy pothesis — hypotheses; basis — bases; crisis — crises; paralysis — paralyses; diagnosis — diagnoses; parenthesis — parentheses; synthesis — syntheses; thesis — theses. 1Atentie! tivelor termunate | Unele subsi din limba & Ua “Us —Us8a is { beisis] — Bases [ ‘beis — bonuses — campuses — choruses — circuses — ignoramuses — arenas — dilemmas — diplomas — albums — geraniums drama encyclopedia. era gymnasinm museum stenfa dintre forma de singular gi cea de plurel a substan- (sg.) gi-es (pl). se observa gi in pronuntare: azis [ wksis] J; crisis [ kraisis] -- crises te pluralele straine, exist’ mai multe situafii: ative de origine strdin& gi-au pistrat forma de plural fost imprumutate (vezi tabelul de pe pag. 77) au numai plural eu -3: — dramas — encyclopedias — eres — gymnasiums — museums — demons -~ electrons — lexicons > soprancs de origine stréing au doud forme de plural: pluralul ual de origine straina: — cacinses — geniuses (oameni de geni — syllabuses — terminases — antennas — formulas — vertebras — agueriwe — mediume — sanatoriums — sympesinres — appendixes (in anatomie) — indexes (cuprinsuri) — bureaus — plateaus ~~ libreties — virtaosen 13 — cacti — genii (spirite, duburi) — syllabi — termini — antennae — oguarie, — curriculs — media — sanatoria — symposis — appendices (in ofrti). + —in mate- atic’) — auiemata — dibretti — virtuosiNot&:Formele de plural in -i sint raze, La substantivele cu doud forme de plural, formele straine de plural sint de obice: folosite tn limbajul tehnic, iar pluralul,in -s este intilnit in vorbires curenta 2.3.7. Substantivele nenumirabile (Mass Nouns). Substantivele nenurna- rabile denumesc nofiuni vazute ca un intreg. Substantivele nenumarabile pot fi concrete:- sugar, coal, steel sau abstracte: beauty, kindness. patriotism. Substantivele nenumérabile au urmatoarele caracteristici: a) sint invariabile ca forma: tea, information, cattle, scissors b) neavind contrastul singular — plural, ele nu pot fi numarate cu ajutoral boa. numeralelor sau al altor cuantificatori: 7 need (some) | informoati | seissorz, c) Se acorda cu verbul la singular: Chinese tea is very good. Ceai este foarte bun. sau‘ln plural: The seissors are on the table. este pe mast. a) Unele substantive englezesti fac parte atit din clasa substanti rabile, cft gi din a celor nenumarabile, cu diferente de sens: sn | tte ee, Frumacete: ba (Ba) este 0 frumu- | Beauty isto be admired. sefe. She is © kannty, | { ! | | | The main eharactar of | Erouljpersonajul | He is @ man of exe-| (B) sete un | ihe story fe an old | principal al nuvelei | racter. Ge, caracter m bitrin pes- * fisherman. est car, I had an interesting | Mi sa Sntimplat | ‘This teacher has a great| Acest prot jeuee when tra-| cova — interesent | deal of experience, | foarte mu’ ing in the North of | cind am e8latorit lent the country. in nordul (aril. i Give me an ee, please. | Da-mi o inghetatd, | That block of ies is| Acest bloc is | te og, very dangerous. | {8 exte foarve 3 | | eulos, i She has got a sow | Are un nou fier de | This tool is made of| Accasté | fren, cleat. iron, j este dia i He has only to batra | Nu mai are decit | She has blonde hai Are parol | on his head, dou’ fire de par pe cap. T've bought the morning | Am cumpérat xia-) | The box is wrapped in| Catia 2% peper. ral de dimineata.| | white paper. tati in hf I She hea written 6 good | A setis o Incrare paper. buna. | A heard 9 strange sound, | Am auzit un zgo- | Light travels faster than | mot ‘eiudet. sonad, | 8e) Uneori diferentele de sens dintre substantivele numérabile 3i cole nenuma- rabile sint exprimate prin cuvinte diferite: foarte gres, mest, Subetansive | substantive | sims | ee ft, | nates | 1 : ! a Dee bought two loaves.) Am cumpirat | TU buy bread ci Am s&é cumpir pi mi dona piini | the supermarkel, la autoservire, ney i | There are tec sheep | Sint doud of | E like rautten. mi place carnea de} | in the field. | pe cimpie. | oaie. I This pig is very fat, | Poreud acesta | eurapirat igte| | (animalul) este pork for dinner. came de pore pentra) | | file | He does Ais home: work in W He does his Yessons Iyi fave | in the evening, sears, I5i face lectiife (temele) seara. i i Kve bought some | A evening. | 1) In limba englez& fac parte din clasa substantivelor invariabile la singular unele substantive care sint numarabile san invariabile Ja plural in limba romana: advice, business, furniture, homework, income, information, knowledge, luggage, merchandise, money, non: (produse naturale, agricole}, progress, strength, wor haba englerd j | | we gtways giver me good advice. 1a You must do your homework carefully. | I need further information. I His kuowiedge of English is poor. | Cunsptinge Where's your iugpage? ! | The mouoy is in your salle. | You are tatking nonscnse. | This pupil oe making fect progres én lara | | ing Engl | Be felt one elrongth cas failing. i ce hui 228 au opozifia singular — the police, cattle, etc. ‘A. Substantivele invariabile Ie singular Un numar de substantive invariabile au numei forma de singular: sugar, wisdom, news, measies, phonetics, the good, Wates. ‘Acestes se acorda cu verbul la singular: Phoneties is a branch of linguisties, Folosirea lor cu forma de plural gi/eau cu un verb la plural se face doer in situagii speciale. Din ciasa substantivelor invariabile Js a) Subsiantive nénurairabile concrete: jam, silver, eto. Fruit is good to eat. Este bine sk maninei fructe. 80Not: Folosirea acestor substantive ca substantive numarabile (cu forma de plural sau cnantificatori} este posibild doar cu, schimbarea sensului; a) jams ind of: What { meats } do you have today ? fruits jam gemuri = What hinds of meat + Ce { feluri de carne } aveli astaui? Truit fructe “b) a cup | glass of: Acup of { cottes (ceased de} cafea A Gtheslop { Seek? } for me, please. Of EGR ge) GRE] pentru mine te rog. ©) pentru a exprima intensitaten sau cantitaji mari: The sunds of the desert — nisipur rile degertului. The waters of the lake ~ apa lecului. - ‘b) Substantive nenumarabile abstracte: advice, cleanliness, homework, information, justice, knowledge, nonsense, etc.+ c) Unele substantive terminate in -s, care exprima urmatoarele notiuni 1) substantivul news: Here is the 9 o'clock news. Acostea sint stirile de la ora 9. 2) nume de boli:, measles —pojar; mumps —oreion; rickets — ral tism: Measles is a catching disease. Pojarul este 0 boal& contagioasa. 3)nume de gtiinte gi obiecte de studiu terminate in sles: acoustics, aesthetics, cybernetics, economics, electronics, linguistics phonetics, physics. : Acousties is the science of sound. Acustica este stiinta sunetelor. De.asemenea: athletics, ethics, gymnast pe 4y Unele nume de jocuri: biilards, bowis, cards, darts, dominoes, draughts, marbles, ninepins, skitiles. Dominoes is a game for children, Dar: « billiard-table, a bowling-alley, a dari-board, a draught-board. 5) Unele substantive proprii: Athens, Brussels, Naples, Wales, the Thames: Wales is in the south-west of Great Britain. Tara Galilor se afla in partea de sud-vest a Marii Britanii. a) Adjectivele abstracte substantivizate: the beautiful, the sublime, the good, the evil in fairy-siories the good always wins. In basme binele invinge totdeauna. Cuantificarea substantivelor invariabile la Singular se poate realiza ou ajutorul unor cuvinte ca: @ piece of, an itera of, a ber of, « bag of, ete. Substantive concrete: 2 {ike for { aie" a {PRE ot che 7 { loaf } of { bread a { pee { of land © {fine fot { Sr” fa { dite } of furniture © { Bir fot { mea 0 { Bae} ot era a Ret For Spe (| orp 81 6 — Gramatica limbit englezeSubstantive abstracte: piece . a bit of cer 0 {BEG } of advice se mount | of interest a pine Yo | information f luck Cuamue news a piece of § evidence an item a bit a piece a bit } or business Ee neraarele : a word of abuse @ fit of passion i of work an attack of fever Substantivele invariabile Ja plural au numa de regula cu un verb la plural: The binoculars ay: masa, Din clasa substantivelor invariabile la plural fac p: a) substantivele care denumesc obiecte formate di egale. Aceste substantive se numese summation englezi. Ele denumese: 1) unelte: dinocw pincers, pliers, scales, seissors, spectacles, tongs. Where are the scissors? Unde este foarfeca? Q)articole de imbr&caminte: braces, « overalls, pants, pyjamas, shorts, trousers: These trousers are too long for you. Aces tine, folosite atributiv: @ spectacle case pljama, suspender belt -- portjari 2, Substantivele care denumesc obiecte din dou par{i se sur tului pair: @ pair of scissors, @ pair of trousers; of skis, ete. b) alte substantive folosite numa ium), terminate de regulé in -s: He lives om th: cuiogte la periferia oragului. Exemplele de pluralia tantum tn limba ex | Boenpl ratte | annals anale | the antipodes | antiposi arms arme auspices auspicii } | dowels intestine | colours steag, drapel i the Commons | Camera Comunelor L Gamager despagubiri } | earnings elgtig i) the co: | effects efecte, imbrickminte. regards } | fereworks | fo de artificii reraaine { 82eae Sete ceca erie savings economii surroundings inprejrint eeraps resturi de mincare, degeuril| thanks muljumiri de metal troops trope stairs seri || tropics tropics suds elibue de span || potectes obiecte de valoare Unele substantive fac parte din clase plurelia tantum doar in limba englez, in limba roménd ele find substantive variabile cau invariabile Ja singular: | grounds | oldie solar maim emo |, tat 1 7 i { : rr ; | archives | arhiva || holidays | vacanjal (engl. brit.) | ashes conagis minutes proves-verbal broin(s) | intelees | oie ovEa contents continu’ |) oudskires | peritarie customs yams, i) Pome | ostoneas, {eoffee) dreps | zat (de cafeay | Ieeal, inaobil (stii oficial | goods marid, | piaps | pare ia jural used | Gsponiie (band eau rea} 1 | @ wage-pat Atenti diferite: o forma inverial Substantive iarasbic ground honour i 4 | ches, ef Exist’ unele su { porests (de potfmaiehi} | Srasse songinut (eapscitate, J contente aubstantl) 1 cost | cosie fond, bea’ (de cunogtin. | funds ig, de beni) 7 | pEnint, terex | growads onoste | honoure PA. Pp. 52—53, ee Badeseu ~ Gramatics Limbii engleze, “Bd, dows fonme, cu infelesuni vaniebil& la plural *) at) gansral) | sepects (els unei chest! ani), eoordonste breteie confinut (al unel e&zti, all | emul vas) | cheltuielt rogurse binesti, fonduri af, eedimont, teron, perel (el 'unet clédiei) onoruri; distinotie Ja exe ene a Silinkiiies, Bucuresti, 4988,Substantive | ubetantive | invariable Tradure ‘variable ‘Traduoore iiagelar | : 1 plural I t middle age | virst& mijlocie the Middle Ages | Eval mediu regard privire, considerafie regards salutari respect stima, ‘consideratio respects omagii 1. spirit spirit, fire, atitudine Ghigh, low) spin | alspoziti | (ount/proase) 2 apirit spizt} aleool pur spirits biuturi aleooliee tari (dis- tilate) Substantivele pluralia tantum gi summation plurals se confunda uneori cu forma de plural a unor substantive numérabile: colour = culoare; pl. colours pain = durere; pl. pains + colours (pl. tantum) = drape! pains (pl. tantum) = osteneala compass = busola; pl. compasses premise = premisi; pl. premises compasses (pl. tantum)= compas premises (pl. tantum)=local, imobil custom = obicei: pl. customs quarter = sfert, cartier; pl. quarters oustoms’ (pl. tentum) = vama quarters (pl. tantum)'= locuina, damage = avarie; pl. damages cantonament damages (pl. tantum) = despagubiri receipt = chitant4; pl. receipts effect = elect; pl. effects receipts (pl. tantum) = incasari effects (pl. tantum) = efecte, haine scale = gam& musical’, solz; pl. glass = paher; pl. glasses scales glasses (pl. tantum) = ochelari scales (pi. tantum) = balanti ground = motiv, cauzi; pl. grounds scrap = buodfict,- fragment; pl. grounds (pl. tantum) = zat, teren, scraps parc in jurul unei clidini seraps (pl. tantum) = resturi de letter = serisoare; pl. letters mincare, degeuri de metal letters (pl. tantura)=literaturé, litere spectacle = spectacol; pl. spectacles manner = wood; pl. manners spectacles (pl. tantum) = ochelari manners (pl. tantum) = maniere, term = perioada, termen, trimesiru; purtare pl. terms minute = minut; pl. minutes terms (pi. tantum) = termeni, rela- minutes (pl. tantum)=proves-verbal fii, raporturi, condijii® co) Substantive nemarcate la ptural. In clasa substantivelor invariabile la plural intré i unele substantive folosite numai ja plural, dar nemareate-foi entra acest aumar, Aceste substantive sint: cattle, clergy, gentry, peaple. police, vermin, youth: ‘The catile are in the fieid. Vitele sint pe clmp. There are a lot of people in the street. Sint crulfi oameni pe stradé. Not: People si youth pot fi folosite gi ca substantive numirabile variabile: The peoples of the world are struggling for peace. Popoarele lumii lupta pentru pace. These youths saw the cecident happen. Acesti tineri au vazut cum s-a intimplat accidentul, @) Adjectivele sau participiile personale substan tivizate: the handicapped, the injured, the poor, the rich, the sick, the wounded: The injured were taken to hospital, Rénifii au fost dugi la spital. *) Ibid, pp. 47~49. 84ec) Unele substantive proprii: the Alps, the East | West Indies, the Hebrides, the Highlands, the Netherlands, the United States of America: The Highlands are a mountainous region, Regiunea Highlands este o regiune muntoasa. Numirul substantivelor Substantive variabile eal | Exemple 1 vomit | Peer et Sagvar | Plt | - took books Plurale ° pencit, boy pencils, boys regulate | te ak watch watches i 0} fa) +f] ‘bath 1 Fate | | sonorizares [f] —-[v]+ {a} | knife ienives | | consoanei — [s] — [2] + fiz Touse ‘houses | [|__| i; | mutstle yooalick ‘man | | foot | mouse ~ | plural in -en -+ mutatio fez vocal {eka j | rocalivd) Shit | ooo | 1 sheep | Pluzate | te ie fs \ ero orks | neregalate | || tie Japanese | i 7 i stimu | sus + | ora ora nus a te i | piuale = | am aul desideale | a ee Oe es ‘odio # ' | vie’ nes aie ‘anabyses | ' “on a phenomenon | phenomena — | | { sero | chassis chassis t | | oo iempo | tempi { Substantive invariabile [ rerma iavaieous | Feicl sabstantivsior Brempio a) nenumérabile concrete gold, milk, honey b) nenumarabile abstracte ¢) substantive fn -# art, patriotism hows Singular a) adjective abstracte substantivizste ¢) substantive proprit Helen, Brown, Antarctica a) summation plurals scissors b) pluralia tantum tn -3 customs, goods ©) Substantive eu plural nemareat | cattle, police Plural 4) adjective personale ; substantivicate @) unele substantive proprit the rich, the poor the Carpathians, the Hebrides, the | | | the beautiful, the good | United States2.4, Genul substantivelor (Gender of Nopns)} a. Genul este categoria: gramaticali caracteristic in primul rind substantivelor, adicd cuvintelor care indicé numele obiectelor. Conjinutul categoriei gramaticale a genului consta in aceea ci obiectele din jumea incon- juritoare, dacd reprezinta fiinfe, sint unele de sex barbatesc {masculin) 9 altele de sex femeiesc (feminin), iar dac& reprezinta lucruri, sint in afara sexu lui (neutre). 4 ‘Spre deosebire de limba romén&, in care partes finalé a substantivelor constituie marca categoriei gramaticale a genului: mash, frate, ete., in limba englez genul substantivelor este rareori marcat formal. In afara cazurilor in care: genul este marcat formal: boy —girl, lion—lioness, genul substan- tivelor in limba engleza se identifica de obicei cu ajutorul pronumelor care se referd la substantive gi care au forme diferite dupa gen: The librarian is at his desk. He is writing something. Biblictecarul este la bi- roul su, El scrie ceva. The librarian is at her desk. She is writing something. Bibliotecara este la biroul ei. Ea scrie ceva. 2.4.2, Clasificarea substantivelor dupa ideea de gen. Din punct de vedere al apartenenfei la genul masculin, feminin sau neutru, substantivele din limba englezii se impart in trei grupe mari: A. substantive nume de persoane; 8. substantive nume de animale gi C. substantive nume de obiecte. 2.4.3. Genul substantivelor nume de persoane (6. In limba engleza, substantivele care denumesc persoane de sex bArbatese sint de gen masculin: man, brother, iar substantivele care denumese persoane de sex femeiesc sint de genul feminin: woman, sister. La substantivele nume de persoane, categoria gramaticali a genulei poate fi marcata: 1) lexical;'2) morfologic; 3) identificatS cu ajutor: cuvinte care marcheaza genul, la substantivele nemarcate pentru gen (geaul comun). 1) La unele substantive nume de persoane genul este marcat lexical, prin cuvinte diferite: brother — sister king — queen monk —nun earl — countess lad — lass Mr — i B father — mother lord —lady nephew — nises gentleman —lady man — woman uncle — aunt 2) La alte substantive nume de persoane, genul este marca’ morfologic, prin adaugarea unui sufix la forma de masculin: a) — ess: actor — actress host — hostess count — countess master — mistress duke — duchess negro —negress god — goddess prince — princess heir -- heiress waiter — waitress b) -ine: hero — heroine; sau prin addugarea unui sufix la forma de feminin: a) -er: widow — widower b) «groom: bride — bridegroom 3) Alte substantive nume de persoane ati o singurd form’ at masculin ott gi ipentra feminin. Ele apartin genului comun. =: cook, cousin, pentra rtist, chairman, or, foreigner, friend, guest, inhabitant, musician, ‘neighbour, 86novelist, parent, professor, person, piepil, relative, speaker, student, teacher, writer. Apartenenta Ja genul masculin sav feminin se precizeazé in context: —cu ajutorul pronumelor: The teacher asked the pupil a few more questions as she wanted to give him @ betier mark. : —cu ajutorul unor cuvinté la care genul este marcat lexical, ca boy, male, female boy-friend — girl-friend policeman ~ policewoman male-stadent — female-stndent chairman — chairwoman ~ eu ajutorul unor adjective folesite doar pentra un singur sex: ify neighbour is pregnant, 7 24.4. Genul substantivelor nume de animale (Gender of Animate Nouns) Substantivele nume de animale se subelasific’ in: 4) nume de animale mari gi 2) nume de animale mici. 1) Substantivele nume de animele mari sint considerate de obicei de genul masculin, find tnlocuite de pronumele he: The horse was rather restive at first, but We soon become more manageable. La uncle dintre aceste animale, distinefie de sex masculin-feminin este marcaté formal, situagio in care substentivele sint Inlocuite de pronumele he sau she: The mare whinnied when she saw her master, Tapa a nechezat otid si-a vadgub st&pinul. Marea genului poate fi realizata: } lex 2) Subst. to de animale mici sint considerate de obicei neutre, find inlocuite prin pronumele i: J save 6 lake. Ht was big and ugly. In unele cazuri ins se pot indica diferentele de cox: a} lexical: B) prin cuvinte marci ale genului: cock sparro he goat — drake — duck Tom ‘eat gander — goose Task male fro; 2.4.5. Genul substantivelor nume Substantivele nume de obi It is in my bag. 2.4.8. Folosirea stilistic’. a categorie gramaticale'a genului, A.Unele substantive nume de obiecte care sint de rezuld neutre in vorbirea curenti sint uneori personificate in literaturs, unde ele’ pot fi tratate ca substantive masculine gau fem te (Gender of Inanimate Nouns) enul uevtru: Where's your umbrella? ecte sint d cave denumeso: ense §i actiuni vielente: anger, fear, murder, terror; rele puternice: ocean, river, sun, thunder, wind, deaths 7 }BMES 5 se, the Cheviot.‘Stat feral a) aubstantivels care & afectuos, cole care indica fertilitatea: affect b). substantivele care dens jealousy, revenge, ty; oc) substantive abstrecte vs: fortune, Uberty, merey, nature, peace, science Gubstantivele te, de job inde- arta de ia fo ied fominind, un oaracter blind, ior, devotion, faith, hope, justice} ative de car ition, folly, ia geny eaten kis bre entive nume 4: poate fi considerat® numeis if: 2 sintactica, In kiIn limba engleza, categoria gramaticalé a cazvlui este marcaté prin: —desinenfe: the child's book ici: The man (NV) opened the window (Ac). i: J bought it tor Mary. P52 Cazul nominativ (The Nominative Case}, Cazul nominativ este cazul substantivelor care indeplinese funcfia de subiect, nume predicatiy gi apozifie. Un substantiv tn cazul nominativ in limba englez& se poate identifies ou ajutorul topicii. Observafi exemplele: The audience liked the play, These women are nurses. : AMy neighbour, a very experienced engineer, helped mo te mend the ear. Functiile sintactice al 7 cazului nominativ sint: a) subiect al proporitiei: The boy is waiting for his friend. b)nume predicati He is a teacher, ©) apozitie, sau parte a unei aposifii: Charles, a friend of mine, will delp you to do it, 2.5.3. Caml aewzativ (The Accusative Case). Cazul acuzativ este cazul complementului direct: I ate an ieecream an hous azo. Cazul acuzativ nu este marcat prin desinenfe in engleza modern&, De aceea el este identificat cu ajutorul topicii: a) Daci existd numai un complement tn proporifie, acesta este, in majoritatea cazurilor, un complement direct: in cazul acuzativ gi oste agezat imediat dupa verbul tranzitiv: Shut the window, please, b) Daca in propozitie exist dous complemente, unvl este in cazul acusativ, iar celalalt este tot in cxzul acuzativ, sau in cazul dativ, in functie de verbele dupa care urmeazi: J asked him (Ac) a question (Ac). I lent her (D) my umbrella (Ac). Urmatoarele verbe sint urmate de dovA acuzative: ask, envy, exeuse, forgive, save, strike: . The teacher asked the pupils several questions. J envy you your garden. That saved us a lot of trouble. in timip ce verbe ca: deny, give, hand, tend, pay, read, tell, throw, write, wish Sint urmate de un complement indiect: in cazul dativ i un complement direct in cazul acuzativ: Can you lend me this beok? She told the children an. interesting story. 7 wish you s good journey, Cazul acuzativ este folosit dupa: — a) verbo tranzitive, pentru a denumi obiectul care sufers actiunea verbului: drink, eat, meet, need, plant, seek, etc.: ‘She is eating a cake. I need your advice. ) dupa unele verbe intranzitive, transformindu-le tn verbe tranzitive: weep tears, look compassion. ©} dupa uncle verbe intranzitive care au aceeagi radacind ca gi substantivul in acuzativ, formind aga-numitul acuzativ intern: fight a terrible fight, sing a song, ete. 4) dupa prepozifii. Majoritatea prepozifiilor tn limba engleza sint urmate de substantive/pronume tn cazul aouzativ: 2m tcoking at { Soh 89Funcfiile in propozitie ale unui substantiv in cazul acuzativ sint: a) complement direct: She met my brother in the street. b) parte dintr-un complement prepozifional: The boys were talking about the match. c) parte dintr-un atribut: J know him to be a man of honour. 4) parte dinte-un complement circumstantial: They arrived in the evening. 2.5.4. Caaul dativ (The Dative Case). Un substantiv in cazul dativ inde- plineste funcfia de complement indirect gi arata c&tre cine sau citre ce este indreptati actiunea exprimata de verb. In limba engleai, cazul dativ este marcat de prepozitia to saw for sau prin topick: She gave some sweets to the chiliven. J bought a present for my mother. J lent her (D) @ book (Ac.}. Cazul dativ este folos a) dupé unele verbe intransitive, urmate de un complement indirect al per- soanei: come, happen, occur, propose, submit, surrender, yiel He came ie me, It heppened to my mother. He proposed to her. b) dupa verbe tranzitive urmate de complement direct si complement indirect precedat de prepozitia to: deny, give, hand, lend, offer, pay, read, tll, throw, write, wish: T paid the money to the easl . Dim giviting a postcard to my friends, Atentic! Substantivele iz cacul dativ dup& aceste verbe sint pre- ‘ul. Daod substantivul E paid the cashier cedate de preporifia to dact dativel wrmeaz8 acnzati tn dativ wmeazd imediat verbal, prepozifia to so omi the money. I’m writing my iiente « postcard. Exist ins’ un numar de verbe urmate in mod obligator prepozitia te: address, announce, communicate, desorebe, mention, relaie, repeat: I introduced him to m c) dupa verbe tranzitive urmate precedat de prepozijia for: b save, spare: She made a new dress mdi mpiement direct $i complement indi , do, leave, make, order, reserve, in can at inaintea Her { i nals. SI vised meio be kind e) dup& uncle adjective: Don’t be orwel te ani to the little boy. i) dupa adjective de co’ > similar, inferior, superiol The result was not sgual to aie, corresponding, equal, equivalent, perio te animals. abstantiva in cazul genitiv oplinegte funcfia de atribut In 2.5.5, Cagul genitiv (The Genitive Case). exprima in prine} propozitie: Amn’s b : In limba engl ¢ de regula de desinents -s, pre cedata de un sto genitivul in ’ssau ge 2 3sOrtografia desinentei genitivului 2) Desinenfa -s precedata de un apostrof'se adaugi: ~ la forma de singular a substantivului: the girl's dress; the pupil's question, —la eiteva substantive ou forma neregulata de plural: Men’s clothes are more expensive than women’s. We keep the children’s toys here. — la citeva substantive comune terminate in sunetul -s gi urmate de cuvin- tul sake: for goodness’ sake; for convenience’ sake. Noti: Apostroful nu este obligatoriu tn acest caz, constructiile de mai sus Intrebuin- findu-se si sub forma: for goodness sake; for convenience sake. b) Apostroful singur, fara desinenja -s se adaug’: ~ la forma de plural a substantivelor regulate:: the boys’ bicycles; the drivers? attention. — la substantivele numo de persoane terminate in -s: Dickens’ life; Charles? books. Nota: 1. La numele proprii terminate in -s se poate intilni si genitival cus: Dickens's novels. ‘Tendinja in limba englezd contemporana favorizeazii ins& scrierea fara -s dar pro- sunfarea cu [i], ca gi in cazul serierii cu ’s: Burns’ [/ba:nziz] poems. 2. La uncle nume propri care nu se termind in -s se observa tendinja de dispariie @ apostrofului si uneor! gi a substantivului determinat: Earls Court; Harrods; ‘St. Davids; St. Albans. (Earl's Court; St. David's; St. Alban’s) Camuri speciale Grupurile de cuvinte gi titulaturile compuse au marca genitivului adaugat& J ultimul cuvint: a year and a half's delay ; my sister-in-law's job; the day before’s paper; Henry the YIII’s court. b) doud substantive legate prin and care reprezinta posesorii aceluiagi obiect adaugi marca genitivului la ultimul cuvint: Tom and Mary's parents (Tom gi Mary sint frati). With Mr and Mrs Brown's compliments, ©) Back obiectul nu aparfine amtndorura, marca genitivului o primeste fiecare substantiv in parte: Tom's and Mary's friends. 4) Apozigia primeste de obicei semnul genitivului la ultimul cuvint; Have you met my brother Jimmy's son? Pronunjorea desinenfei genitivului sintetic se realizeazd dup regulile de pronuntare a desinen{oi de plural a substentivekrs > fs] G3 (iz] Spot's the boy’s the judge's the architect's the teacher's Bruce's Dick's Henry's Alive’s Locui substantivului in cazul genitiv: a) Substantivul in cazul genitiv, determinantul, precede substantivul deter- minat cind este folosit atributiv: This is my sister’s schoolbag. 5) Substantivul tn genitiv urmeaza verbul to be cind este folosit ca nume pre- dicativ: The car is our form teacher’s. The book is John’s, ©} Substantivul in genitiv poate aparea singur, substantivul determinat fiind omis, Asemenee situatit apar: —cind substantivul determinat a fost mentionat anterior: This is Tom’s book. Mary's is in her bag. ~—eind substantivul determinat este cuvintul shop, house, place, museum: 4 bought these at the gracer’s (shop). I was at the Browns? (house) yesterday. 91d) Substantivul in cazul genitiv poate urma substantivul determinat cind este despartit de acesta prin preporitia of (genitiv dublu}: @ book of the teacher's; those skates of Peter's, Folosivea genitivulai sintetic Genitivul sintetic este folosit a) nume proprii: Tom’s car Bb) substantive nume de persoane: the hey’s new shirt ¢} substantive colective: the aation’s security d) substantive care denumese animale mari: the lion’s mene; e} denumiri geogratice si ale unor institefii: Burope’s future; Romania’s foreign poticy; th school’s programme. t) substantive care denumese unitAti de timp, spatiu, masurd: teday’s work; a moment’s talk; © day’s journey; a mile’s distance; a pound’s worth of sugar, Now Unele dintre formele de genitiv de fa f) pot {i Ialocuite de forme adjectivale compuse: « two-hour ieeson: a three-mile walk. g) etteva substantive comune urmate de cuvintul sake: for pity’s sake; for merey’s sake; for avder’s sake. h) substantive sume de obiecte care pot deveni masculine sau feminine prin s victory, Love’s Labour's Lost; the ocean’s 's whip; i} unele pronume nehotirite ca: another; either, neither, one §i compusii Tui some, any, no, every precum gi adverbul else; somebody's advice: nohody’s fault; everyone's wish; another's claim; somebody also’s haz. I : @ mesdie’s eye; her heart's desire; to a aaie’s breadth; 3 at one’s wit’s end. vind substantival determinat este omis: St Paul’s (Cathedral) is one of ights of London, I bought this bag at Selfeldge’s (store }. Let's zo to Madam Tussaud’s (museum }. Constractin ou OF (Phe OF Construction} cfia ou prepozitia of eate uncori folositd ca un echivalent al geni- : Ghskespeare’s plays —the plays of Shakespeare, ‘otis Breposiie of cere case! ati poate M folosity calructie of + substantive in structii genitivale: my father’s car — the ea, aceasié constructie este prepozition ou denumiri geografi the Gulf of Mexia, cu nume proprii, 4 —eind nw seacher of Peter ani cing numele propria const® dintr- of Queen Hiisabeth stantive coordonate: the substextiv cu aporitie: the reign 92 a—cind dorim sa subliniem numele propriu; the sonnets “of ‘William Sha- kespeare ° d) cu substantive nume de persoand: —cind substantivul determinat este precedat de articolul nehotartt sau de un demonstrativ: I am a great admirer of this writer. e) pentru intarire: The arrival, of his grandfather surprised him. f) cu nume de animale mici: the tail of the mousé; the wings of a butterfly. Genitivul implicit (The Implicit Genitive) Genitivul implicit este o constructie genitivala in care substantivului deter- minant fi lipseste desinenfa de genitiv: audience participation, student hostel, afternoon tea, Nota: Genitivul implicit este freevent folosit in. engleza contemporand, mai ales in fimbajal jurnalistic. : Genitivul dublu (The Double Genitive) Genitivul dublu const& din gonitivul sintetic -+-constructia cu of. Aceast& constructie este folosita cu.substantive inume de persoane: This joke of Peter's. A threat of our teacher’s. Z Genitivul dublu difer& ca sens de constructia cu of folosité singura. a deseription of Galsworthy’s = 0 descriere ficuta de Galsworthy; a description of Galsworthy = o descriere a lui Gasworthy. (fcuta de altcineva) 2.5.6. Cagul Vocativ (The Vocative Case} ~(ve2i § 21.4) EXERCITII L. Traducefi urmatoarele propozipii in limba englectt, folosind subscantive proprit gi abrevieri: 1. Scoala incepe in septembrie. 2. Noi mergem Ja tnot duminica. 3. Dl. Brown este membru al parlamentului. 4. in fiecaro an Ja data de 4 iulie, ame. ricanii sirbatoresc Ziua Independentei. 5. Dundrea se varsi in Marea Neagré. 6. Doctorul Ionescu consult elevii in fiecare luni. 7, Spania se invecineaza cu ‘Franfa. 8. Chinezii, vietnamezii gi japonezii traiesc in Asia. 9. Hotelul Inter- continental din Bucuresti se afla lings Teatral National. 10. , Timpuri Grele“ este un roman de Dickens. 11. Studiem engleza gi rusa la scoala. 12. In 1976 a avut loc la Helsinki Conferinja pentru pace gi secutitate in Europa. UL Trecefi urmitoarele substantive compuse la numdrul plural: schoolboy; masterpiece; brother-in-law; father-in-law; headmaster; milkman; woman dentist; postman; blackboard; son-in-law; passer-by; bedroom; car race; looker-on;_ man singer; merry-go-round; horse-race; forget-me-not; footstep; ‘fireman, UL. Puneji sudstantivele din parantece la numérul plural: 1, There are hundreds of (book) on the (shelf). 2. All his (toy) are in his room. 3, Those (man) ere (tourist): 4. (Child) like (story).5, They left 93their (watch) on the table, 3. (Louse) are (insect }. 2. Have you ever seen the White (Cliff) of Dover? 8. (Leaf) fell in autumn. 9, There are lots of (goose ) on that farm. 10. Did you buy eny (potaio) yesterday? £1, Wipe your (feot} here, 12. Those (woman) are (housewife). 12. There are some (mouse) ia the barn. IV. Alegeti forma potrivité ¢ antive ile de mat jes: . hundred | hundreds .of pupils atten: toa of twenty-two... pa petitions, 8... of 3, new blocks of fla’ doxen j dozens + . Lbought three . . . egg: day. 9. There are... of ex foot } feet 18, Mery is five... three, ne sirdind: 2} stimulus; sis; crisis: oriteri gymnasiv symposium; index; sis} enaly- album; ifi ca sens: piece, of chocolate yester- bread. 4. Give me am facut bagejele noossare condidafilor. unipArat fracte gi elteva Stirlie pe caro k asearé. 8. Vor publica 4, Cunogtinjele lui 4 prajiterl. 6. Tie! VERL. Chufi urmaioarele pr in limba remand: 4. The standard of living in 4o make amends for hex former bi the Romans invaded Dacia e in arms when 5 got good Heve a lock at the % 268%table of contents. 8. They couldn't finish the project for lack of funds. 9. Goods are usually transported in goods trains. 10. Where are you going to spend your holidays? 11. He has good looks. 12, You are forgetting your manners, young man! 13. He is a man of means, he can afford it. 14, You'll find the information you need in the minutes of the meeting. 15. We are all at’pains to please her. 16. The policeman is taking down the particulars of the witnesses, 17, There is a suspect on the premises. 18. Give her my best regards, 19. T've put all my savings in the savings bank. 20. She is always in good spirits. 21. I can't drink spirits. 22. She is sitting on the stairs. 28, Ho earns high wages, IX. Traducefi in. limba englezd: 1. Unde este clegtele? 2, Multe mulfumiri. 3, S-au incercat toate mijloa- cele. 4, Cartierul general al armatei era lingd Londra. 5. Fizica este obiectul lui preforat. 6. Am prins trei pastravi mari. 7. Toomai s-a publicat o carte despre pestii de apa dulce din Romania. 8, (El) are par gaten. 9. Ea are citeva fire de par alb. 10. Da-mi doua piini, te rog. 11. A facut pfogrese mari in inva- farea limbii engleze. 12. Acesta este procesul-verbal al gedinfei, X, Traducepi urmitoarele propozifii in limba romana: 1. There is a glass of milk on the table. 2. Does he wear glasses? 8. You have to declare everything at the customs. 4. They want to get acquainted with this Romanian custom. 5. Are you writing a letter? 6. He is a great man of letters. 7. 1 don’t like her airs. 8. There is something in the air. XL Traducefi in limba englezd: Dragul meu Mog. Ghita, Mii de mulfumiri pentru prietenoasa ta felicitare. De indati ce voi primi exemplarele de autor de la Academie, fi voi trimite un volum din lucrarea mea despre Marea Neagra. Noi avem o iarni neplicuta si eu gi sofia fiind bolnavi. Dragul nostru Tofu este insi voinic gi-mi face 0 mare placere si aud glasul situ la telefon. Gr. Antipa EEL Care sint corespondentele feminine ale urmatoarelor substantive masculine: 1. con; 2. lord; 8. nephew; 4. uncle; 5. father; 6. brother; 7. cock; 8, stag; 9, boy; 10, husband; 11, man; 12. king. XU Care stnt formele de masculin si feminin ale urmétoarelor substantive: 1, friend; 2. goat; 8. student; 4. cat; 5, ass; 6. frog. XIV. Formulaji propozitii cu substantive la genitiv, conform-modelului: John has got a book. This is John’s book. 1, My neighbour has got a car. 2. Lily has got a doll. 8. Dick has yot a new bioyele. 4 My cousin has got a new stamp-book. 6. Mr White has got an umbrella. 6. Lawrence and Paul have got an electric train, 7. Peter hes got a Bicycle and Mary has got a bicycle too. 5XV. Traducepi in limba romana: at a mile’s distance; yesterday's newspaper; in two years’ time; a pound’s weight; et a stone's throw; to my heart's content; art for art's suke. VE. Trece}i urmitoarele substaniive in cazul genitiv la numédrul plural: 1. My cousin’s house is large. 2, The girl's room is very pretty. 8. The pupil's ‘uniform is blue. 4. The woman's work is very much appreciated. pe Phe worker's life is much better today. 8. The teacher praised the student's Notk. 7. Where are the child’s clothes? 8. The baby’s food is in the fridge. XVI, Punejé substantivele din parantese la genitivul sintetic sau anatitie: 1. Mary is (David) sister, 2, The (book) pages have numbers. 3. What is your (brother | hobby? 4. This is @ (woman) hat. 5. What's (this boy) fevow tite sport? 6 The (sked) roof was blown off by the wind. 7. That is (Alice) pencil-box. 8. (Ladies) hats are very pretty this year. 9. This is (my brother vad sister) room. 10, Where are the (girls) blouses? 11. (Dickens } novels are interesting, 32. The house is ata (mile) distance. 18, Have you read (yesterday) paper? Construiti i. give — money —her son. 2. the teacher. 4 lend —umbrella —m &. write —letier — grandma; 7. offe XIX. Reformulapi urmétoarele i. [bought Mike a dog. 2. He gave Tom some presents, 3. 1 chose my sister anice present. 4, Mary showed the teacher her composition. 5. They sent their parents a parcel. 6. Did you make Heien this new cardigan? 7. Did he give his fnothe: a bunch of flowers? 8. L ordered my sister a lemonade, 2 limba engl . s-au diseutat pi me foarte importante pentru viito- ral (ari oitit ziaral de jeri? 8. Dup& un moment de gindire, elevul a réspuns perfect la toate intrebarile mele. 4. Juriul a inminat premii cigtiga- $0 5. Ne-am distrat foarte bine 1a petrecerea surorii priete- nului meu. 6. Cred c& am luat pildria altcuiva. 7. Stiloul este al lui Bob, 8, Ce gtii despre clima acesiei {&ri? 9, Profesorul a vorbit mai bine de 0 ora despre progresul siiinjei, 10, Elevit j-au oferit, tavafatoarei lor wa buchet de flori. 11, Ar fi bine s ne inttinin acas& la Maria. 12. Publicarea acestei carti a insemnat un, succes deosebit, by 1, Cea ma i. 2. Veti fi insot sa& pooté @ noastri a vorbit despre witimul ei volum de 5 de fiul ¢i fiica mea, 8. Nu gtiv cine joacd rolul prinfesei. tuga mea de citeva luni, 5. Nepoata ci cea joaren casei. 6 Vecinul meu 2 lsat use deschisd gia cf este mos uitat de 2a. 263. ARTICOLUL §E ALTE DETERMIN. : Determine e and Other * 3.1. Categoria determinirii 3.1.4. Categoria determinarii a’ aparut fn limba englezi, ca gi in limba roman, din necesitatea de’a indica un element unic (the Danube) sau specific (this man) dintr-o categorie, sau de a denumi o intreagi categorie din elemente de acelagi fel (The lion is a strong animal). In limba engleza exista mai multe parti de vorbire care pot determina un substantiv: the first two students, Ele formeaz& in gramatica structuralisté clasa determinanfilor, care este subdivizata in predeterminanji, determinanti propriu-zigi si postdeterminanti. Aceasta terminologie a fost stabilitd pe. baza categoriei gramaticale pe care o reprezinti aceste cuvinte pe lingi substantiy (determinarea) gi pe baza pozitiei pe care o ocupa unul’fata de altul: Half (predeterminant) the (determinant propriu-zis) second (postdeterminant) chapter. 2.1.2, Detersiinantii_propriv tn clasa determinantilor propriu-zigi intra articolul gi. alte parti de vorbire care pot inlocui articolul tnaintea unui substantiv: adjectivul demonstrativ (this, that, these, those), adjectival posesiv (my, your, his, etc.), adjectivul nehotartt (each, every, either, etc.) gi unele adjective interogative (what, which) gi negative (no, neither): a the no each every } book either this my what | Delenintl xem nehotarit Articolal / hotarit {ae ‘Adjectivul demonstrativ this newspaper, thet magazine . these articles, those papera Adjectivul posesiv my house; your car; bls watch; her dress; ite ‘ail; our school; thelr classroom. Adjectival interogativ ‘What book | Wich tow | do you want? ‘Whose book ‘Adjectivul nehotarit Each pupit, evry day elther side; st iis; some books; any students; 20 children’ nelther student, 97 1 ~ Gramatiga limit englezeArticolul ocupé un loc central in cadrul determinantilor, neavind alta functie decit cea de determinare a substantivului. Alfi determinanti pot func- fiona independent de substantivele pe care le preceda, ca pronume: T want thisjsome. What is this? : - : Pe ling& determinan{ii propriv-zigi, substantivele mai pot fi precedate gi de alte clase de cuvinte: predeterminanti, numerale cardinale gi ordinaie/ cuantificatori (post determinanti). ‘Aceste doud clase au fost stabilite pe baza pozifiei tor fata de determinanti si in relatie unui cu altu! Predeterminanjii se numesc astfel deoarece apar inaintea determinantilor: a) all ] the doth } my } books halt } these b) double nxt the 7 awiee this } emount three times ¢) one-third rauyael three quarters f {P© !me Cind sint urmaji de substanti construchii: predetetminan{ii pot aparea in trei alt of the children alt the children all hoth of the 12 both the teachers both tea Cind predeterminanfii sint urmati de pr: obligatorie: all of them, both of them, half of 1 Predeterminan{ii ail, both gi half pot fi foloaiji gi ca pre AL Both | understood the teacher's explanation Halt este AU si both pot fi asezate si dupa substantiv AL au } the students revived the lesson. SU: all RERraPs the pupils revised the lesson The pupi foal i . tn cazul determin&rii unui pronume, postpozijia este obligatene: vhey | } revised the lesson. 0 alla construcfie posibila este cea cu of 1 op them revised the lesson ai lui all, se foloseste determinantul zero in cazul substantivelor . plurai folosite generic: All the pupils went into the classroom. ees must weer uniforms (generic). 38All poate fi de asemenea folosit cv articolul zero in expresii ca: all (the) day | morning { night, in special intr-un context negativ: J haven't seen her I da: a ce ‘determinant, all precede: a) substantive (ne)numarabile concrete (rar) sau abstracte la singular, avind sensul de tntreg, tot: She interrupted him all the time. 11 tntrerupea tot timpul. He didn’t spend all his money. Nu gi-a cheltuit tofi bani. He hesn’t read { eae } story. b) substantive numiarabile la plural, avind sensul de tofi, toate: Where are all your books? Unde sint toate cartile tale? - + Pronumele nehotirite everybody, everything sint preferate tn vorbirea curenta in locul lui all, care este o forma mai literara: All the people all. Everybody everything. All poate fi folosit atit. ca predeterminant cit gi ca pronume nehotarit: Have you drunk all the milk? Ai baut tot laptele? Have you seen ali? Ai vazut. tot? All (the) people came in time. All (of them) were punctual. Both. Both inseamna& amindoi, amindoud, fiind folosit pentru referire la doua persoane (accentuat): Both children are very quiet. Amindoi copii sint foarte tacuti. (Two este neaccentuat: The two children were very quiet. Cei doi copii erau foarte tacuti). Both poate fi folosit atit ca predeterminant: Both (ol) these features are very important. cit gi ca pronume: Both are important. Half. Half (jumatate) este folosit atft cu substantive nenumérabile: He didn’t say a word half the time he stayed there. elt gi ca substantive numarabile: Half the students in the sident hostel were asleep. Half este folosit ca: — predeterminant: half the book —substantiv: Your half is bigger than mine. —pronume nehotarit: Half (of them ) left. Numeralele multiplicative (vezi § 4.7.) sint nanfilor, deoarece ele pot fi agezate inaintea dete: double that price. La fel gi numeralele tractionare (vezi § 4.5.), care pot avea si constrnc}ii cu of, in mod similar cu ail, both, §i half: The vegetables boiled in one third (of) the time the meat did. a Ordinalele (vezi § 4.4.) sint postdetermi- nanti. Ele urmeaza determmanfii in grupul nominal, dar preced cuantificatorii §i adjectivele: The first three important events. In clesa ordinalelor intra: | a) numeralele ordinale: first, second, third, fourth, de. b) (anjother, next, last. Cuantificatorii urmeazé determinantii si ordin adjectivele: The first three important events. Din vlasa cuantificatorilor fac parte: a) numeralele cardinale: one; two, three, four, five, etc. (veri § 4.3.). } came to the meeting. He knows { ninantiior: twice the amount, ele gi preced — 99 onb) cuantificatorii, cuvintele care exprimi numérul (many, few, several) sau cantitatea (much, little) in mod nedefinit. Cuantificatorii sint folosifi: a) numai cu substantive numarabile: many ld oa ay | children a} large } number of children several good b) numai cu substantive nenumérabile: i { great } eat much good little time of money a Tittle? large \ quantity @¥ small} amount 3} c) cu substantive “imarabile sau nenumarabile (in exprimarea familiera): lot 7 ots. | of { children plenty money Much = mult, multd se folosegte mai ales tn propozitii interogative gi negative: There isn’t much sugar left. Nu a rémas mult zahar. In propozitiile afirmative se folosegte: very much, a lot of, a greet deal of, ¢ {small} amount of, pleniy of: falotef 3 5 7 There is | very much | suger in the sugar basin, Este (foe \ in zaharnité. plenty of a fa: } mult zahar Little tneeamnd pufin, pufind, indica o cantitate insuficienta, implicit 0 apreciere negativa: She eats little bread. Ea manincd pufind pline (aproape de foc). A litile indicé o cantitate mics, dar suficienta gi implicd o apreci T eat a little éread, Maninc ceva pine. Many = multi, multe so folosegte mai ales in propozitii interogative negative: Did he read many English books? A, citit. multe c&rfi englezesti? T have not invited many peopie to my birthday party. N-am iavitat multa fume rius mea fa propozit number, lots of: pozi- tiv afirmative se folosegle very many, a lot of, a great } a lot of very many & great number of lots of He's read English bocks. pujini, putine, indick un numar insuficient gi implicd o apreciere negativa: Few people live to be a hundred. Pufini oameni traiesc 100 de ani. A fow = cfiva, clteca, indick un numir mic, dar suficient si implica o apreciere pozitiva: There ave a tew flowers in the vase. Sint etteva flori in vaz8. Several este folosit pentru mai mult de dowd persoane mai roulte He read soveral books on Dacia. E) a citit fa } c&rfi despreDacia, 100colul (The Articip) wetivitie, Articolul este partea de vorbire care: a) constituie un mijloc de individualizare a obiectelor gi fenomenelor tntr-un context lingvistic sau situational; ‘ b) nu are forme flexionare, fiind neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic; ©) indeplinoste functia de determinant. Articolul ocupa un loc central in cadrul determinantilor, find considerat determinantul propriu-zis. Aceasta sw datoreazd faptului c& articolul nu poate fi o parte de vorbire independent&, el contribuind doar la determinarea unicd sau individuala a substantivului pe care fl insofeste, Articolul este redat prin articolul hotarit the, articolul nehotarit @ sau an sau prin articolul zero. Aceste articole se folosese pentru a realiza: 4) referinfa unicd (unique reference) gi 2) referinta individual (individual reference ). : Articolul se folosegte pentru 60.3. ., ya: atunei cfd se identified un membru anume al unei clase: The boy was running very fast. Baiatul alerga foarte repede. Articolul se foloseste pentru » cind referirea se face la orice membru al unei clase, {ard ca acesta sé fie identificat in mod unic. Pentru referin{ i wnicd, se foloseste articolul hotarit pentru substantive numarabile si nenumérabile: is the book Whirel are the books | I gave you? is the chalk Pentru referinta individuala, se folosesc: —articolul nehotarlt a(n), cu substantive numérabile le singular: a book } on the table. —articolul zero sau some/any, cu substantive numérabile la plural gi substantive nenumarabile: are (some) books fs (some) salt. | 0% the table, Articolul se folosegte generic cind unei clase de elemente i se atribuie 0 proprictate; folosirea generic are in vedere clasa gi nu anumiti membri ai clasei: Boys like to play football. Baiefilor le place sa joace fotbal. A boy runs faster than a girl. Un baiat aleargé mai repede decit o fata, ‘The tiger lives in the jungle. Tigrul trdiegte in jungla. Substantivele folosite generic nu au distinctia de numar deoarece ele denumesc ceea ce este tipic, general pentru membrii unei clase, De aceea, folosirea generick apare cu cele trei articole : There 101a) artivolul hotarit the, articolul nehotarit a(n) sau articolul zero pentrs substantivele numiarabile: The cow gives ‘A cow gives } us milk. Lows give b) articolul zero pentru substantivele nenumarabile: Milk is good for our health. : ; Numele proprii sint substantivele cu referint& unied prin excelenfa, déoarece ele sint considerate membri unici ai clasei din care fac parte: Helen, Mount Everest, the Danube, France, ‘Monday. Prin aceasta, numele proprii se deosébesc de substantivele comune: a) se scriu cu litera mare: Mr. Thomson, the English Channel, the Hague; b) nu au contrastul articulat - nearticulat: unele nume proprii stint. folosite cu articolul zero, altele sint folosite cu articolul the, fard si existe o opozitie intre ele: Australia, Italy, Bucharest, Windsor Castle; the Arctic, the Ukraine, (the) Lebanon, the Hague, the Albert Hall; ©) numele proprii nearticulate primese articol cind se intentionéaza restein- gerea referintei la un anumit timp sau loc care identifiba, numele, printr-o propozifie relativa restrictivd, 0 constructie prepozitionala ou of sau una provenita dintr-o propozitie relativa restrictiva: in Romania in the Romania of today Bucharest the Bucharest Eli) Eminescu the young Eminescu in Victorian England in the England of Queen Victoria Afticolal hotarit are forma unick the. The se pronunf& [09]: a) inaintea sunetelor consonantice: the pupil; the house; b) inaintea sunetelor semiconsonantice, reprezentante de obieei prin literele u, y, w: the university, the window, the year, the one. The se pronunta [di(:)}: a) inaintea sunetelor vocalice: the artist; b) inaintea lui # mut: the hour; the honest mean; the honour; the heir; c) pronunjarea (Bi:] este de asemenea folosita pentra subliniere: These are tha facts. Articolai hotarit este folosit: pentru a exprima refermfa unicd, El tndepiineste mai multe functii*. Acestea sint: 4) funetia deicvicd, cusubs‘:ctive a caror referinta este imediat infeleasa de vorbitorii limbii, ea fiind definita specific in contextul situational al comunicarii. ‘Anumite substantive au determinare deicticd in contexte situationale. De exemplu: a) intr-o incipere: the door, the window, the table, the radiator, the radio etc.: Close the window, will you? Inchide fereastra, te rog. b) tntr-o pidure: the wind, the sky, the ground, ete. ‘Tho ground is covered with dry ieaves. Pimintul este acoperit.cu frunze uscate. ; Yoana Stefanesct:, op. cit., pp. 108~113, 102 er«) intr-un orag: the townhall, the police station, the railway station, the hospital, etc.: Can you tell me how to get to the townhall? Pute{i sd-mi spuneti cum sa ajung la primarie? : d) intr-o fara: the radio, the press, the telephone, the drama, the film, ete.: What's on the radio at eight o'clock? Ce (program) este la radio la ora 8? e) in univers: the sun, the moon, the earth, etc.: The earth moves round the sun. Pamintul se invirteste in jurul soarelui. 2) funct}ia anaforicd, cu substantive determinate definit prin menfionarea anterioara: [ bought a book yesterday. The book is interesting. Am cumparat o carte ieri. Cartea este interesanta. 3) functia cataforica, cind determinarea definita apare dupa substantiv, fiind exprimata printr-o propozitie relativi restrictiva sau printr-o construcfie prepozitionalé provenita dintr-o propczitie relativa restrictiva: ‘Tho man who is driving the red car is our English teacher. Omul care conduce magina rogie este profesorul nostru de engleza. The man (who is) in the red ear is our English teacher. Omul din magina rosie este profesoral nostru de engleza. 4) functia generic, cind substantivul este folosit in sensul siu cel mai general, ca reprezentant al unci clase. In accasta functie, the insoteste sub tantive numarabile la numérul singular: The horse is a useful animal. Calul este un animal folositor. The wild elephant can be found in some parts of Africa, Elefantul salbatic poate fi gasit in unele zone din Africa. 5)cu nume proprii: Numele proprii sint precedate de obicei de articolul hotirit ciad in structura lor intra si un adjectiv sau substantiv folosit adjectival: The United Kingdom, the United States, the Art Gallery; sau 0 constructie prepozitionalé postpusa (cu of): The University of Rucha- rest, the Houses of Parliament; In aceste cazuri, articdlul the este folosit chiar dacd unul dintre cele dows elemente este omis: the (river) Thames, the Tate (Gallery ), the Pacific (Ocean ), the Mediterranean (Sea), he Intercontinental (Hotel). Articolul hotarit se foloseste cu urmatoarele clase de nume propri a) substantive la plural: the Browns — familia Brown; the Nerthei lands —Olanda,* the Hebrides —insulele Hebride; the Aips — Alpi: the Carpathians — Carpalii b) denumiri geografice: —nume de riuri: The Danube, the Oli, the Thames —nume de mari si oceane: the Black Sea, the Atlantic Ocean —nume de canaluri: the Suez Canal, the Panama Canai —nume de degerturi, golfuri, capuri: The Sahara, The Persian Gulf, the Cape of Good Hope nume de institufii: — hoteluri gi restaurante: the Lido (Hotel), the Berlin Restaurant, the Savoy ; —teatre, cinematografe, cluburi: the Nalional Theatre, the Capitol Cinema: —muzee, biblioteci, ete.: The British Museum, the National History Museum, the Central University Library ; d) nume de aiare: The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian. Numele de reviste au de obicei articolul zero: Life, English Language Teaching Journal. e)nume de vase: The Transylvania. ¢) 103Tite | Meee 7 | Fotoie genes ec Por mane - —- China Chinese a Chinese Chinese | the Chinese Japan Japanese a Japanese Japanese the Japanese Portugal Portuguese | a Portuguese Portuguese | the Portuguese Switzerland — | Swiss a. Swiss Swiss the Swiss Vietnam Vietnamese | a Vietnamese Vietnamese | the Vietnamese Israel Israeli an Israeli | Israelis the Israelis Pakistan Pakistani a Pakistani Pakistanis | the Pakistanis Africa Airiean fan African Africans the Africans ‘America American an American ‘Americans | the Americans Asia ‘Asian an Asian ‘Asians the Asians ‘Australia ‘Sustralian | an Australian | Australians | the Australians Italy Italian aan Italian Italians the Italians Belgium Belgian ® Belgian Belgians | the Belgians Brasil Brazilian a Brazilian Brazilians the Brazilians Europe European a European | Europeans | the Europeans Germany German Fa German | Germans the Germans Greece Greek a Greek | Greeks the Greeks Hungary Hungaria’ a Hungarian Hungarians | the Hungerians Norway Norwegiai a. Norwegian | Norwogians | the Norwegians Denmark | Danish a Dane | Danes | the Danes \ (Danish) Finland | Finnish a Finn | Finns the Finns | | (Finnish) Poland Polish a Pole | Poles. the Poles ! i (Polish) Spain | Spanish a Spaniard paniards the Spaniards | (Spanish) Sweden Swedish j a Swede | Swedes the Swedes | (Swedish) Arabia | arabic an Arab Arabs the Arabs peer \ : Ty ishmen England | English | an Englishman | Englishmen (Reh France | French a Frenchmen | Frenchmen | { ieeheneh Holland i the Dutch a Dutchman Dutehnen {pepe | Netherlands | Trish: Ireland Irish an Trishman Jrishmen 1 {the irsh Wales Welsh a Welshman Welshmen {aeeyeen oy _—_-| ; Britain British a Briton Britons {ae etisn Scots & Scotsman | Scotsman Seana Scotland Scottish a Scot Scots Scotchmen (Scots) | (e Scoteheaan) | (Sentehmen) ee 1972, pp. 151~152. 104 R. Quirk et al— A Grammar of Contemporary English, Longman, London,Highlands, the Scottish Universities, a Scottish accent. Seotoh apare in construcfii ca: Scotch whisky, Scotch plaid, Scotch terrier, Scotch pancakes. Articolul nehotirit are doud forme: a gi an. ‘Ase pronunfa [2] (forma slaba, cind este neaccentuat) sau [ei] (forma tare, cind este accentuat) gi se foloseste inaintea cuvintelor care incep cu un sunet consonantic sau semiconsonantic: a builder, a magazine; a water-melon, o year, & university. ‘An se pronunti [an] (forma slaba) sau [zn] (forma tare) gi se folosegte inaintee cuvintelor care incep cu un sunet vocalic sau h mut: an architect, an egg, an orange, an hour, an heir, an honest man. Articolul nehotarlt are mai multe valori*, Acestea sint: 1)functia epiforic4, specifich articolului nehotarit, folosita pentru introducerea in comunicare a unei nofiuni care nu a fost menfionata anterior: There is a young boy waiting for you. Te agteapta un baiat. I read an interesting novel last month, Am citit un roman interesant luna trecuté.” Functia epiforicd a articolului nehotarit este folosita in situatiile in care obiectul sau persoana mentionaté in. comunicare este necunoscuta asculté- torului: A man came and knocked at our door. A venit un om gi a batut la uga; sau in situafiile in care vorbitorul nu doregte sé determine definit obiectul sau persoana respectivd ci se refer& doar la un membru al unei clase: J saw a cat on the stairs. Am vizut o pisick pe scard. 2) functia numerica, in situafiile in care forma a(n) are valoa- rea numeralului one. Pentru a reda aceasti idee de numar gramatical (singularul), articolul nehotarit se folosegte: —cu substantivele numérabile la singular, de obicei in serii numerice: She bought a dress, two blouses and an umbrella. ‘A cumpirat o rochie, dows bluze 9 o umbreli. — cu numeralele (in locul lui one): afone hundred; ajone thousand; alone fifth. 1.Cind articolul nehotartt este intrebuinfat cu valoare numericd, substantivul este accentuat, iar articolul nu: English cannot be learned in a day. Nu pofi s& tnvefi engleza intr-o zi. 7 didn’t say a word about it. N-am spus un cuvint despre acest duora. 2. Funcfia epiforic& si cea numeric& apar deseori combinate. tn propozitia: There came & man singing down the road. (Un om venea ctntind pe drum.) ne referim la un membru al unei clase gi la faptul c& era un singur om, si nu doi. * Veui; Yoana GtefSnescu, op. cit., pp. 144-120. 105generica st&vit poate fi folosit, si cu valoare genericd, cu substantive Ia singular, pentru a representa o intreagh clasi: gives us milk, Yaca ne di lapte. ja in folosirea articolulat hotarit si a celui nehotaeit. pentru erive en sibstantive mumarabile: The horse is a useful animal. respectiva): A horse és very useful (orice eal gi deci Intreaga 4) astivolul nehotett esie folosit 91 inaintea numelui predicativ exprimat was cher, Het became $a headmaster. “| remained is Tusinica numelui predicatiy se foloseste articolul zero dac& acesta este un nt unic af unei fane|ii: Mr. Thomas Brown was guest of honour at their | oaspetele de onoare la petrecerea lor. He is president prey tele comitet ul joras Brews 8 fos Ele £ of our school ter 4 L yo row i nehotartt a se foloseste: entimiraiile F bought an iron yesterday. Am.cumparat-un fier rabit: This fence is made of iron. Acest gard este %. ou subst ative wumierbite le plural | le singular: J watched am interesting film on TV aterssant la televizor aseard. 1: You can watch (some) interesting films interesante la televizor. bile la plural, determinarea nedefinita se Hims on TY. Sint filme la televizor. There are some interesting films on TY. Sint esante ja televizor. Are there any interesting films on nteresant | Sint filme interesante la televizor? b) ca ajatorul lui some sau any hime int ste vreun fim i ri, subsiantivele nenumirabile, substantivele numd- samele preprii par nelusofite de articel: She drinks tea every ‘man. Bobby Chariton was a good football player. je sarticolului echivaleazi ca functie cu sie de obicei numit articolul zero. 108Este nccosar si distingern inure existenfa unvi articol zero gi omisiunes articolului botdett saa nehotarit, pentra ct articolul zero apare in elivatii opuse eelor in care se folosese celelalte articole: like chocolate, (Articolal zero pentra folosire genevica). mi place ciocolats, The chocolate you bought is nice. (Articolul the = referinj unici). Ciecolata pe care ai cumpirat-o este gustoas’. Articoiui zere indeplinegte fune fia genericad ou a) substantive nenumdrabile; b) substantive nurarabile le plural: milk, cottee, honey. f like } music, literature, geography, travelling. long walks, good friends, games. a) Articolal zero cu substantive nenumarabile indicé © cantitate nedefinita, cantitatea in general: You can bay sugar, flour, riee and oll at the grozer's. Pofi si cumperi zahar, f4ina, orez gi ulei la b&c&nie. Aceasté inivebuintare a articolului zero este des intilnitd tn proverbe gi in iirabajal stiintific: Haste makes waste. Graba stricé treaba. Light trcvels faster than sound, Lumina se deplaseazit sai repede decit sunetul Articolui zero cn substantivele nenumérabile exprima gl determina~ a definita tnd subsiantivele nemmarahile stat precedaie de uo a dotied milks, Eeaziilan cotfec, Romsuisn Hierature. anclent history. 4 like 2. In camul in care substantivele nenvmarable sint urmats de o cemplinire care Himiteazd folosines generics, de obicot o constrncfie cu. of, este necesar articolul hotrit the: I like the literature of the Soandinavtans. heii b) Cu substantivele aumirabile la ph J, articolul zero se refera le tofi m unei clace: Chideen Ike to piay. Cogt 8A Be jos 0 pentru referinga unicd a numelor pro amumits contexte: Peter and Mary will go to school in sutunin, La toamad, Petre gi Maria vor merge ia yeoalé. A) Urmatoarele clase de aume proprii se folosesc cw erticclul zero: a)numelo de persoane, tnsctite sau nu de epozitii: Poter, dokn Brown, Br. Smith, Mr and Mrs Freeman, Lord Nelson, Inspector Tomlinson. In aceasta clasd intrA gi mumels membrilor femiliei, folosite eu refering tnick: Father i Mother | Paddy | is ashing the cor Mummy} is cooking. Dad | Mum } 107Uncle Aunt(ie) Grandmother } is staying with as. Grandfather Grandpa Dar: The father was the tallest in the family. b) diviziuni de timp: —rilele siptamtnii : Monday, Friday —lunile anului —: April, May, June —sarbatorile : Liberation Day c) denumiri geografice: —continente : Europe, Asia, America — {ari : Romania, Bulgaria, France —orase : Bucharest, Edinburgh —lacuri Lake Ontario, Loch Lomond —munti : Ben Nevis, Mount Everest Numele de continente, fairi ‘gi orage au articolul zero gi cind sint precedate de adjective: North South } America; Central industrial modern | Bomanie; ancient Callatis, suburban Bucharest. northern d)numele proprii urmate de substantive comune, denumind cladiri, strazi, poduri, ete.: Bran Castle, Westminster Abbey, Oaford Street, Piccadilly Circus, London Bridge. B) Unele substantive comune se folosesc cu articolul zero, avind referinja unicd in anumite contexte situafionale, tntr-un mod similar cu numele proprii. Majoritatea acestor cuvinte intr& in componenfa unor expresii idiomatica, In care sint folosite cx articolul zero. Unele dintre ele ins& pot fi folosite gi cu articolul hotarit in alte contexte: | ean tae | dalton | | —— ——-| | spring spring | Anotimpuri in summer in the } s¥rimer | (in, during} during} autumn autumn i winter | winter “ef, R. Quirk et al ~ op. cit., pp. 157—159. 108Articotul aero Articlul hothet bed Tie down on the bed hospital modernize the hospital (mai ales engleza | bein | britanies) 9 © | clase (mai ales i engleza american’) rite institut i ‘i doit inate prison walk round the prison school walk past the school be at | College 90 10 Y university Be alfgo tolstudy at the university sea (mai ‘ales’ engleza american’) be at}go home be infleave town approach the town Ddieycle sit on the dioyele Mijloace de travel boat be on the bus transport leave dy | bus sleep in the car (by) come car lake thela train train be on the plane plane sit in the boat dawn |daybreake during the day at sunrise . sunrise before) sunset admire the { sunset duskjtwilight see nothing in the dusk Momente ale zilei gi a noptii (ai, by, ing | NOOR ae after, before} ent midnight | in the afternoon %y { night wake tip in the night Mesele zilei (by) day and night have Breakfast before J lunch at) dinner after supper Dinner will be served at 7.00. in the daytime The breakfast was good. She cooked (the) dinner, The dinner they offered ws was} very good. appendicitis the plague Nume de boli anaemia (the) fw diabetes (the) measles influenza (the) mumps arm in arm He took her by the arm. hand in hand He has a book in his hand. day by day face to face Structuri paralele from dawn to dusk from morning till night from beginning to end from right to left from east to west 109 From the beginning of the book te nd opened of Reep to the right. He lives in the weet,3) Cu elementul predicatiy suplimentar se foloseste articolul zero, pentru referinta unic& They appointed him chairman. (L-au numit pregedinte), sat articolul hotarit, pentru referinta unica: They appointed him the chairman of the standing commission. Articolul zero mai este folosit: a) inaintea denumirilor limbilor: We study English. Do you speak French? Cind numele limbii este insofit de cuvintul language se foloseste articolul hotarit: This book aims at a description of the English language. b) cu substantive asociate cu numerale sau literele alfabetului: page ten; chapter cone; lesson five; act wo; figure Cs position A; question B; ©} in construcfii fixe: by mistake = din gregealit; in conelusion = In concluzie; for money == pentru baui, ete. Exempte Turn on the radio, please. | | Walk past the hospital and you'll } j get fo the railway station, ! | t aaeeesl i T saw a play Inst night, The play { was very interesting, : Ee eee | \ | 1 have managed to find the book | i> cataforicd | on Romanticism. i i | | T wanted to read. | | _— ————_ ' Fanner The amily pleys on jmperten ‘The Valted Natlons, the Parkers, the Rocky Mounilas (the Reckles), ; ‘ame propriy | th Mississippi, the North Seay ex unele nume proprii | the English Channel, the Inter: continental Hotel, the Nottara| | Theatre the Academy Library. ae | | | 1 saw @ chimney sweep on my| way to school. Give me a pencil, a notebook and| rubber, please, | A horse is a useful animal. He is a doctor.- arte Funetia Exempie a) ca substantive milk. nonumirabile (generic): | 2 He kes {tine b) cu substantive mumiira- |b) We go on long walks in thel bile fa plural (generic): evening. ©) cu nume proprii 8) Mary Brown, President Kennedy, Daddy; on Monday, in France, Oxtord] Street Articolul zero d) in expresii idiomatice: Tt ofien snows in winter. Go to bedl 1 go to sehoot y bas| See you at noon. e) cu elementul predicativ | They elected him president, suplimentar: } | | : | | | 4 — Exist& unele situatii in care articolul hotarit sau nehotarit este omis Aceste cazuri ce deosebese de cele in care se folosegte articolul zero, desarece omiterea articolului nu produce modificari de sens ci are doar o valuare sti- listied. Comparati a) I like honey, Imi place mierea. (artioolul zero = functie generics). 1 like the honey they seil here. Imi place mierea pe care o vind aici, farticolul hotarit thé = veferin}a definita), b) Toke the Roney to the children at the corner table! isa mierea copiilor de la masa din colt Takes honey to children at corner table. Duce mierea copiilor de ja masa din colt (indicafii scenice). Articolul se omite in urmatoarele situafii: a)in vorbire familiara: (It's a) Pity they won't be there. P&eat cf nu vor fi giei acolo. /(Js the) Car still not working? Tot nu merge magina? (A) Friend of mine told me about it. Un prieten de-al meu mi-a spus despro asta. 7 b) in limbajul jurnalistio: Employees have to obey safety regula- tions. Angajatii trebuie si vespecte regulile de protectie a mzncii. cp in indicafii scenice: {The} Old women goss to (the) settee (on the) right, B&trina se indreapta spre canapeaua din dreapta (scenci), iitIn afaré de articol, mai pot functiona ca determinanti ai substantivului: adjectivul demonstrativ, posesiv, interogativ gi nehotarit (vezi § 3.1.2.). Demonstrativul this/that, these/those este folosit ca determinant cind tnsofegte un substantiv: This book is more interesting than that one. El poate fi insa folosit gi ca pronume: What's this? Those are better thon these. ; Determinantul demonstrativ, in terminologie traditio- nali adjectival demonstrativ, determing un substantiv, indicind in principal apropierea sau departarea de vorbitor. Adjectivul demonstrativ tn limba englezii are categoria gramaticali de numéar gi indeplineste funcfia sintacticd de atribut. In limba engleza, adjectivul demonstrativ are forme deose- bite dupa numar, dar nu dupa gen, ca in limba romani: this girl — these girls, aceasta fata —aceste fete; this boy — these boys, acest baiat — acesti baieti. Funcfiile demonstrativului this/that, these/those sint: a)functia deicticd, de a indica orientarea in spajiu sau in timp intr-un context situational: These children, right here, are quieter than those. This|these sint folosite pentru a arita ci obiectele so gisese in apropierea vorbitorului: This is my desk. These boys are my brothers. Thatjthose sint intrebuinjate pentru a indica obiecte aflate la o mai mare departare de vorbitor: My father’s picture is on that wall. What are those children doing? That este utilizat pentru un obiect aflat la departare de vorbitor, mai ales cind acesta este in contrast cu alt obiect, apropiat vorbitorului, care este identi- ficat prin this: This is my seat and that is yours. I like these pictures much better than those. Z Cind se refera la timp, demonstrativele this, these sint corelate cu prezentul, iar that, those cu trecutal sau viitorul: She has been very busy these days. That storm destroyed everything last year. Deosebirea dintre apropiere si depArtare in limba englera este mai strictd decit in limba romana. Desoori that/those se intrebuinfeaz& fn situafii tn care in limba romana se folosesc demonstrativele aceste/aceasta: That accident happened a month ago. Acest accident a avut loc acum o lund, That is all. Asta-i tot. b) functia anaforicd, de referire la un obiect menfionat anterior: I saw our English teacher in his new car, This car is really something. c)funcfia cataforic&, de referire la un obiect asupra clruia se fac preciziri ulterioare: These little children are very pretty. 2d) funefia emofional’, de scoatere in evidenti a substantivului determinat: This Tom Brook is always playing the piano at night. Locked that door? Cind mai multe substantive unite prin conjunctiile and sau but stnt deter- minate prin adjectiv demonstratiy, acesta nu se repeta inaintea fieckrui substantiy: ‘These men and women are amateur actors. Romie Fonetie Singular Ploral | f oo i . Deictic& (context situational) — | | | a) apropiere: This book over here, These books over here] b) departare: ‘That book ever there. | Those books over there. Anaforicd (context lingvistic) | Look at Mary's dreee? | This dress is really something. Cataforiea: ‘Those old women are always gossiping. Seen that film? ‘Emofionala: : | ‘This neightour of mine és always losing his key. . Determinantul posesiv, in terminologie tradifional& adjectivul posesiv, inlocuieste posesorul gi determina numele obiectului posedat: Peter ‘} stamp collection is very valuable, Adjectivul posesiv se acorda in gen si numar cu numele obiectului posedat: Her book —cartea ei; His bike —bicicleta lui; Their toys —jacariile lor. In propozitie, adjectival posesiv indeplinegte functia de atribut: My books are here on the table. Adjectivul posesiv in limba englezt are forme diferenfiate dup& persoand, numér gi gen: fF Pawank | Gor EEE i | T my (ESSE Ee | ptt your i his maseulia ; om her their feminin | ite [| neutra La persoana a Ila singular gi plural, adjectivul posesiv are accoagi forma: Look, there is a fly in your soup, Privegte, e o muscd in supa ta. Tom and Mary, you must obey your parents. Tor §i Mary, trebuie si va ascultagi parinfii. 113 2 — Gramatica limbit englezemarcet dear la persouns a [YI-a singula: de persound de sex barb&teso: 1 = his se referk la John’s l ) ‘The man’s { car is nes fe His jar her so refers i substantive mume de perscané de sox femeiese: Mary’s | The women’s } umbrella is old. Her | Lis se referk la substantive animate (nume de animele) gi inanimate (aume de Bee PS ait is tong. ‘The dear of the reom } its door f open. Adjectival posesiy este folosit ca determinant al substantivelui, injocuins numele posesorulul gi determinind numele obiectului posedat: John’s 7 eh Wis eyes are bine. fu cazul in care se folosegte posesivul ca determi se mai poate intrebviata alt determi sau nehotirit: He w im his ear. ani, nu nant, ex de exemple articolul hotdrtt oprhu, proprie, proprii, folosit dup’ un adjecti accenineaza idesa de pusesi i's my own idea.. That was her own watch, Spre deesebire de Himba romand, tn limba englezii se foloseste adjectivul own gi cu parjile y own head, hee own hands. Spre dees demonstrativele this/that, these/those, care pot fi folosite atit ca determinanti (this book} of gi ca pronuine (I want this) formele my, your, his, her, iis, owr, your, their nu pot fi folosite dectt ca determinenti this your brother? Formele posesive pronominale in tivale. posesiv, aha engleza sint diferite de ccie Comparati Adjvetis poseely | Broneme yororiv This is my Sook, This book is mina. That i your book. That book is yours. | Thai ie f er | food. has food $e § ers i } | | ‘This clageroom is oars. That clasaroom is thoire.‘Atentie! O situatie particular in limba engleza o prezinta substantivele denumind parti ale corpului (hand, head, body, leg, etc) gi articole de mbra- caminte (coat, umbrella, hat, shoes, etc.), care sint intotdeauna precedate de adjectivul posesiv in limba englezai, spre deosebire de limba romand, unde el este de obicei omis: He has a hat on his head. Are o pilarie pe cap. Lend me your umbrella, will you? !mprumuta-mi te rog umbrela (ta). ‘s, Determinantul interogativ, in terminologie traditionala interogativ, determing numele obiectului asupra ciruia se cer informafii: What English books have you read lately? Adjectivul interogativ are categoria gramatical’ de caz (G: whose) gi poate indeplini funcfia sintacticd de atribut: What joke did he tell you? sau de marc’, introductnd propozitii subordonate: I a him what English books he had read lately. ®. Din punct de vedere al flexiunii, who are forme flexionare pentru caz, iar which gi what sint invariabile. funine ou we | wat rh XN. ho that which G. whose D. tora Tierart ain curenta) Ac. what which forma literark) 7 ‘oho (vorbire curent) Ba Adjectivul interogativ este folosit ca determinant pe linga numele obiectului asupra cdruia se cer informafii: What film did you see last night? What privegte obiectul respectiv fara referire la alte obiecte: What day is today ? Which este selectiv:. Which dress does she want? Whose se folosegte atit cu nume de persoane ct si cu nume de animale gi obiecte: Whose pen did you borrow? Whose walls did they paint? How much se referk la cantitate gi se folosegte cu substantive nenumira- bile concrete: How much money did you spend? How much rice did you buy? 115 aeHow many se folosegte cu substantive numéarabile: J don’t know how many ezercises he wrote. Unele interogative se folosesc gi ca adjective gi ca pronume: wien { 277i ae } is more important? ‘What (joke) did he tell you? Whose (book) is this? Alte interogative se folosesc numai ca pronume: Who came first? To ‘ae did you write the letter? ‘ . > Determinantul nehotértt, in terminologie tradifional& adjecti neho' értt, determin& substantivul intr-un mod global (all the books, every pupil) sau partial (each pupil, either side). 2308, 8 Adjectivul nehotarit este invariabil ca form& gi indepli- neste fumcfia sintactic& de atribut: Each pupil must do his homework. » Adjectivul nehotartt some = ceva, nigte, pufin, pafind, unii, , unelé, clfiva, olteva, vreun, vreo, se intrebuinjeazi in propozifii afirmative gi indicd existenta unui numir restrins de lucruri, inte, a unei cantitafi restrinse..Este folosit cu substantive numéarabile la plural gi cu substantive nenumarabile la singular: There are some books on his desk. She bought some cheese. Some poate fi folosit in propozifii, interogative tn urmatoarele cazuri (Wert si § 5.41. a) in propozifiile in care se oferé un lucru: Will you have some cake? b) cind intrebarea nu se referé la some: Did she ask father to give me some money? Any = vreun, vreo, nici un(ul), nici 0, nici una, se intrebuinfeazd: a) in propozifii afirmative.cu sensul: oricare, orice: Any pupil in your form could answer this question. b) in propozifii interogative gi negative: Did you meet any? There isn’t any butter in the fridge. Adjectivele nehotarite each, every, either prezinté deosebiri de sens: Every. Every se refert la membrii unui grup fara a-i individualiza: Every word of it is trae. Fiecare cuvint este adevirat. The child engaged his every thought. Toate gindurile lui erau la copil. Every este folosit gi cu substantive denumind unitati de timp sau distan{a pentru a indica caracterul repetat: évery other day — din dowd in doud zile every three days — din trei in trei zile 116every now and then — din cind in cind every other mile — din doua in dowd mile Every este folosit doar ca determinant. Impreuna cu -body, -one, -thing, -whére formeazi pronume gi adverbe nehotarite: everybody, everyone, every- thing si everywhere. Eack. Each se refer&la membrii unui grup luafi individual: Each rember of the staff was in the room. Fie¢are membru al pergonalului era in ine&pere. Each poate fi folosit si ca pronume: He talked with each of us. How much are these peaches? Five pens each. ; gi cu referire la dou& persoane: Bach of these (two) children is right. ‘her, Bither = fiecare (din doi): There is no light at either end of the street, Nu este Jumina la-nici unul din capetele strazii, Either poate fi folosit atit ca determinant, cit si ca pronume nehotarit, Either este folosit curent ‘cu substantivul side: There are trees on either side of the road. Sint copaci pe ambele parti ale drumului. In acest context, either este apropiat ca sens de both, diterenta fiind urma- toarea: both = amindoi (tmpreuni); either = fiecare din doi (separat). Whatever was ridiculous in either character increased the aversion the reader had for both. Tot ceea ce era ridicol in fiecare dintre cele dou personaje marea aversiunea eititerului pentru emindowd. » Adjectivele negative sint adjective nehotarite folosite tn propozifii cu sens negativ gi verbul la forma afirmativi. Ele sint o subdiviziune a adjectivelor nehotarite, care indic& absenfa obiectelor sau a calitatilor acestora: No=nici un(ul), nici una (din mai multe), No letter = nici o scrisoare. He has made no mistakes. Nu a facut nici o gregeala. Neither = nici unul din, nici un (din doi): I asked him two questions but he answered neither of them. Neither poate fi folosit ca determinant sau’ pronume: Neither solution Neither (of these solutions ) } is acceptable. No este folosit numai ca determinant, cu sensul de not any sau not a: There { eee I de re aren't any f letters today. no “ He was {™. 4} soot. Forma no este preferata lui not any/not a in vorbirea curenta, 7Grupal nominal Postdeterminanti ‘Cusntificatori {eardinale, ceuzatiticator) ae ns orn sage | posi ‘both my children all pupils ss | eee ~ om | | | | alot of | Romanian | stadents time the one third four chapters 1, Formulati proposifii eu forict a articolului hotdrit, Eaempiu: a) Lhave a letter and a posteard. (from my family ) The letter is from my family. b) She has some notebooks and a textbook. (on the iable) The notebooks are on the table. 4. He has a motorbike ond a bicycle. (in the car-park) 2. She has a tent and a sleeping bag. (in the car}. 3. Uhave a camera and some films, (in my bog). 4. Auntie has some bags and some parcels. (at the station). 5. T have some tennis shoss and some skiing hoote. (in the rucksack). 6. Tom has some coins and some stamps. (in that box). 7. Mary has a dress and a trouser suit (in her wardrobe}. 8. I have some butter and some cheese. (in the fridge). Tl. Formulati propozitii cu envintele din paranteze pentru a exersa funefia cata- foricd « articolului hotdrit ca substantive nenumérabile si substantive numd- rabile ta plural: Ezemplu: a) History can be interesting (of Romania). The history of Romania is interesting. b) Some coins are valuable. (he hes) The coins he has are valuable, 1. Music may be beautiful. (composed by George Enescx} 2, Some roads are dangerous. (in the mountains). 8, Stamps may be valuable. (in my collection ) 4, Some films are interesting, (about animals) &. Poems can be beautiful: (he has written} 6. Some childven are intelligent. (I know). 7. Honey is deli- cious. (J bought yesterday) 8. Wine can be very good. (made in Romania) eintele din parantece pentra a exersa functia anc- 1189. Vegetables are usually fresh. (they sel! here). 10, Architecture may be impres- sive. (of Bran Castle). WL. Trecepi urmétoarele propozifii la plural, pentru a exersa functia generied a articolului zero. . Exemplu: The horse is a useful animal. Horses are useful animals. 1, The tiger is a wild animal. 2, The fly is an insect. 3. A chair is a piece of furniture. 4. A child likes sweets. & The elephant is a strong animal. 6. A fish can swim. 7. A city is a big town. 8. A tulip is a beautiful flower, IV. Completati spajiile libere cw articole, acolo unde este cazul: 1. Peter Hill, who is .. . Professor of History at . . . University of Chicago, signed . ... article. 2. They generally have . . . breakfast at 8 o'clock. 3. It is not visible at... night. 4... beauty is’skin deep. 5... . milk she bought was sour. 6... i -east of... Europe, 7. He translated the book - English into... Romanian. 8. Is... German language difficult to - Washington DC is... capital of... United States of America, 10. Open ... book at... page ten and read... question, B. 11... foxes are not... domestic animals. 12. She goes to school in... morning. 13, Is your father... worker? 14....dog is... domestic animal. 15. ... Mississippi is... largest river in ... North America. 16. Do you know where .. . Lido hotel is? 17. It takes me... . hour to get to Ploiegti. 18. How many times .. . week do you have Physics? 19. Do you like... music? 20. Yes, and I.can play both... piano and... . violin. 21, What . .. kind girl she is! 22. What... joy she is for her family! 23. Byron,...English poet, was... important representative of... Romanticism. V. Raspundeti la urmittoarele tntrebari folosind articolul hotdrit, nehotdrit sau zero. duni_cum este carn! : 1, What kind of state is Romania? 2, Where does Romania lie? 3. What states does Romania border on? 4, What is Bucharest? 6 What is Romania’s population? 6. How many people live in Bucharest? 7. How many counties is Romania di into? 8. Which is the highest mountain in Romania? 9, Which is the longest river in Romania? 10 What sea is Romania bordered by to the south-east? 11, What lake or river is néar to your town/village? 12, What is the name of the most important mountain range in Romania? 18. What are the Carpathians divided into? 14. Where does the Transylvanian Tableland lie? 15. Where is the Danube Plain? 16. What town/village do you live in? 17, What street do you live in? 18 What important. buildings are there in your town/village? & VL. Ruspundeti la urmitoarele tnirebitri despre istoria Romdniei, folosind articolul hotdrit, nehotdrit sau zero, dupa eum este necesar: 1, Who are the ancestors of the Romanians? 2, Who was the most impor- tant Dacian king? 3. When did Dacia become a Roman province? 4. Which were the most important princes in medieval Romania? 5. What do we cele- brate on January 24th? 6, When did Romania win its independence from the Turks? 7. What happened on December 22*¢ 1989? 8, When did Romania enter the First World War? 119VII. Traduceti in limba englezd: A. 1, Ce 1i frumoasa! 2.°O duzin& de ace cost& un penny. 3, Trebuie sd vorbegti cu voce mai tare. 4, Ai venit cu autobuzul? 5. De cite ori pe sap- tmind ai fizica? 6, Dunirea traverseaz’ mai multe {ari europene. 7. Bulgaria este la sudul Romaniei. 8, Mierea este dulce. 9. Prietena mea este in vacanta la mare. 10, Toti elevii erau prezenti la serbarea scolara. 11. Copiilor le plac foarte mult jocurile. B. 1. La papetarie se vind stilouri, ereioane, gume, pasta de lipit gi cer- neal, 2. Unde este stiloul pe care Iam cumparat ieri? 3. Imi place muzica simfonica. 4. Imi place muzica compusé pentru pian. 5. La gcoali studiem istoria poporului roman. 6. Studiem de asemenea istoria universala. 7. In Canada sint doug limbi oficiale: engleza si franceza. 8. Limba rom4ni este o + limba romanica. 9. Presa, radioul gi televiziunea au un important rol educativ in Romania. ©. 1. Unde sint ai tai? Bunicul e in pat, bunica ein bueitarie, mama e la gcoalii gi tata e la serviciu. 2. De obicei merg acas& cu autobuzul, dar uncori morg cu tramvaiul. 3. Niciodata nu pot sa dorm in magin& sau in tren. 4. Mama se trezegte deseori noaptea si-i dea de mincare copilului. 5. Nu-mi place si ies tn orag seara. 6. La ce ord iei masa de prinz? 7. De obicei iau masa de pring la ora 12. 8 Ai terminat de pregatit masa de prinz? 9, A trebuit s& stau in pat 6 siptimind anul trecut cind am avut gripa. VIM. Inlocuiti substantivele la genitio cu adjectivele posesive corespunziitoare: Exemplu: The man’s hair is white. His hair is white. 1. The boy’s shoes are dirty. 2. The woman’s hat is pretty. 3. The women’s hats aro pretty. 4. Where is the bird's nest? 5. The girl’s dress is new. 6. The _man’s eyes are blue. 7. The pupils’ books are on the desks. 8. The cai’s tail is long. 8. Donkeys’ ears ave long. 10. Mary's brother is a student. YX. Raspundépi la tntrebari conform modelului: 1, A: Which answer is right (wrong )? B: This one is. That. one’s wrong. 2, A: Which lessons are easy (difficult }? B: These are, Those are difficult. L. Which schoolbag is heavy? (light) 2. Which papers are important? (unimportant ) 3. Which eggs are fresh? (bad) 4. Which glass is clean? (dirty ) 8. Which story is interesting? (horing ) 6. Which dress is new? (old } 7. Which apples are good? (bad) 8. Which vases are cheap? (expensive) 9. Which phone is out of order (in order)? 10, Which ideas are useful? (useless ) X. Completafi spajiile libere cu every, each sau either: 1. ... of the three lectures has a definite subject. 2. It is impossible to predict the issue with these two candidates: ... candidate may win. 3... few 120weeks she saw something new to buy. 4. I'll be back in a minute, my dear aunt und uncle; he said and nodded coolly to... . 5. They were all men of ability, ... in his own way. 6.... guest had a separate room. 7. I go to work .., day. 8. This must be decided by the individual judgement of... reader. 9. At...end of the corridor was a door. 10. Whatever was odious in... increased the scorn which the multitude felt for... 11. It was his ability to state clearly... point. 12. He looked over me and at me and on... side of me. 18.... teacher can contribute original research towards the building up of educational theory, for...child is unique. 14..., volume in the series is complete and independent. XI. Traduceti in limba englezt: —De ce dorm oamenii noaptea? Dar tu cind dormi, Darie? —Tot noaptea. Insa, vara mai ales, n-ag dormi deloc. —Dar ce-ai face? —M-ag culca pe iarbi. Insi cu fafa in sus m-ag culca. Ag fine ochii deschigi. Dacia s-ar putea s& nu clipesc, n-ag clipi. Ag privi stelele. Si privindu-le, mi-ag inchipui c& sint liber. — Coled-te in iarba acum. Uit&-te la stele acum, Darie, gi inchipuieste-fi acum ceea ce vrei tu sa-fi inchipuiegti. Ascult ce imi spune vintul. Mé cule pe iarba. Imi pun amindoua mtinile sub cap. Privesc cerul. Pare neclintit, insa eu gtiu c& nu e neclintit. Nimic nu st neclintit. Intregul cer, ott se vede si cit nu se vede, cu stelele lui, care se vad gi care nu se vad, vine de undeva. De unde? Nu gtiu, Am s& intreb iarba. Nu gtie nici ea. Intind miinile. Opresc din alergarea lui lind, vintul. Il intreb. —Nu gtiu, Darie. — Stie cineva pe lumea asta? —Nu gtie, Dare. Acum, imi spun, acum n-am s& mai intreb pe nimeni, Am sa privesc cerul. Incep sé-1 privese. Numeralul ‘este partea de vorbire care: a) exprim& un numir, determinarea numericé a obiectelor (numeralul cardi- nal) sau ordinea obiectelor prin numarare (numeralul ordinal); b) tndeplineste mai multe funcfii sintactice, in functie de folosirea iui sub- stantival&, adjectival& sau adverbiala; ®) nu are categorii gramaticale dectt tn folosirea substantivali {million —~ millions ). 121=i. Conform gramaticii structuraliste, numeralul intrd in clasa deter- minantilor (vezi cap. 3.) 7 q Double, twice, three times, etc. la fel ca gi fractiile one third, two fifths, eto. _ stnt considerate predeterminanti, find agezate inaintea determine ifilor the/this/my tn cadrul grupului nominal: double the amount, one third (ot) the time. Numeralul cardinal: one, two, three, etc. gi numeralul ordinal: the first, the second, etc. stat considerate postdeterminanfi, ele urmind determinantii thejthisimy in cadrul grupului nominal in ordinea numeral ordinal — numeral cardinal: the first three children, the last two persons. . x In cadrul gramaticii traditionale, exist controverse cu privire la numeral, numeralul nefiind o parte de vorbire omogend.\Majoritatea gramati- cilor traditionale disting urmétoarele categorii de numerale: numeralul cardinal, numeralul ordinal, numeralul fracfionar,/ numeralul colectiv, numeralul multiplicativ, numeralul distributiv gi numeralul adverbial. Numeralul cardinal exprim& numirul (one, two; three) sau determinarea numericd a obiectelor (four books, one hundred years). Numeralele cardinale de la 4 la 12 in limba englez& sint urmatoarele: 4 one 5 five 6 9 nine 2 two 6 six 40 ten 3 three 7 seven 41 eleven & four 8 eight 12 twelve Cifra 0 (zero) ocupa un loc special in cadrul numeralelor cardinale. Ea se poate citi zero [‘ziarau], oh [au], nil, nothing-sau love. Zero este folosit pentru 0 in matematica gi pentru indicarea temperaturii: It is ten degrees below zero. La numerele de telefon, 0 se pronun{ [ou]: Dial 6070 ['siks ‘ou 'sevn ‘ou] and ask for extension 90 ('nain ‘ou} Nil (nil] sau nothing sint folosite in exprimarea scorului la fotbal: Leeds United won 40 (four nil | four to nothing.) ‘Love [lav] este folosit in tenis: Ndstase leads by 30.0 (thirty —love). Numeralele cardinale tntre 13 gi 19 se formeazi cu ajutorul sufixului -teen adiugat la numerele 3—9: 13 thirteen AT seventeen 44 fourteen 48 eighteen 45 fifteen 419 nineteen 16 sixteen Numeralele 43 gi 415 prezinta deosebiri ortografice gi de pronuntie fata de numeralele 3 gi 5 de la care s-au format: : 43, thirteen ['80:'ti:n) . 45 fifteen {fit 122Toate numeralele tn -teen au dowd accente: eighteen [ei tim]/dar cind stint folosite ca adjective pastreazd numai primul accent: seventeen years [sevnti:n : 7°" Numele zecior ae formeasd de la unitafile 2—9, la cane se edaugé sutizul ty: 20 twenty ; 60 sizty 30 thirty 70 seventy 40 forty 80 eighty 50 jifly _ 90 ninety Numoralele 20, 30, 40 gi 50 prezinta particularitati ortogratice gi de pro- nunfare fafa de numele unitatilor de Ja care s-au format: 2 two 20 twenty 3 three 30 thirty 4 four 40 forty 5 five 50 fifty 2. Numele secilor la plural: twenties, thirties, forties, fifties. ete, precedate de articolul the sau alt determinant, sint folosite pentru a exprima © pericadd sau vis ‘The literature of the thirties. Literatura anilor °30. She was @ good-losking woman in her forties. Era o femeie frumoasi intre 40 si 50 de ani in limba englez, numele zecilor se leagk de uni unei liniufe de unire: 68 sixty-eight 79 seventy-nine In limba éngiesA scrisd, numeraiele scurte se redau de obicei cu litere, iar cele mai tungi ou cifre: J have ten lei in my pocket. There are 255 people in the conference hall, Bucharest has a population of two million inhabitants.” Romania has @ population of about 22,000,000 people. Numeralele care denumese sute, mii sau milioane sint legate prin and de cele care denumese zeci gi unitafi: 145 = alone hundred und fifteen; 3,005 = three thousand and five. Intre clasele unui numar intreg se pune virgula in limba englezk gi nu punct ca fa limba romana: 4,000; 3,140. (Punctul indica zecimale: 3.05). In exprimarea curent4, miile se transforma in sute: How much money have you got? Sixteen hundred lei (= 1,600). Cind sint folosite ia singular, numeralele hundred, thousand §i million stat intotdeauna precedate de articolul nehotarit sau de wa numeral: 400 onela hundred books, 141 a hundred and forty-one; 1,260 a thousand and two hundred; 1,500,900 a million and five hundred-ihousand. 7 Gind stat precedate de numérul unitatilor gi acesta este mai mare decil 4, numeralele hundred §i thousand nu primesc s la plural: 300 three hundred; 5,000 five thousand. 1, Aceste numerale primesc terminafia s cind stint folosite: 8) ca substantive: Thousands have read ¢his book. b) cind sint urmate de prepozitia of: The number of young people studying in our schools amounts to hundreds OF thousands. 2, Million are forma de plural cind este urmat de prepozifia of sau cind zu procedi alt numeral: five millions of people.. This work of art is worth five millions, _ . Alone billion inseamn bilion tn Statele Unite ale Americii gi tri- lion tn Marea Britanie. i direct, cu ajutorul 1231 one 11 eleven 1 twenty-one 2 two 42 twelve - 22 twenty-two B three 1B thirteen 80 thirty 4 four 1d fourteen 50 forty 5 five 45 fifteen 50 fifty 6 siz 16 sicteen 60 sizty 2 seven 17 seventeen 70 seventy 8B eight 38 eightoon 80 eighty 9 nine 19 nineteen 90 ninety 10 ten 20 fventy 100 ajone hundred 101 alone hundred ond one 118 ajone hundred and twelve 136 afone hundred and thirly-five 200 fiso hundred 300 three hundred 400 four hundred 845 eight hundred and forty-five 1,000 ajone thousand 1,258 alone thousand two hundred and fifty-three 2,000 theo thousand 8,005 three thousand and five 10,000 fen thousand 1,000,000 ajone muliion i 21506,020 to ‘million five hundred thousand and twenty In limba englez’, numeralul cardinal este folosit: a) pentru exprimerea numelor numerelor abstracte: one, two, three, four, five, ete. sau a determinarii numerise a obiectelor: three apples, one hundred pupils b) pentru exprimarea datei {aniior), Anii se cites: 1980 —one thousand nine hundred and eighty sau nineteen hundred and eighty —in stilul oficial; 1980 —nineteen eighty —in engleza vorbita. c) pentru indicarea numérului unui anumit object (pagina, lecfie, capitol, easd, autobur, ete.): Lesson 10, Chapter 8, Flat 11, bus no. 31; I live at No. 4, Eminescu Sireet. 4) in exprimarea timpului cronologic, In acest caz, propozitie incepe de ebicei cu pronumele it: It is two o'clock. It is five o'clock sharp. Este ora cinei fix. O'clock se foloseste numai cu ora fixd gi se poate omite: What's the time? Five. Pentru @ indica fractiunile de ore pind ia ,,gi jumatate* se menfioneaz& numarul minutelor urmat de prepozitia past gi de ora respectiva: It is ten (minutes ) past nine. Este (ora) 9 si 10 (minute). It is a quarter past three. Este (ora) 3 §i un sfert. Zt is haif past seven. Este 7 si jumitate. Fracfiunile intre jumatete gi ora urmatoare se redau in limba englezi spunind numérul minutelor, prepozitia to gi apoi ora: It is twenty (minutes ) to siz. Este gase fara 20 (de minute). It is a quarter to eight, Este opt fara un sfert. It is five to eleven, Este 14 fara cinci. 1. Se practiced exprimarea orei gi tn felul urma&tor: 2:15 two fifteen; 5:30 five thirty; mai ales cind este vorba de orérul trenurilor, ora execté la BBG, ete. @, in limba englez4, orele de ia 12:00 pind la 24:00 se exprima tot cu numeralele de Ja 4 la 42 gi abrevierea p.m. (post meridiem): It is 4 o'clock Este ora 16.00. {Orele 1.00 — 12.00 dimnineaja stat urmate de abrevierea am. — ante meridiem.) 1243. In engleza americana se folosese gi prepozifiile ajter gi before tn loc de past gi to:8 : 40 It is ten (minutes) after 8.8 :.40 It is twenty (minutes) before 9. iar pentru ,gi juméatate“ ‘se menfioneazé ora gi thirly: 8: 30 It’s eight thirty. e) pentru a indica un numar de telefon Numerele de telefon se citese cifra ou cifra: 597216 = five nine seven two one siz; 481039 = four eight one oh three nine. Daca primele sau ultimele doud cifre sint la fel, se folosegte cuvintul double: 2238 — double two three eight; 5555 — double five double five. Nu se foloseste cuvintul double daca cifrele din mijloc sint aceleagi: 3002 — three oh oh one. f) in exprimarea operafiilor aritmetice In acest caz verbul poate fi folosit la singular sau plural: 245=7 Two plus five isjare seven. 7 —8 = 4 Secon minus three makes|make four. 6 x5 = 30 Six multiplied by 5 islare thirty. 40:5 = 8 Forty divided by 5 isjare 8. g) pentru exprimarea virstei: How old are you? Citi ani ai? J am ten years ald. Am zece ani. 2 © In exprimarea virstei in limba engleza, se poate omite partes finali: I am ten (years old), dar este incorecta mentinerea cuvintului years, ca in limba romani. Numeralul ordinal indic& ordinea tn timp sau in spa{iv a obiectelor sau a actiunilor: He was the first to come, The second house round the corner is mine. 2 sectadviel or . Numeralele ordinale sint alc&tuite din urmatoarele elemente: numeralul cardinal, care poate fi considerat radicalul, articolul hotarit the, care precede radicalul, gi sufixul -th, care se adaugi la radical: 4 — four —the fourth; 7 — seven — the seventh. Nuyneralele ordinale de la 1 la 3 au forme care se abat partial de la eceast® reguli: the first, the second, the third. Citeva numerale ordinale prezinta dificulta}i ortografice: 5 —the fifth 12 —the twelfth 8 —the eighth 30 — the thirtieth 9 —the ninth 40 — the fortieth La numeralele compuse, numai ultimul numér primegte -th: 27 — the twenty-severth; 236 —the two hundred and thirty-sizth. Numeralele ordinale cuprinzind cuvintele hundred, thousand, million pot fi precedate numai de one, nu gi de a, iar articolul hotarit poate fi omis: the one hundred and thirty-second. Abrevierea numeralelor ordinale se face prin addugarea ultimelor doud litere la cifras Ist; 2nd; 3rd; 4th; 21st; 38nd; 43rd; 54th; 10th; 100th. 125alah er 1 the first the Tet 15. the fifteenth the 15th 2 the second the 2nd 16. the sizteenth the 16th * 8 the third the 3rd 17 the seventeenth the 17th 4 the fourth the 4th 18 the eighteenth the 18th 5 the fifth the Sth 19 the nineteenth — > the 19th 6 the sixth the 6th 20 the twentieth the 20th 7 the seventh the 7th 21 the twenty-first the 2ist 8 the eighth the 8th 30 the thirtic the 30th 9 the minth the 9th 81 the thirty-first the 31st 10 the tenth the 10th 32 the thirty-second the 32nd IZ the eleventh the 11th 40 the fortieth the 400 2 the twelfth the 12th 100 the (one) hundredth the 100th 1B the thirteenth the 13th 101 the hundred and first the 101ot 14 the fourteenth the T4th 1,000" the one thousandth the 1,0001h In limba énglezii, numeralul ordinal este folosit: a) la exprimarea datei: April 26th, the 25th of April. : In exprimarea datei, numeralul ordinal poate fi agezat inainte sau dup& numele luni. Dac& numeralul ordinal precede denumirea lunii, acesta este urmat de of: T was born on the 28th of April 1965. Dac& numeralul ordinal este agezat dup denumirea lunii, of este omis: ‘Ann was born on April (the) 28th. ‘Aceasta exprimare este mai frecventa in scris. Exprimarea datei difera tn varianta britanic& gi americani a limbii engleze. In engleza britanic&, ordinea este data — luna — anul: 05.02. 1981 — the Sth of February 1981. In ongleza americana, ordinea este luna —data —anul: 05.02.1981 —, May the 2% 1981. b) pentru a indica ordines intr-o serie: the Second World War the tenth floor the third act Henry the Eighth Cind unele dintre aceste denumiri sint urmate de numeral, se foloseste nume- ralyl carding ict Three; World War I; page five. c) pentru a exprima repetarea la intervale regulate: every second day = din dou’ in dou zile/la fiecare douk zile; every third month = din 3 in 3 luni, o data la 3 luni. In aceste exprosii, articolul the este omis. Numeralul fractionar araté una sau mai multe parfi ale intregului: one third, three tenths. sub forma unor fractii. Numéaratorul fractiei este exprimat printr-un numeral cardinal, iar numi- torul printr-un numeral ordinal: 1/2 = a/one half =o jumatate, o doime; 4/3 = alone third = o treime. =, Numeralele fractionare sint redate 126Numitorul se citeste Ja plural cind numaratoru! exprima o unitate mai 2 3, 8 mare de 4: 3 two-thirds; “three quartersjthree-fourths; “35; eight-thirtleths. Substantivul determinat de o fractie ordinara este Ja singular: 3. a hour = half an hour ; Gin three quarters ton. Substantivul determinat de numeralul 1 fone) imprevnd eu o fract ordinard este folosit la plural.in scris, dar se citegte la singular dupa intrey gi Ja plural dup fractie: 17 miles —one mile and three quarters sau one and three quarter miles. Substantivul determinat de un ayieral mai mare decit 1, impreund eu o fracfie ordinara, se afl intotdeauna la plural: 4 4/2 fons = four aad one half tons sau four and a half tons. In cazul fractiilor zecimale, intregui se desparte de zecimale printr-un punct: 3,25 = three point two five. - Nureralele inainte de punct se cites ca un Singur numar, iar cele care urmeaza punctului, oifrd cu cifra: 18.75 = eighteen point sever five. In cazul fractiilor zecimale, zero se citeste nought in Anglia § S.ULA.: 1.05 = one point nought five (in pronuntarea brit: i point zero five {in pronuntarea americana). Substantivul determinat de o fractie cecimala se all partea intreaga este zero gi la plural in toate ceieialte cazuri: 6.73 metre = nought point seven five of a metre; 4.25 metres Numeralul colectiv araté c& obiectele sint considerate in grup si nu izolat. Numeralele colective sint: couple, pair, team, dozen, score, yoke. Numeralele couple, pair, team, yoke numese grape de doi: a couple of seconds == dowd secunde; a pair of shoes = 0 pereche de pantofi; two teem of caitle = dows perechi de vite; four yoke of oxen = petru perschi de boi; two pair(s) of horses = dowd perechi de cai. Numeralele dozen, score numese grupe mai mari de doi: dozen — duzind two dozen eggs; score = 20; half a score = 10; a score of people — dovizeci de oameni. ; Majoritatea numeralelor colec- tive sintfolosite ca substantive: J bought a new pal of shoes yesterday. Numerslele colective se. folosesc la singular cind sint precedate de um aumerel cardinal sau nehotarit: two dozen of eggs, several pair(s) of shoes. 127Cind numeralele colective nu sint precedate de un numeral, indiferent daca stau singure sau stot urmate de prepozitia of, ele se folosese la plural; The pupils entered the classroom in couples. J ave asked him about it dozens of times. 4.7, Numeralul mu! jiieatiy (The Multiplicative Numeral) - Numeralul multiplicativ araté m&sura in care creste o cantitate (double the amount) sau o actiune (Agricultural output has increased five times). 4.7.1. Forma numeratyiui mul Numeralul multiplicativ are forme diferite, in functie de stilul familiar, tehnic, oficial, etc. in care el este folosit. Jn vorbirea curentd, numeralele multiplicative de la 1 la 3 au urmatoarele forme: once — odata; twice —de doud ori; thrice -- de trei ori. (Forma thrice este invechita) De la numéarul 4 in continuare, numeralele multiplicative contin in struc- tura lor un numeral cardinal urmat de-substantivul times (ori, dafi): four times, five times, six times, ete. Forma eu times este folosita gi in locul lv‘ thrice: three times, In stilul literar, tehnic sau oficial, se foloseste numeralul multiplicativ format din numeralul cardinal si sulixul -fold: twofold, threefold, a hundredfold: a threefold quantity = 0 cantitate tripla. Pentru unitatea 4, forma numeralului multiplicativ este single, iar pentru 2 se foloseste pe ling’ twofold gi forma double. Ba. 4 faeraiainl © se foloseste ca predeterminant: double the amount sav ca adverb: The rate of indusirial development has risen three times. Ritmul dozvoltarii industriale a crescut de trei ori. (vezi gi § 49.) Numeralul multiplicativ Numeralul distributiv exprima gruparea numeric&é a obiectelor. Obser- vati citeva modalitati de a exprima acceagi ideo: two at a time; two by two; by twos; two and two; in twos (in pairs): The pupils left the classroom two by two/in twos. Elevii au pardsit clasa cite doi. He ran down three sieps at a time, A coborit scarile cite trei odata. erbial Nuse 4.8, Nameraiai adversial (The Ag eval} Numeralul’ adverbial arata 7 a) de cite ori are loc o actiune: once, twice, three times (thrice); ten times, a hundred times; bis; once more; once again; twice as fast etc. They have English twice a week. Au engleza de dowd ori pe siptamina. J told you a hundred times not to Lie to me. Ti-am spus de o sutd de ori si nu ma minti Rott: Thrice este Invechit, so foloseste tn stilul literar. In vorbirea curent& este tnlocuit cu three times. 128b) locul ccupat intr-o serie: first; firstly ; secondly ; thirdly ; fifthly ; eighthly; in the first{second place. I asked hima few questions: first who he was, socondly what he wanted. ‘efEe firstly este considerat pretios si nu este des folosit.in vorbirea curenta, Exercitii L, Cititi in iomba engiezé urmdtoarele: a) cifre: 495; 248; 352; 2934; 6855; 5420; 41,173; 75,862; Db) ani: 1821; 1848; 1453; 1066; 1918; 1944; 1984; 1648; 1900; 1240; ° ore: 14.5; 42.10; 1.30; 2.45; 3.25; 8.35; 5.20; 4.15; 9.40; 6,00; 7.55; d) numere de telefon: 94.95.61; 47.18.03; 66.16.44; 39.88.51; 16.40.03; . 44.35; 77.88; 13,45; €) numerale ordinal je si fracjionare: 3°; 8%; 20%; 37m; Kom; OM, He $3 ai; 235 0.48; 2,38; 0.85 ton; 2.75 metres. 00%; 41,0620; = IL. Scrieji urmitoarele date: 20.X.1949; 10.11.1958; 4.V.1953; 30.X11.4947: 415.1V.1933; 23. VIIT.1044. mba englezd: gi 1 Decembrie sint_ sarb: nostru. 2. Bestia cartea la pagina 48 si ci capitolul 15 ined o data. 3. Locuieso pe strada Spiru Haret nr. 48. 4, Gifi ani ai? Am 42 ani. 5. La ora doud si jumitate iau autobuzul 331 gi. ma duc s& vizitez expozitia. 6. Cit costa pereche de pantofi? 7, Am cumparat unt, o duzing de oud si 1 kg de find. 9 Te astept de mai mult de o jumitate de orf. 10. Am format 55.79.34 si apoi am agieptat. 11, Cred c& au plecat cu trenul de 6.30. 12, In martie 1977 a avut loc un puternic cutremur. i nationale ale poporului Pronumele: a) reprezinta o clasi eterogen&, unele pronume pot inlocu! substantive in : ‘The man] . ae 7 comunicare He is here]; alte pronume desemneaza direct vorbi- torul si asculttorul (Z, you ) sau deseraneaza global sau parfial obiecte sau’ fenomene (all, cach); b) are categoriile gramaticale de persoand, gen, numér gi caz} c) indeplineste funcfiile sintactice de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, apozitie, complement. 129 — Gramatica limbii engieze5.2. Bol In gramatica traditionala, pronumele este partea de vorbire care fine jJocul unui substantiv sau grup nominal: a } is a student. Peter and Mary ‘Those young people } are students. They Pronumele reprezinta insi o clasd eterogend. Unele pronume constituie un substitut al substantivului (he, she, it, they), altele desemneaza direct vorbitorul gi interlocutorul (I, you); iar pronume ca ali, every, each desem- neagi global sau parfial obiecte sau fenomene, tn gramatica structuralista, se folosegte termenul de sudstitut pentru cuvintele care pot aparea in locul in care apar substantivele sau termenul de pro-form pentru toate acele cuvinte care inlocuiese alte parti de vorbire. Unele pronume au categoriile gramaticale de persoand, gon, numar gi I am{You are) He is. Categoriile de gen, numar gi caz se intilnesc gi la substantiv, dar la pro- nume ele prezinté anumite particularitagi. Spre deosebire de substantiv, pronumele are: a) genul mereat doar ja persoana a Ml-a singular: masculin/feminin/ neutru: he/she/it. b) numérol marcat prin supletivism (cuvinte diferite): I/we, he/they. c) contrastul intre cazuk nominativ gi acuzatividativ: Z/me, helhim, who] whom. Pronumele personale, reflexive gi posesive au forme distincte pentru persoand gi numir: y@singular: I myself — mine Persoana ‘oana *\ plural: we ourselves ours / singular: yourself plural: ¥” yourselves he himself his singular: ske herself hers Persoana a IIl-a a isdf = plural: they themselves theirs . Pronumele personale, reflexive si posesive sint marcate formal iru gen Ja persoana a Hla singular: Persoana a Il-a: yours himself his herself hers itself - 130La pronumele relative éxisti‘o distincfie-tntre pronumele pentra nume de persoane (who, whom) gi pentru nume de obiecte sau animate (which). Cuzuk Substantivele §i majoritatea pronumelor in limba englez4 eu doua cazuri marcate formal: cazul comun {nominetiv, ecuzativ/dativ) si cazul genitiv: Gazul comun:{ gandudy fis at the door, the postman T can see { somebedy } at the door, Casul genitiv: sae} bag Pronumele personal si pronumele who au trei casuri mareate formal: nominativul, dativfacuzativul gi genitivel: Nominativ: I we he ~~ she — they who Dativ/acuzativ: me us him —her’_— them ~—who(m)} Genitiv: my our his. ser —stheir whose Conform tradifiei gramaticale, pronumele personal Ja cazai genitiv este cunoscut sub numele de adjectiv posesiy. ‘4, € ificarea nee Pronumele formeazt o clas& eterogen%, deoarece au forme flexionare pentru accleagi categorii Pronumele personale, reflexive si posesive de pronume, ele avind forme distinct2 pentru pers toate pron 2 centrale clasei Clasificares pronumelor®) — perso: centrale { — reflexiv ‘ | = posesiv Pronumele —nehotarit | Pom UY | afirmetiv j — seria, any neafinmativ { Shar | negetiv { 855 * R Quirk et al, op. cit., p. 207. 131De regula pronumele inloouieso eubstantivele, Uncori ins ele determina substantivele. Cind proaumele inlocuieste un aubstantiv, se vorbegte de valoarea substantivala (sau pronominala) a pronumelui, iar cind acesta deter- ming un substantiv, se vorbesie despre valoarea de determinant {cau adjectivals) 2 pronumelui. Din punct de vedere ai valorii subsiantivaie sau de determinant, pro- numele i limba englez pat avea a) nurnai velcare substantivald: 5} numai valoar 9} valoare substant! nditioneeza funefiile sin minanti au pot indeplini your stanmp et 8 @ lesson, fe wili talk 2k functia de mated a tn irazd: The man eat& persoansle ce pot apirea intr-ua dislog al} sant fnlocuiegte objectul despre care se vorbeste, gi cax si poate indeplini ‘but, epozitie gi comple- active de subiect, essonal are forme supletive pentra categoriile gramaticale de gi oaz. oni gramatioale au apar insk la toate formele pronumelui Acaste categ personel, : in limbe englezi, pro- vorbire care au categoria gramaticala vofesor, He is a chemist, El este chimist, arces de reguidpentmy persoand numai la persoana wiuntne singwrel indicator al celorlalte perscane.De aceea, pronumele personal este de obicei mentionat in comunicare tn limba englezi, spre deosebire de limba romané: I speak English. (Eu) vorbesc engle- este. fn limba englez’, pronumele I se scrie intotdeauna cu liter& mare: He speaks English better than ¥ do. Conform definifici traditionsle, persoana I desemneazi persoana care vorbeste, persoana a II-a, persoane ett care se vorbeste, iar persoana a Hla indic& pe cel despre care se vorbeste. Noté: Acoust definifie este incompleta.* Pronumele J desemneazi pe cel care vor- beste gi care face actul de vorbive posibil. Pronumelé de persoana a II-a you este persoana care recepteazA discursul, Pronumele de persoana a I1I-a helthey reprezint& membrul nemarcat al corelatiei. AAcest pronume nu face posibil& inceperea actului de vorbire, ei desfasurarea lui logic&. He/they indeplineste o functie anaforick In discurs, cea de referire la elemente deja introduse in discurs: Peter was very tired as he had worked hard all day. tn acest fel, pronumele he/they nu se refer3 la o persoand in acelasi mod ca $i pronu- mele I si you. Pronumele personale in limba engiezi sint folosite gi cu valoare generic& (generic person). Pronumele he/she este folosit cu valoare generica in propozitii care exprim& un adevar universal: He who laughs last laughs best. Cine ride 1a urmé ride mai bine. Th asemenea contexte, valoarea lui he este cea a unui determinant demon- strativ: That one who... Pronumele you este folosit si cu sensul nedefinit de one: You can never tell. Nu se stie niciodata iar they, cu sensul de ,oameni in general: They make bicycles in this factory. Pronumele persona! are categoria gramaticalé a genului numai la persoana a Hil-a singular: He este folosit pentru a inlocui nume de persoane de sex barbitesc: Tom Brown / He is the centre forward. ‘She este intrebuinjat pentru nume de persoane de sex femeiesc: Barbara/ She is my sister. It injocuieste nume de obiecte sau de animale: The dog/it barked when the guests came. He|She sint folosite pentru a inloeui si unele substantive animate sau inani- mate, care sint de obicei neutre (veri § 2.4.6.): The shup/She has already arrived. In limba englez&, pronumele pentru persoana a Ifl-a plural they nu are forme distincte pentru gen, ca in limba romana: They fare here, Fast? > sint aici ot } haven’t come yet. Bee nu au venit ined. me ~ } are very preity. ‘poeste PASSE sint foarte frumoase. * Veri: Ioana Stefanescu, op. cit., pp. 180—188. 133BB. tegeris nal i Pronumele pentru persoana I plural we nu reprezinta mai multi de IJ ci ithe: Can { he andl } come at eight? Aceasta intrebuinfare a lui we este cunoscuta sub denumirea de exclusive ope O alta functie a pronumelui we este de a include gi pe-ascult&tor (inclusive =I +you): Well, how are we feeling today ? Ei, cum ne mai simfim astizi? th: We poate fi folosit astfel de citre un doctor, © profesoard sau .o sork medi- cal& care se adreseazdé unui copil, pentru a crea un sentiment de solidaritate Intre verbitor si ascultator. wee Forma you este folosita atit pentru persoana a Il-a singular, elt si pentru persoana a Il-a plural: J told you to sit down. V-ai /Ti-am spus si stai jos. Pluralul persoanei a !-a este de asemenea un plural inelusiv ca gi la persoana I: vorbitorul, reprezentat prin J sau interlocutorul, repre- zentat prin you tsi asociazi celelalte persoane ale dialogului: we =I + he (+ you) you = you + he (+ you). Doar pluralul persoanei a II-a reprezinta un plural propriu-zis: they = he he + he. tn limba englez’ nu existd pronume de polilefe ca in limba roman’. You poate insemna atit tu, voi, cit si dumneata, dummeavoasira, tn functie de context. La fel ke, ske pot inserana el, ea sau dumnealui, duimneaci. : Pronumele personal are pentru cazul nominativ si pentru dativ/acuzativ (cu exceptia lui you Nominativ: Dativ/Acuzativ: singular: f me Persoana I { plural: we us Persoana a il-a singularjpiural: you yo singular: ke m she her Persoana a [la it wt plural they them Pronumele personal este folosit intotdeauna cu valoare substantivala, Pronumele personal inde- plineste mai multe functii sintactice, dupa cazul in care se alla: a) nominati —subiect —~ He is a student. —nume predicativ — Jt is he who did it. b) dativ: complement indirect — Can you tell me a story? c) acuzati —complement direct —J like her. —complement prepozifional —Look at them! Dup& than gi as se pot folosi si pronume personale in cazul nominativ: He is { saller than } she(is). as tall as her, 1345.7, Pronumele refi un} Pronumele reflexiv inlocuiegte obiectul asupra c&tuia se exercitd actiunea verbului gi care este identic cu subiectul verbului; are categoriile gramaticale de persoand, gen, numar gi caz gi indeplineste in proporitie functia de comple-. ment, nume predicativ sau apozitie. 7 5.7.1, Extegoriile gramaticale ale pro prezint& urmatoarele particularita de persoana, gen, numér gi caz: a) are persoana I, a II-a, a Ill-a, ca gi pronumeie personal gi cel posesiv; b) are forme distincte de gen numai la persoana a Ifl-a singular: masculin: himself feminin: herself neutru: itself ¢) are terminatia -self la'singular gi -selves la plural. Pronumele reflexiv in ceea ce priveste categoriile gramaticale Peivoana Binge i gat i i Persoana I myself | i Persoana a Il-a - yourself ; I Persoana @ Ili. : \ maseulin himself | | feminin herself i Shemselves | | i l i neutru j itself Pronumele reflexiv este in care compiementul direct sau prepozitional folosit. max ales mm propozit este identic cu subiectul. A) Astfel, pronumele reflexiv indeplineste in principal functia de co m- plement direct al unor verbe transitive. Din punct de vedere ol 7e- flexivitatii, verbele in limba engiezé se impart in: a) verbe urmate in mod obligatoriu de pronume reflex sent oneself (from), avail oneself (of), behave oneself, busy oneself (with). pride oneself (on): He busied himself with his papers. I pride mysell on my cooking. Behave yourself? b) verbe care pot fi urmate sau nu de un pronume reflexiv, intre cele dowd intrebuintari existind diferente de sens: apply (ones conduct (oneself), depart (oneself He applied himself to the task. A depus toate eforturile pentru indeplinires sarcinii. He applied for a job. A facut o cerere de sorviciu. ©) verbe dupa care pronumele reflexiv se poate omite fird as ficdri de sens: adjust, comb, dress, qualify, shave, was produce modi- She went into the bathroom and { Wane’ Bersell 135B) Pronumele reflexiv este folosit ca parte a unui complement prepozi- fional, cind complementul prepozitionel este aceasi persoant ou substantival: Look after yourself, will you. Take care of yourself. She looked at herself in the mirror. I don’t know what to do with myself. Ateutic! In constructiile prepozitionale care exprimé relatii spatiale intre elemente concrete, se folosegte pronumele personal in cazul acuzatiy, chiar dack complementul prepozitional este aceeagi persoand cu subiectul: I have no books on me. We have the whole week before us. She looked about her, 2. Pronumele reflexiy este folosit in asemenea cazuri doar cu valoare emo- fionala: She was heside herself with rage. 3. Exista gi situafii in care uzajul oscileaza intre pronumele refiexiv gi cel personal: He closed the door behind him(self). She gathered the children around her(self). Pronumele reflexiv' are numai valoare substantivali. El poate inde- plini urmatoarele functii sintactice: —complement direct: She helped herself to another piece of cake. complement indirect: He allowed himself a break. — complement prepozitional: J looked at myself in the mirror. —nume predicativ: She is always herself, Pronumele reflexive se _folosese: a) ca pronume reflexive (non-emphatic use): Help yourself! Serveste-te. b) ca pronume de intiirire (emphatic use): Help her yourself. Ajut-o tu insuti. Pronumele de intirire subliniazd participarea la actiune a vorbitorului, a interlocutorului sau a cbiectului despre care se vorbeste, are categoriile gra- maticale de persoana, gen, numar gi caz si indeplineste functia sintactica de apozitie. Pronumele de intirire se subordoneaza direct unui pronume personal sau unui substantiv: eee } himself answered the pupils’ questions. Pozijia nemarcati a pronumelor de intirire este imediat dupk {pro)numele pe care-1 subliniaza: The pupils themselves worked in the school garden. Cind (pro)numele tnsofit de un pronume de intarire este » pozifiei, pronumele de intiirire se poate aseza: "=a inceputul propozitiei: The boy himself drew the map. —la sfirgitul propozitiei: The boy drew the map himself. Pronumele de intirire este accentuat in vorbire. 7 Faptul ci pronumele do intarire depinde intotdeauna de un substantiv sau pronume fi confera acestuia valoare adjectivali. Pronumele de intarire indeplineste functia sintacticd de apozifie: The headmaster himselt helped the pupils. : Cind este precedat de propozitia by, of sau for, pronumele de intarire are sensul de ,singur, ,,singura”, ,singuri*, ,singure*: J made the dress by mayselt. The glass cracked of itset. I want to see tor myself. 136Pronumele posesiv tnlocuieste atit numele obiectului posedat cit gi al posesorului, are categoriile gramaticale de persoan4, gen, numar gi cas gi poate indeplini funofille sintactice de subiect, nue predicativ, atribut, apozitie, complement. Formele pronumelui posesiv sint anna 7 i Persoana Persoana I: Petsoana a Il-a: Persoana a Is this your pencil? No, it's not mine. Ask Mary if it is hers. Mary? it yours, 22 Pronumele posesive (vezi exemplele de mai sus) na deter- wind substantive ca adjectivele posesive, ci le inlocuiese. Observati mai jos diferenta dintre adjectival gi pronumele posesiv si pronemele personal in cazul dativjacuzativ: Adjective posesive Pronume posesive Pronume personal It’s my car. It's mine. It Belongs to me. it’s your car. It’s yours. At belongs to you. It's his car. It’s his. fi belongs to him. t's her car. Fes hers. Ti betongs to her, it’s its food. ~ a . Tt-helongs to it. ‘It’s our car. it’s ours. It belongs to ws. It's your car. Z's yours. Ht belongs to you. J's their car. A's theirs, it belongs to them. Pronumele interogativ tine locul, in propozitii interogative, agtoptate ca rispuns la intrebare, poate avea caiegoria gramatic si Indeplineste functia sintactio’ de s u functia de marci, introducind propozitii subordonate (Vedi capitolul 26: Vorbirea directa gi indirecta). Pronumele interogative pot fi fo! a) numai ca pronume: Who is ke? b) numai ca determinanji; What kind of man is he? 0) ea pronume sau cx determinanti: What do you want? What books do you want Pronumele interogative sint specializate: who este folosit pentru fiinfe, what pentru lucruri, which pentru fiinfe si lucruri, how much pentru cantitati, how many pentru numér, what kind of pentru calitati etc. 137Din punct de vedere al flexiunii, who are forme deosebite pentru fiecare caz. Celelalte pronume interogative sint invariabile. WHO are urmitoarele forme: N.: Who? = cine; D: feo} whom = cui? Ac: Whom? Who? (fam.} = pe cine? Gz Whose? = al, a, ai, ale oui? Who se refer numai la persoane: Who dit you ‘meet ? Forma whose se poate referi gi la lucruri gi animale: Whose food ws 1 EB: 18s the dog's food. Who este iolosit mai ales dupa prepozitii: By whom was the poem written ? In verbirea curent&, who este folosit In locul lui whom, iar prepozitia se agark Ja sfingital propozitiei: Whe was the poem writien byt Nts Atunel clnd who indeplineste fanetia de subiect, el este urmat de un verb la singuler: Whe is speaking? dar atunci clnd indeplineste functia de complement, acordul cu verbul se face in numar: Who is she waiting tort Who are they waiting tort WHAT ‘ca pronume’ interogativ se referd la substantive sau tnlocuitori ai aoestora de orice gen, precum gi la propozitii intregi: ? What is the meaning of this word? ow? nd what indeptinesta funefia sintacticd de subiect, verbul este 1a ust is happening (Ce se fntimpla aici?) dar cind indeplineste e complement, acordi ou verbul so face in mumar: What are they doing? What ee trad Yimba romana prin: a) CE atunei cing presupune un réepuns prin care se aratd profesiunea sau b) ce} car: _ What t wterogativ este un nominativ: Which is shorter, Betty iv: Whieh of these books do you prefer? dintr-un nsumar limitat de obiecte: Which of the lake? Which of the giris do. you like? Cind pronumele sau adjectival interogativ este insofit de o prepozifie, aceasta fl recede Im Limba Seris2: From whiat country does she come? In vorbirea curenti, propozitia se agazi la sfirgitul propozifiei: ‘What country does she come trom? mele relatiy ee refer Ja un substantiv sau tnlocuitor al aces- deja menfionat gi e! face leg&tura intre propozifia in care se afl& tuia care a fot fi cea pe cate 0 tnsofegte: J how people { ed } don't like this writer. 138Pronumele relative sint: wh, which gi that, Who, DjAc. who(m}, G. whose se referi la un substantiv sau tnlncuitor de gen masculin sau feminin: The girl who sang is my cousin. A carpenter is a man who makes chairs and tables. He is a writer whose works are very well-known, Which, whose se referk ia substantive de genul neutru: Tom is wearing @ coat whieh is too iarge for him. The trees, whose leaves are yellow and red... Copacii, ale caror frunze sint gaibene gi rogii... . That se referd la substantive, indiferont, de gon gi caz: The dog { ae } ran across the street is mine. The man { - } showed you the way is very old. Prenumele relative si pronumele interogative who, which $i what se pot asocia cu adverbele ever si sever pentru @ forma pronume relative, respectiv pronume inte- Togative compuse: whoever = (pe) oricine. Whoever comes must wait here. Oricina ‘ine trebuie si astepte aici. whichever (pe) oricare. He will coke whichever is his. Ofti va lua ‘pe oricare este afal Jul. (vezi gi § 25.8.4). Who, whom, whose introdue indeosebi propozitii relative descriptive (propozifii cars aduc informafii suplimentare, neesenfiale, despre antecedent): My wife, te whom you were speaking Just now, wants you to come te dinner, Sofia mea, c&reia vorbeai acum, doregte si vii la noi la masa Aceste pronume relative pot introduce ¢i proporitii relative restrictive {propozifit care aduc informafii absolut necesare pentru clarificarea sensului): The boy who threw the stone will be punished. Whick introduce attt propozifii relative descriptive (a) olt gi restrictive (b a) Swimming, which is an enjoyable sport, makes people strong and healthy. b) The glass whieh you are drinking out of has just been washed. That se foloseste nual in propozit rieti he chair thet was bi yesterday has been mended Pronuitle relative who, which, tt se omit in proposifiile restrictive ( limba vorbita) clnd se yisese tn cazul acuzativ: The g: i (who{m)) you have just met is my nivee. The magazine (that) you lent me is very interesting. Pronumele relativ trebuie agezat, pe cit posibil, Maga antecedentul stu. Nerespectarca acestei reguli poate da nag- tere la confusii: He met the girl in the street that you know. A intilnit fata pe strada pe care 0 cunogti. In the street, he met the girl that you know. A intitnit, fata pe care © cunogti pe sirada. Cind proaumele relativ in acuzativ este insofit de o prepozitie, aceasta este agezata inaintea pronumeiui relativ in limba scrisk. In exprimares fa’ Hard, pronuinele relativ se omite de obicei, iar prepozitia se agazi dupk ves san complementul direct: This is the man to whom 7 gave the parcel (scxis), This is the man (whom) F gave the parcel to (familisr). ¥8oPronumele nehotarit desemneazi global (all) sau pertial (each, either) obecte sau fenomene. Pronumele nehot&rite sint folosite: a) numai ca pronume: ., { somebody There is { SometeOY here, None of them was in time. b) ca determinan}i sau pronume: 7 some. Five got 1 some English books. The teacher talked with { 2en Perens (Neither boy (Neither of you f 6a” 4 AI te AER Yar see (Veui gi § 3.10). = ceva, nigte, putin, putind, unii, unels, cifiva, citeva, vrewn, vreo, se intrepuinteaz in’ propozifii afirmative gi indica existenfa unui numar restrins -de lucruri, fiinte, a unei cantitati restrinse. Este folosit cu substantive numéarabile Ja plural gi cu sub- stantive nenumarabile la singular: There are some on his desk. She bought some. Some poate fi folosit. in propozitii interogative: a) eind se pune accentul pe o parte din obiectul sau obiectele menfionate: Did you read some-of the books the teacher recommended ? b) in propozitiile in care se ofera ce you have some? ¢) cind intrebarea nu se refer ia some: Did you ask father to give me some? vroun, vreo, nici un{ul}, nici o, nici una se intrebuinfeaza: a) in propozitii afirmative eu sensul: oricare, orice: Any of you could answer this question. b) in propoziti interogative si negative: Have you got any? I haven’? got any. Compusii lui some, any gi no /no este folosit doar ca determinant — vezi $3.40) sin’ pronumele nehotarite: ; somebody|somcone anybody | anyone — — nobody {no one none something “anything -- nothing Acestea sint folosite numai oa pronume. Nu pot fi folosite gi ca determi- nanti: somebody 1 say 4 Something |, your room. nohoty nothing Pentru Intrebuintaree compusilor lui some, any, no, ta propozitii afirma- tive, interogative si negative, vezi § 23.1. — §'23.3 se refera la membrii unui grup luafi individual: Back of them wanted to try. Fiecare (dintre ei) dorea si incerce. 140nev (forma negativé 0‘ .)== fiecare {nici unul) din doi este folosit mai ales in propozifii interogative gi negative: Have you seen either of them ? L-ai vazut pe vreunul dintre ei (doi)? In propozitii afirmative, either are sensul de ,oricine, oricare": Either of you can do it. Oricare dintre voi (doi) poate face acest lucru, => + este folosit doar ca determinant: Every pupil must do his homework. ‘Compusii lui every insa stnt folosifi doar ca pronume nehotirite: Every- body is present. Toti sint prezenti. Z have everything J need. Am tot ce-mi trebuie. = tot, toaté, toti, toate, exprim4 totalitatea lucrurilor sau fiinfelor gi inlocuiegie substantivele numdrabile Ja plural: ’ve read them sll. Le-am citit pe toate. sau substantive nenumérabile la singular: I’ve read all about this subject. Am citit tot in legitura cu acest subiect. Tad! Poste fi folosit gi ce predeterminant (veri §3.4.3):Give me all the Books need. In vorbirea curenta, a/l este tnlocuit de obicei cu everybody sau everything, in functie de sens; All are here = Everybody is here. Tell me all about it = Tell me everything about it. =un, unul, una, cineva, are o singuré forma, indiferent de gen, numar gicaz: There were iwo women in the room: one was young and one was old. One cu valoare impersonal se intrebuinjeaz’ in sens foarte general: One should always perform his duty. Trebuie intotdeauna si-ti faci datoria. One se acorda cu he, she, it si cu formele corespunzitoare: his, him, her ete. One of the boys said he would stay at home. Pronumele nehotarite cu sens negativ sint considerate de unii antori o clasi aparte de pronume — pronumele negative. Pronumele negative desemneazi lipsa cbiectelor sav a fenomenelor. Folosirea lor exclude existen{a altor negatii in propozitie. Pronumele negative sint: nobody, no one (nuneni), none {nici unul), neither (nici anui din doi), nothing (nimic}: Neither of them is right. Nici unul dintre ei (doi) nu are drep- tate. What have you bought? Nothing. Ce-ai cvmpirat? Nimic, Pronumele negativ none = nici unul, nici una, se intrebuinteaza atit pen- teu fiinge cit gi pentru lucruri: None is so blind as those who will not see. Nimeni nu-i mai orb ca cei ce nu vor sk vada. None of the things he needed was in its right place. Nici unul dintre lucrurile de care avea nevoie nu era ia looul lui. Exercises 1. Completazi punctele cu adjectioul sau pronumele posesiv necesar: 1. Betty can’t eat... birthday cake alone. 2. This is not my book. it's... 8. Peter, ... room is on the left,... is on the right. 4. Jane, you mmst go and wash... face. 5. ... classroom is sunny; we like it. 6. Jack is very bright for... age. 7. He may take the bail, il’s... 8. These records belong to. them. They are... That is my book, but this is not... 16. 1 needed an umbrella and f asked Alice if I could borrow. . iiLL. Raspundeji la urmatoarele intrebdri, Folositi pronumele 1 ca subiect, tnlocuifi substantivele cu pronume: Model: Who lent the hook to that student? J lent it to him. 1. Who told the story to the children? 2. Who wrote the letter to Mrs White? 8. Who sent the present to Bob? 4. Who bought the books for Jane? 5. Who gave the apples to the boy? 6. Who explained the lesson to the new student? 7. Who showed the town to the tourists? 8. Who asked the teacher about Independence Day? Wil. Folositi forma corecté @ pronumelui (I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them). 1. Look, there's George. Who invited... .? 2. The Wilsons and I decided to ask him. ... thought he would enjoy it; 3. I'm looking for my trousers. Have you seen. Does your boy friend speak English? .. . should study it if he doesn’t. 5. The weather is getting colder. ... won't improve for the next two or three days. 6. Have you read this book? ... is very interesting. 7. She is a nice girl. Do you know...? 8. We offered Ann some flowers. She invited...to her birthday party. IV. Completaji spatiile punctate cu pronume relative acolo unde este cazul: 1. The girl... is sitting at the desk is our typist. 2. The book... she is reading has been. published recently. 3. That is the man... helped the child cross the street. 4, Is this the woman ... sold you the English dictionary? 6. 1 don't remember the joke . . . he told us. 6. That is the student . . . always gets excellent marks. 7. He is the football player... scored three goals. 8. Is this the house built by your brother? ‘V. Traduce}i in Birica gi Polina ramaseri. fgi luard secerile pe umar gi porniré amindoi spre locurile lui Tudor Balosu. Pe drum, Polina ti spuse din nou c& nu se poate ajunge la o intelegere cu tata! ei dacd au sa stea gi si-] agtepte pe e] sa se impace. Ea fl cunoagte mai bine. Pamintul trebuie luat cu forfa. Biric’ i rispunse o& orice Jucra se poate lua cu forta cum ar fi si zicem un cal, 0 cirufi, o vita; i ai cu forja si i! duci cu tine. Dar pamintul n-ai cum s&-] jai. Pentru pamint trebuie forme le notariat si numai atunci poti s& zici c&e al t&u. Spunindu-i acest Iuerv, Hi atrase Iuarea aminte cite ea de proasta ind igi inchipuie o& nu s-a gindit in toate felurile la situafia lor. Polina rispunse ci stie ea de forme, chiar mai mult decit crede el. $i anume c& daca te folosegti de un lucru mai multi ani si aduci pe un atifia ani lucrul acela a fost al tau, poi s&-i faci forme cde al tau ¢ vrea, Birica igi desereti fruntea gi spuse cu mult& mirare gi admirafie c& 2iu, a dracului nafie de muiere mai este ea, Polina se fécu rosie auzindu-} cum o lauda i fi raspunse c& cu alde tat- -siut ea gi-a luat gindul de la omenie. Nu trebuie si. mai strice omenia pe el, Cit 4 fost fatdi mare nu i-a cumpirat nici o af, nici un petic, a umblat desculti Ja hora; el, Biried, cunoagte gi el bine povestee asta. Ar trebui s& infeleag’ ci altceva nu mai ¢ de facut. Mersera mult in t&cere gi el nu-i raspunse decit tirziu. li atrase luarea aminte cA tatalei il poate da in judecata. Ii da in jude- cata gi iese ru, Polina il intrerupse spunind c& asta n-are s& indrazneasca el s-o facd. Ha s-a maritat gi are dreptul la pAmintul pe care l-a muncit. $i dacd tatal ei are s8 facd proces, are sa aibi ea grija si-i scoaté procesul pe nas. imba engi (Marin Preda — Movometii)Adjectivul este partea de vorbire care: ; a) exprima 0 calitate a unui obiect (an interesting lectiire, an old man); b) are categoria gramaticalé a comparatiei: He is taller than his broiter. ¢) indeplineste functiile sintactice de atribut, apozitie, nume predicativ, element predicativ suplimentar. Spre deosebire de Himba roman&, unde adjectivul are flexiune dupé gen, numéar, caz gi comparatie, adjectivul din limba engleza nu se schimbs dupa g numar gi caz. Singurul inod de marcare formal este comparatia: Limba roman’: Limba englezi: un elev inteligent a dover schoolboy o eleva inteligentd a clever schoolgirl elevi imteligent clever schoolchildren Lectia a doua este mai grea decit Lesson 2 is more diffieutt chan prima lectie. Lesson 1. Continutul cat goriei gramaticale a comparatie! consti In fapts obiectele din humea Inconjuratoare calitatile pot aparea in masuri egal The Maths teacher is as old as the Physics teacher. sau in masuré inegali: The maths teacher is older than the Physics teacker. Categoria gramaticala a coraparafiei este concretizata In limba engh ca gin limba romana, in trei grade de compara Gradul pozitiv nemarcat ara prezenja normalii a unei calititi a obieetelor, féré a se face vreo comparatic: He ix tall, She is beautiful. Gradul comparativ mpark doud obiecte, indicind prezenk calitatii la obiectele comparate in masura ogald (comparetivul de egalitate He is as tall as. his sister) sau in masura inegala (comparativul tate: J am younger than her.) sau de inferioritate: ( This lesson is less inter resting than the previous one). La’ gradul comparativ, termenul comparafiei poate fi ex more punetual than the others. sau neexprimat: He is more punctual. Gradul superlatiy erat c&’un membru al unui grup posed calitatea comparatA in cel mai inalt grad, prin intermediul unci comparatii directe (superlativul relativ: She is the eleverest of ali.) sau firé comparatie directa (superiativul absolut: She is very clever). Atunci cind se compari numai doud notiuni se foloseste gradul comparativ precedat de articolul the in locul superlativului: She is the younger and the more heautiful of she two sisters, 1434) Adjectivele. terminate Ante. “0 consoan precedata. & Oo. vooala, seurté, _ dubleaza consoana: big — bigger ihe Bigbest te hot — hotter — the hottest. fat: Efer sahe fattest°° > thin = thinner — the thinnest... 2)"“Adjectivele- terminate in -y precedat ‘deo consoand transforma pe yin Ai dry —drier — the driest. 3) Adjectivele terminate in'-e sau ~ee, Bord pe se final inaintea Ini -er sau“ -e8t! nice ~ nicer —the nicest; free — freer — the frees; © B) In. mod sintetio: se compara gi adjectivele bisilabice terme nate in ~y, -le, -er,,-ow gi -some: happy —happier —the happiest; able — abler. — the ablesi; “clever —cleverer — the cleverest; narrow — narrower — the narrowest; handsome — handsomer — the handsomest; Exeeptii: eager, proper, fertile, hostile fragile se compar& nual ¢ cu more gi the most. "| Atenfie! Adjectivele mentionate la punctul B) pot avea gi forme ana- litice ‘de comparatiy gi superlativ.” Formele sintetice sint folosite in special cu adjective bisilabice mai frec- vente: prettier, cleverer,. narrower, nobler. Unele adjective pot avea ambele forme de comparatiy gi superlativ: —cu preferinta pentru formele sintetice: a) adjective monosilabice: calm, fit, huge, just, keen, kind, plain, rare, scarce, sound; stiff, vague: ; calm — calmer — the calmest b) adjective bisilabice terminate in -y sau “ly: angry,’ clumsy, ‘cloudy, lucky, misty, sleepy, friendly, lovely; angry — angrier —the angriest —ou preferinja pentru formele’ analitice: a) adjective bisilabice cu accentul pe prima silaba:. active, civil, common, fertile, hostile, constant, prudent, \ pleasant, stupid, sudden; active ~~ more active — the most active; b) adjective bisilabice cu accentul po ultima’ silab’: concise, reiat precise, severe, profound, polite. Excepfie: adjectivele bisilabice terminate in dou’ consoan correct, dis: tinct, exact, intact etc., formeaza, comparativul si superlativul numai cu ~ more $i the most: a more distinet pronunciation = 0 pronuntie mai clard; ¢) adjective formate din trei silabe cu un prefix negativ: unhappy, unlucky, unpleasant, insecure; unpleasant — more unpleasant —" the most unpleasant. iE 144,Folosirea formei sintetice sau analitice cu toate aceste adjective depinde deseori de ritmul propozitici, de nevoia de expresivitate. In limba vorbita sint preferate formele sintetice, in timp ce in scris se folosese mai ales formele analitice. Coxgngratia auatitiea A) Adjectivele formate din doua sau mai multe silabe formeazi comparativul si superlatival analitic cu ajutorul lui more i the most: careful — more careful — the most carefist difficult — more difficult — the most difficult B) Adjectivele compuse formeaza yradele de comparatic in felul urmator: a) cind primul element este un adjectiv care isi pistrear’ sensul, acest: se schimba la comparativ si superlativ: well-known — better-known — ihe best-known -paid. — worse-paid —the worst-paid intelligent-looking, — more intelligent-looking —the most intelligent-iooking b) cind cele doud elemente formeazi un tot din punct de vedere al sensului, comparatia se realizeaz cut ajutorul tui more gi the most heart-broken —~ more heart-broken — the most heart-broken far-fetched — more far-fetched. — the most far-fetched Comparativul de egalitate se exprima prin adjectivul la yradul pomtiv precedat. si urmat de conjunctia as: Hy room is as large as hers, Camera mea este la fel de mare ca a ei, Comparativul de inferioritate se exprima prin adjectivul la gradul pozitiv precedat de not sofas gi urmat de as, (modalitate folosit& mai ales in yorbirea curenta) sau prin less... than (procedeu iolosit mai, ales cu adjecti vele Jungi si inexprimarea scrisa): My homework is not as easy as yours. Tema mea nu e la fel de ugoari ca a ta, This lecture is less’ interesting than ihe previous one. Acest curs e mai pulin interesant decit cursul anterior. Superlatival absolut se construieste” cu ajutorul adverbelor very, 100, highly. extremely, utterly: The story he told us was very amusing. [* is extremelly diffienlt to reach the top. Unele adjective formeaza comparativul gi superlativul in mod nereguiat: good = bun — better — the best ‘Eight is a good mark. Nine is hetter than eight. Ten is the best mark. bad = rau « Tm bolnay f Worse” —~ the worst They are both bad boys, but Peter is worse thax: Tom. Of all the bad boys 1 know Peter is the worst. much = mult many = mul{i he most fee 145 1a — Gramatics mbit enelezeWe haven’: much butter ‘eft. / need more help. This plate has the most meat on it late = tirziu —laler = mai tirziu = the latest = col mai tirziu recent mai recent cel mai recent — the latter == cel de-al doilea (dintre doud elemente) acesta din urma {opus hui the former) — the last = ultimul (dintre mai multe elemente) (opus lui the first) The late edition of this paper appears at 3 p.m. There is a later one at 5 p.m. John and Tom are tall boys: the former is the captain of the basketball team and the latter is « ccod footbalier. What's the latest: news? Care sint ultimele stiri? (ping acum) His last novel is still enpablished. Ultimul sdu roman este incd népubkicat. (nu a mai scris alle romane}. —the oldest = ce] mai batrin es] mai vecbi — elder virsti — the eldest = cel mai in virstaé (despre membrii aceleiasi (despre membrii aceleiagi ‘i, folosit atributiv) familii, folosit atributiv {opus lul younger) My brother is older than ms, Vratele meu e mai mare decit mine, My elder Brother is a doctor. Frat nai mare este doctor. She is my eldest sister. Ea este sora msec Bide posto foles elder pe — nearer = mai apropial —th (in spagix e nearest = cel mai apropiat radenie) (in spatiu, redenie) nexi == urmatorul (in limp, ordine) Peter is a wear relation of mine. Peter este o ruda apropiatd de-a mea. Can you show me the nearest iobacconist's? Imi puteti arata tutungeria cea mai apropiat’? Mrs Green wes the next person to arrive, Doemna Green a fost urm persoand care tittle = putin 2 far ‘est. he furthest further = 2 3 gE. su] jimentar, aa in plus I can’t walk.any fartherjturther. Nu mai pot merge mai departe. A shali need further help with this. Voi mai avea nevoie de ajutor pentru aceasta. Plaio is the tarthest planet. Pluto este cea mai indepartata planeta. Adverhele much si far agezate thaintea comparativului si by far agonat dupii comparativ tntarese ideca exprimata de adjectivul respectiv: This book is much more interesting/tar more interesting/more interesting by far than the 146other books he has weritten. Cartea aceasta este mult mai interesanta dectt celelalte carfi pe care le-a scris. Constructia cw cit ... + comparati¢ ... cw atit ... + comparatie se reda prin doua comparative precedate de the: ‘The longer the days, the shorter the nights. Cu cit sint zilele mai lungi, cu atit sint noptile mai scurte. 7 Constructia din ce ince mai ..., tot mai... se red& in’ limba engleza vorbita (stilul familiar) prin repetarea comparativului gi intercalarea conjunetiei and: Jt is colder and colder. Este din ce in ce mai frig. The old man felt worse and worse. Batrinul.se simfea din ce in ce mai rau. Daca adjectivul este plurisilabic, se repet& adyerbul morejless gi se inter- caleazi conjunctia and: His lectures are more and more interesting. Your stories are less and less eredible. Acelagi sens se reda in stilul oficial si in scris prin folosirea adverbului ever in fata comparativului: The books published in this country are ever more interesting. Din punct de vedere sintactic, adjectivele pot fi: a) atributive, indeplinind functia de atribut sau apozitie in propozitie: Tom has a new bike. b) predicative, indeplinind functia de nume predicativ in propozitie: Tom's bike is new. vt Verbele copulative: be, stand, seem, appear, look, become, grow, get, turn, keep, remain, continue sint urmate de adjective (sinu de adverbe) cu valoare de nume predicative: He is clever. She is getting old. They are keeping silent, ‘Verbele exprimind perceptia senzoriald: look, smell, sound, taste; feel sint de asemenea urmate de adjective: You look beautiful. The soup tastes good. Din punct de vedere al folosirii atributive sau predicative, adiectivele in limba engleza se impart in trei grupe mari: a) adjective care pot fi intrebuintate atit atributiv, eft si predicativ: The old man has come again. He is very old. b) adjective care nu pot fi folosite dectt atributiv. In aceasta grup& intra: —adjectivele terminate in -en, provenite de la substantive concrete: She has a woollen dress. —adjectivele indicind punctele cardinale: Romania lies in Eastern Europe. —adjectivele derivate din substantive: a medical school; atomie energy; a eriminal attack. —unele adjective din care pot fi derivate adverbe: my former friend; her late husband; an utter fool. adjective care sint intrebuintate numai predicativ: —adjectivele: wl, well, drunk, worth: He is ill. He is not well. —adjeétivele derivate cu prefixul a-: ablaze = aprins, in flacari alone = singur afraid = speriat ashamed = ruginat ¢) 147 lox“aghast = infricogat, inspalmintat asleep = adormit alert = atent. vigilent, vioi averse ~ potrivnic, opus alike = la fel, identi awake = tear alive = viu, in viata aware = constient - The little boy was still asleep,-but his mother was ‘awake. Not; Te Unele dintre aceste adjective pot {i folosite ateibutiv cind sint. precedate de yo aitverh: a fully awake person: a very ashamed child: the Nall asleep girt 2 Citeva adjective predicative au un sinonim cu valoare ateibulivi: afraid — froght. ened; alike ~ similar; alive ~ living; alone — lonely. The child was afraid to ash for help/The frightened child didn’t ask for help. These two dresses are very muchwalike/ These are similar dresses. a) Adjectivul folosit atributiy preceda substantivul pe care il determing; a high mountain; a difficult problem. b) In citeva cazuri adjectivul, atributiv este in mod obligatoriu agezat. dupa substantiv: —in grupurile de euvinte: Ambassador Extraordinary, secretary general, postmaster general, attorney general, court martial, heir apparent, knight errant, poel laureate, from time immemorial ; —pronumele nehotarite care se termini in -bddy; -one; -thing, sint de obicei urmate de adjective: She bought something nice, He said nothing interesting. c) Cind mai multe adjective determing un substantiv, adjectivul al earui injeles este cei mai legat de substantiv se asazi in imediata lui apropiere. iar celeialte il preced& in ordinea gradului de apropiere al infelesului lor de cel al substantivului, Nu exist reguli stricte privind ordinea adjecti- velor, dar de obicei, cind un substantiv este determinat de mai multe adjective, ele se succed in ordinea urmatoare : insusire, dimensiune, forma, virsta, culoare, nationalitate, origine, adjectiv verbal: She bought a few large red apples. I met three tall young French girl students. The smal round ancient Chinese box was on the table. d) Cind un substantiv este determinat de dowa adjective ia comparativ, unul scurt gi celilalt lung, cel scurt il preced’ pe cel lung: She was taller and more beautiful. e) Adjectivul cu determinare urmeaza substantiyul: [t was a house ugly with decay. Era o casa urita din cauza degradarli. f) Adjectivul folosit predicativ urmeaza verbul copulativ: He is ill. She seems tired. You look palo. Exercitii L. Pune}i adjectivele din parantezés la forma corecta: 1, Summer is (good) season of the year. 2, I: summer the days are (long) and the nights are (short) than in spring. 8. The 22°¢ of June is (lone) day of the year. 4. In July the days become (warm) and (warm). 5. (Many) people play football in summer. 6. Football is (popular) game 148in Romania. 7. I think autumn is as (beautiful) as summer. 8. The weather isn't. as (warm) es in summer, but the trees are (beautiful) than in summer, 9. Winter is (bad) season of the year. Ibis cold and wet. 10. Some people think it is (interesting) season of the year, because they can ski, skate or play with snow. HL. Alogefi forma corecttt a adjectivelor din parantest: 1, From these two dresses the cheaper is (the best, the bette she has retired, (Jess and less, fewer and fewer) triends have vis ke and Bob are students. The former studies medicine, (the second, the me to the latter ) studies architecture. 4.. Her (older, elder) sister did ‘not. party. 5. The doctor asked (the nearest, ihe next) person to come WL. Tradacei in limba englez 1. Ai citit ultimu! roman al lui Marin Prodi’ 2. Ti s-a sant decit celelalte romane ale lui? 8. A fost pe departe cea mai placuta vacan{A pe care am petrocut-o vreudata Ja mare. 4. Ei studiaza din ce in ce mai mult gi obfin rezultate din ce in ce mai bune, 5. Cu cit ere mai atent cu atit mai puline greseli facea. 6. 1 cunogti pe fratele ei rai mare? 7. Rochia ta este mai moderna deceit a 8. Car mai tadepartata? rut mai intere- Adverbul este partea de vorbire care: a) arata o caracteristic’ a unei acfiuni, a unei stari sau a unei calitafi; b) poate avea categoria gramaticald a compara ¢) indeplineste functia sintactic& de complement circumstantial. 1 subst Liv {de obicel precedat de A CAT, sau un pronume: 1. Adverbel mai poate aparea pe Haga acticolul nehotdeit): He is quite A ALAN now. Js this book realy MINE? 2. Unele adverbe pol forma singure propozifii: Res Almost. Yes. No. Maybe. Now. Never. 'y! Down! Paster! Giadly. rest > sint_expresii fixe cu valoare de adverbe: at present = in prevent; asa rule = de obicei; by the way = apropos as @ miaiter-of-fact = de fapt; at once = imediat; once in a while, now and then = din gind in cind; to-and fro = incoase gi incolo ete. sint constructii prepozi- tionale.care pot fi folosite ca adverbe: He watches TY in the evening. (adverb de timp). She went out of the room. (adverb de loc} ete. 149Unele construcfii adverbiale se folosese: a) ctnd nu se pot forma adverbe de la adjectiv: She spoke with difficulty. b) cind constrictia adverbiala este mai fireascd dectt adverbul: She addressed the doctor in a broken voice. ¢) cind adiugarea sufiului ty ay schimba intelesul: She spoke in high voiee. (She spoke highly of him). Cele mai mylte adverbe de mod se formeaza prin addugarea sufixului -ly la forma adjectivului: He is a slow walker. He watks slowly. La fel se formeazi gi unele adverbe de timp, sufixul -ly find addugat fevcry week. weekly. Nu toate cuvintele terminate in -ly sint adverbe. Unele sint ve: friendly, lovely, lonely, likely, timely si sigt folosite ca parti struci: gdverbiale: He came at a timely moment, She spoke to us in a friendly way/manner. Adverhele de timp terminate in -Zy pot-fi folosite atth ca adjective, eft gi ca adverbe: This is a daily paper. It comes owt daily. unui substantiv: This magazine is published { Oriagealey In general, adiugarea sufixului -ly nugnodifica forma initial « cuvintalui He is a careless driver. He drives carelessly. Daca adjectivnl se termind tn’-e, acesta se pistreazd inaintea sufixului -ly: entire -- entirely; extreme — extremely. Eveapfii: true —traly; due — duly; whole — wholly. Daci adjectival se termina in -l, adverbul va avea -U, prin addugarea terminatiei ly: beautiful + ly = beautifully. —Adjectivele terminate tn -y il transforma in -i-tnaintea sufixului -ly: happy — happily; day — daily. — Adjectivele terminate in -II pierd un -I: full — fully; — Adjectivole terminate in -le silabic pierd -e gi adaugt =y: simple — simply; probable — probably; sensible — sensibly; -- Adjectivele terminate in -ic adaugi -ally pentru a deveni adverbe: enthusiasti¢ —- enthusiastically, automatie — automatically. Dar:. publie — publicly; —-Adjectivul good devine adverbul well: She is a good pupil. She speaks English well. — Unele adverbe au forme speciale (only, often, ever, etc.), pe cind altele stnt omonime cu alte parti de vorbire, in special cu adjective She arrived early/tast/late today. 150In alte cazuri, adverbele pot avea doud forme, cu diferentieri de sens. | rom tart ty Sone Pormé oa Jy Bene ae came elose and] aproape I followed the insirue- | indeaproape | looked uf me, tions closely. | He dug deep in the! adinc, Ia adineime | He was deeply con- | foarte tare, profund | ground. corned. I They went dreet hum: drept, | The car was coming | — direct, drept; | | dea” dreptul | direetly towards me. a i go, come, send | She wis directly affect- | —in mod direet; | | — fark intermediar | ed. | | personal hey came directly after — indat& (imediat); lunch. | I got up directly the | —de indat& ce | bell rang. Take it easy! | expresii in engleza | I solved the problem | eu ugurinfi, ugor | Just go easyt vorbita: ugor, calm, | easily. | Easy come, easy go!| incet play fair | tn anumite coloca- | He was treated fairly. | —drept, corect, | fight fate | fis coreet, cinstit | cum se cuvine; | | His paper is tairly | ~ destul de i good. | t gratuit They criticized him tre | \iber, neconstrins ) tly. workjstudyjarink] rain) foarte mult, din | I could hardly under- | de-abia, cu greu, | hard greu, tare stand her. ca greutate, ~ din | He recovered hardly | greu what he had lost before. The plane flew high| sus He was highly appre. | foarte, extrem de in the air. ciated, \ She has just arrived. } toemsi He was justly forgiven, | po drept | She arrived Inte. | tirsin I haven't seon them | in ultima yreme | +} lately. 7 | He abcays travels light,| fir bagaje He treats everything | superficial, ew ugu- | lightly. rings | She works most. | cel mai mult The village is mostly | —in cea mai mare { of wooden houses, parte; in general They live quite nesr.| aproape, ling He_ worked nearly ten | aproape (de) hots. { ‘They were nearly home. It ia pretty late. desta! de She dresses prettily. | dragu Come as quiek as you in engleza famili- | He spoke qulekly and | in engleza ingri can. ard: repede | confident. Tepede She is here right now.| chiar He judged rightly. bine, corect “cf. K Schibsbye — 4 Modern English Grammar, Second Edition, OUP, London, 1970, pp. 152159 151ee er ee end) drept. direct | She is sightiy consi- | pe drept i | dered the brightest pupil | | } | in the class, t eee | i. } He guessed the answer | bine, tntocmai | He rightly guessed her | bine, corect right. | age. i ( -: The door was wide de tot, in intregime | He has travelled widely. | —muliy pe © su- f | | oper. | prats}e mare; t They are wide awake. | They are widely dif- | —intr-o mare mi- 1 ferent. TH, foarte iguessijudge] | gregit, rau, pros’ | Theavords were wrongly | tn mod gregit | nole wrong. i | spelt. He was errangly | | geifeat sons, \ | informed, “| Le aceste adverbe, forma in -ly are de obicoi un sens mai abstract sau Alte adverbe cu dowa forme sint: cheap — cheaply; dear — dearly’; sharp - ~~ shar rig yi tight —tighily, ete. ceavalk. fie cea adverbial’, She ‘aliced Joud and clear/iow in exprimare, forme adverbial nyatd in comparatia edverbelor, chiar quicker slower than me. He shouted adverbele se Dupa sensu) jor lexical rbe de mod, adverbe de _ verb de mod 1d india . slosoly, dic& ioe ul propriu-zis: here, there, somewhere. fia: aside, forward(s), backward (s}, right, left. Majoritate. adverbelor de loc pot fi folosite pentru a exprima atlt locwl, divectia: ‘He doesn's live far (Nu loculegte departe). He didn't go tar (Nu s-a dus deparie), Adverbele 7 ti p indica: iu, then, eben; eantually, formerly, now, nowadays, to afierwards, before, 352—durata: lately, recenily, since, still, yet; —freeventa: defimita&: weekly, three times a day; nedefinitd: often, usually, seldom, once in a while, Comparatia adverbelor apare numai la unele adverbe de mod, loc gi timp. Ea are aceleagi caracteristici ca si comparatia adjectivului Comparativul este folosit pentru compararea a doud persoane sau obiecte, iar superlativul pentru compararea raai multor persoane sau obiecte. ws Comparativul de superioritate se formeazé cu ajutorul sufixului -er in cazul adverbelor monosilabice §1 a adverbului early: fast — faster;-early — earlier, si cu ajutorul cuvintului more in cazul adverbelor hi- gi plurisilabice: quickly — more quickly; carefully — more carefully. In engleza familiar’, forma de comparativ a adjectivelor este uneori folosita in loc de cea a adverbelor: She laughed louder than anyone else. Ea ridea mai tare decit tofi ceilalfiv se formeazi cu ajutorul lui aS... aS? She speaks English as tuently as her brother, iar : cu ajutorul Ini not so / aS... aS: ‘She doesn’t learn as fast as her classmates, sau less... thant He drives less carefully than his wife. Comparativul adverbelor se realizeazd in doi termeni, ca gi la adjectiv: Paul works as rapidly as the others (do). Of the two boys, Dan works the more thoroughly. se formeazai cu ayutorul unor adverbe ca very, quite, most, care preced adverbul respectiv: very She sings } most } beautifully. quite Spre deosebire de gradul comparativ, superlativel abso intr-un singur termen: Our teacher explains things most clearly. “ este de doud feluri: a) Superiativul relativ de superioritate, exprimat prin (the)... -est in cazul adverbelor monosilabice gi a adverbului early: He runs (the) tastest (of all). si prin (the) most +-adverb in cazul adverbelor bi- si plurisilabice: He answers (the) most intelligently (of ail}. b) Superlativul relativ de inferioritate, exprimat prin (the) least + adverb: She spells words (ihe) least correctly (of all). Articolul the din forma superlativului poate fi omis, mai ales in limba verbita: He runs fastest of all. 153In cazul superlativului relativ, al doilea termen poate fi menfionat sau ~ omis: (Of the three children), Mary plays the piano the best. Adverbele care au forme identice cu adjectivele se supun aceloragi reguli fonetice si ortografice la gradele de comparatie: early — earlier —earllest ; late —later — latest. Unele adverbe formeazi ae a note gradele de comparatie in mod ne-egulat: Gradul pozitiv Gradul comparativ Gradul superlativ well. (bine) better (mai bine) (the) best (cel mai bine) badly (rau) worse (mai rau) (the) worst (cel mai réu)- much. (niult) more (mai mult) (the) most (cel miai mult) ltile (putin) less (mai putin) (the) least (cel mai putin) far (departe) farther (mai departe) (% ) farthest (cel mai leparte) further (the) furthest ere suecisia “ eotal Aghe 22 {destul de) se agaz& dupa adjective gi adverbe: The pupils didn’t work HAKD enough, He is OLD enough io understand this. Cind enough este folosit adjectival, determintnd un suhstantiv, el poate fi inainte sau dup& acesta: You have { aoe ae } to write your composition. aif destul timp. si serii, compozitia. timp destul } omporiti For departe) se foloseste de oucei in propozitii negative sau interogative, in propozitii afirmative, el este fie insotit de alte adverbe sau preporifii, fie inlocuit de a... way: He didn’t go tar. He went only a short way. He lives far away / not far from here. At first e folosit, cu sensul de at the beginning | 10 begin with gi este adesea urmat de but. In alte situatii se foloseste first:.First I went for a walk and then I went to bed. At first I didn’t like the town, but then I began to love it. ‘Aceste trei adverbe au-un sens aproape negativ. Hardly se foloseste de obicei impreuna cu any, ever sau cu verbul can, ou sensul: — cu greu, de-abia: He can hardly speak. sau: : — foarte rar, aproape niciodata: He hardly ever comes to see me. Borriy inseamna ,numai, abia, doar“ gi este des folosit cu adjective ca enough sau sufficient: He had barely enough time to catch the train. He is barely eizhteen. Are numai 18 ani. dese‘ combina sensurile lui hardly gi barely: —cu greu, abia: I scarcely heard what he said. —aproape de loc: He seareely ate anything, 154Adverbele here gi there apar adesea insofite de cuvinte ca: in, out, up. down, over: Its hot in here. Don't stay down there. It's cooler up here. Can you see.the cat running, out there? The teacher is standing over there. Adverbul just now are doua sensuri: T,chiar acum, toemai, in acest moment: Pupils are going on holiday just now. —adineauri: He came in just now. A nu se confunda a doua utilizare a iui just now ou just {toemai): J phoned her just now. (Verbul este la Past Tense). I-am telefongt adineauri, 1 have just phoned her. (Verbul este la Present Perfect). Tocmai i-am telefonat, ! Adverbul /ong este inlocuit in propozitii afirmative de a long time: Did you stay there long? Yes. I stayed there a long time. Ai stat mul acolo? Da, am stat mult (timp) acolo. (mult), very mueh (foarte mult). ‘Muck apare singur in propozitii negative si interogative. in propozifii afirmative, el este precedat de very: Do you like swimming much? Yes. J like it very much. Much poate fi folosit gi inaintea comparativului: Ht is much better to come in time. Este mult mai bine s& vii Ja timp. (numai, doar) se poate ageza: —inaintea cuvintului pe care il determina: Only HE came to see me. He came to see me only YESTERDAY. ~{naintea verbului (in engleza vorbita): He only CAME to see me yes- terday. In acest eaz, cuvintul la care se refera only va fi accentuat: He only came to see me yesterday. (in prezent, in curind) Folosit cu un verb la prezent, adverbul presently este sinonim cu at present, mai ales in engleza americana: She is presently staying with us. Presenily este sinonim cu soon cind este folosit ‘cu un verb la vitor: PU presently be with you. Adverbul still (inci) exprima durata, continuarea. Still este folosit in propozifii afirmative gi interogative: Js Mary still at the seaside? Yes, she is still there. Still poate apirea gi in propozitii negative pentru a sublinia continuarea unei actiuni negative: [ still don’t understand what this is about. Tot/Inca nu infeleg despre ce este vorba. Yet (inci, pind acum, pind atunci) se referd la un moment gi se intre- buingeaz in propozifii negative si interogative: Has it siopped raining yet He hasn't arrived yet. (Nu a sosit inca) sau: He hasn’t yet arrived. (mai putin frecvent). Cind adverbul yet are sensul ,deja", el ocupi poriia finala: Have they seen that film yet? Au vazut deja filmul? Agezate la inceputul propozitiei, ori dup’ conjunofiile but, and, adver bele stil si yet sint sinonime cu all the same (totugi, ev toate acestea) gi au valoare de conjunctii: stin Yet 1 don’t understand him. All the same 155Cu toate acestea nu-l injeleg. cei (foarte) poate modifica: —adjective: Ske is vary TALL, ipii trecute intrebuintate atributiv: She had a very SURPRISED look. spoke very LOUDLY. Leste la gradul comparativ, seu dacd participiul treeut este folosit predicatiy, trebuie insotit sau injocuit de much sau.de alte adverbe de ampiili greatly, highly, by far. ete.: ‘She was by farjmuch TALLER than him. She was very meh SURPRISED at his behaviour. Exercitii L. Exprimaji-vé acordul cw ofirmapiile de neai jos, folosind adverbe de mod. ary is an efficient worke: B: Yes, she works efficiently. Alice good singer. B. Yes, she sings well. a good dancer, 3. Our teacher is a a bad actor, 5. D: a hard worker, 6. Nick er is a careful typist. er is a careless driver. Ho is an optimistic speaker. 11. He is a noisy aventive listener. 13. He is a sensible speaker. 14, Diana is int. 3. Era 4, Cu greu pot si-ti vad fata in ne migeat de bunatatea ei. lainaltime, 9. Nu Lam vazut in sa. U1. Se inrud niem plecati dun 7. A gasit raspy ultima vreme 16. aproape aproape miezul Prepozitia este partea de vorbire neflexihila care: i ntactice de dependen{a intre parfile unei propozifi ve diferite: substantive, adjective, verbe sau adverbe pstitute ale acestora: 7 was pleased at the thought fost incintat de ideza de a merge Ja teatru, de subsiantive sau si of going 9 the theatre. Aa 1368.2. Catacteristici ale prepozifillor englezesti _ 8:2:1-Preporifille englexoqli cot caiul acuzativ: Look AT him. I am BEFORE her fest ae : Prepozitiile of, 10 gi for prezinta o situatie special’. Constructia cu prepo- zifia of este folosité ca echivalent al unei constructii genitivale: oe ‘The boy’s. coat YL . The coat af the. poy. } # new. ar preporitia to $i for marcheazscamul dativi I gave it to bin. I Bought it tor er. f : 8.2. Majoritatea propozitiilor-englezestisint urmate de substantive articulate, spre deosebire do limba romana: The children are playing IN the “garden. Copiii se joact IN gradina, 2 8.2.3. Ctteva preporiti apar in construcfii in care substantivul nu este? articulat (Vezi § 3.5.2,): at home; at breakfast/lunch/dinner; by car, bus, train, plane, boat; at daybreak|sunset{night ; in/to bed, class, town, hospital; at play; at war; at sea; by night/day; etc. atfinjto’ school, college, church. ; Folosirea articolului cu unele-dintre aceste substantive aduce schimbari de sens, de ex.: referirea lao anumitd casa, scoala, etc:: He is AT home. (El) este acasd. She is AT. the home of her firiends. (Ea) este In casa prietenilor ei. sau: He is AT sea (on a ship). (El) este pe mare (pe un vapor). He is AT the sea (at the seaside). (El) este la mare (pe litoral). f 8.2.4. Verbele precedate de prepozifii iau forma in -ing (Gerund): I am good AT remembering people’s names. Imi amintese cu ugurinta numele oame- ~ nilor. Excepfii: But si except sint urmate de infinitivul scurt: ‘They did nothing “BUT laugh. N-au facut nimic (altceva) decit sa rida. 8.2.5-Unele cuvinte sint urmate in mod obligatoriu de anumite prepozitii: a) Substantive: 7 : — interest, progress, satisfaction + in; cause, chance, opportunity + of; —exception, invitation, kindness + to; b) Adjective: , —anzious, enthusiastic +.about; —alarmed, amazed, asténished, clever, good + at; —bound, eager, famous, fit, sorry -+-for; —disappointed, rick, successful + in; — afraid; ashamed, avure, characteristic, fond, full, jealous, proud, sure, tured, typical, worthy + of; 157 ; co— affectionate, appropriate, attentive, contrary, eruel, deaf, indifferent, kind, parallel, polite, rade, thankful + to; —angry, busy, charmed, consistent, delighted, dizzy, faint, identical, pale, satisfied, stiff, wet + with; Aber grateful to smb. tor smth,* angry with smb. at what smb. does about smth. c) Verbe: —aim, arrive, fire, gaze, glance, glare, look, laugh. + at; —account, ask, blame, care, leave, long, look, send, set out, start, thank, wait + for; —conceal, die, differ, escape, hide, prevent, protect, recover, start, suffer, free + from; —abound, believe, end, fail, originate, participate, succeed (-+-ing), trast in; —aceuse, boast, cure, deprive, die, remind, rob, suspect, take care + of; —agree, comment, concentrate, congratulate, depend, insist, lecture, live, meditate + on; —adapt, adjust, apply, attribute, belong, cling, conform, consent, correspond, direct, explain, fasten, go, introduce, link, listen, object, prefer, reduce, refer, reply, report, sail, sell, speak, subscribe, turn + to; — complete, flush, glow,, quiver, overflow, shake, shiver, side, subscribe, supply, threaten, tremble -- with, agree with smb. on a thing; to a proposal; complain to smb. about smth; complain of an illness; consist of-= a consta din; in = a consta in; lie to smb. about smth; part trom smb.; with smth. ‘suffer tor a cause; trom/with a disease, injury; think of smth; about (= meditate); translate from a language into another language; wait for smbjsmth.; on smb (= serve); warn of (the danger); against (the enemy); bite, kick, point, throw +-at (scopul intentionat, dar neatins, al actiunii) bite, kick, point, throw + to (scopul actiunii este atins); get on/off a bus, boat; get in(to) / out of a car, plane. Preporitia apare in general Inaintea ouvintului la care se referd: The pupils are ‘a este folosité dup & acesta: the classroom. Elevii sint in clas&. a) inintreb&ri speciale (Wh-questions): What ishe writing ABOUT? (About what is he writing? = formal): Despre ce scrie? b) in (The ropoziftii relative: The flat I live IN is on the 10th floor flat in which I live is on the 10th floor = formal). Apartamentul tn care locuiese este le etajul 10. * smb = somebody; smth = something, 158cyin exclamafii: What photos they are looking ATI (At what photos they are looking ! = formal) La ce fotografi se uital 7 d)in constructii pasive: The children were looked AFTER by their grandmother. Bunica avea grijk de copii. ; e) tn constructii infinitivale: This is agood firm to work WITH. Aceasta este o firma bund cu care s4 ‘lucrezi. exmrumate de prepogifii In combinatie cu alte parfi de vorbire, prepozitiile exprima relafii variate: 6 In (tn) indica spafiul in general sau locul in interiorul cdruia are loc actiu- nea: in @ continent — country — town — village; in a square — street — room; in @ forest — wood —field; ‘At (in, la), indic& un punct anumit din spafiu sau un loc mai mic: at @ small village — address — certain point; at home; at work; at play; Within (in, intre) (formal) indicd pozitia intr-un spafiu limitat sau dis- tanja Himita (la distanja de, in): Many important documents are kept within the walls of this museum. Multe documente importante sint pastrate Intre peretii acestui muzeu. There is nobody within these four walls | within hearing | within a mile, at a building (— institufia);: in a building (cladirea): He is at school. E elev. He is in school. E in geoala. He lives in New York (orag mare). They stopped at Brussels on their way to New York (punct pe harti, trascu). By, beside, next to, near, close to, against By (lingi, la) indic& vecinatatea imediata: Mary is standing by the window. Beside, neat to (lingé, la, alaturijaproape de) indica apropierea imediata: There is a night table beside my bed. The post office is heside] next to the hotel, Near, close to (ling, aproape de) indica apropierea in general: He lives near] close’ to his office. 7 Against (lipit/rezemat de), exprind ideca de contact si aprijin: The bovk- case is against the wall. Tom leant against the bookease. Over, above, on top of; under, beneath, below, underneath Over (deasupra) gi under (sub, dedeseubt) indica 0 directio verticals sax apropierea: There's a picture over the fireplace. The dog is under the chair. Above (deasupra) gi below (sub, dedeseubt) arata doarvca un obiect se afla Mai sus sau mai jos decit altul: Their flat is above ours. Some part of Holland ts below sea level. On top of (pe) gi underneath (sub) arata ci un obiect 1 atinge pe celiialt: The TV aerial is on top of the house. The book you need is underneath those’ papers. Beneath (sub, pe sub) arata o distan}{ mai mick dectt delow sau este un gchivalent formal al iui under: The Dimbovija river passes henoath several In front of, before; bebind, after In front of (in faja) este folosit in engleza vorbiti, ou referire Ja obiecte: There is a tree in front of our house. (Dar: They were’ outside ihe cinema) 4, Defore (In fata, tnaintea) exprima ordinea agezirii persoanclor, in limba literarS: He was betore me. 159Behind (in spatele, inapoia) indica pozitia: The cat was behind the tree. ‘After (dupa, in spatcle) indiod ordinea, in spafiu sau in timp: He walked down. the stairs stter his wife. Between, among Between (intre) = un obiect se afld intre altele dowd sau intre mai multe dac&é numérul acestora este definit: Our school is between the hotel and the hos- pital. France lies between. Belgium, West Germany, Switzerland and Spain. Among (intre, printre) = un obiect se afld intre mai multe obiecte: There's a dictionary among these books. DIRECTIE: to, into, onto, towards. ‘Aceste prepozifii sint folosite cu verbe de migeare, pentru a indica directia: To (la) — migcarea pind la un punct: He came to school early. Into (in) — patrunderca: They went into the house. Onto (pe) —migearea pe o suprataja: The actor walked onto the stage. Towards {catre, spre) — directia catre un punct, dar nu gi atingerea desti- natiei (ca to): They walked slowly towards the river. a) In vorbire, in gi on sint adesea folosite tn loc de into gi onto, dupa verbe ca put, place, lay ete.: She put her money in her baglon the table. b) Verbul arrive este urmat de preporitia at: They arrived at home early. ‘Through, across, over Through (prin) indic& traversarea gi park, waik around it. “Aerosslover (peste) indicé numai traversarea: The train went over/across the bridge. They sailed across the ocean, Up, down, along Up and down (in susul gi josul) exprima o migoare pe vertical a: The children ran ap and down the stairs | hill. sau pe orizontala (dea lungul): They walked up and down the street] platform. (sinonim cx along} it, by Past (pe iinga) indie’ tarn right and you'll get in t By ( Atrunderea: Don’t walk through the: ca pe linga gi dincolo de: Waik past ths hotel, office. y ‘ings) e fark oprive sau cu o intrerupere scurté: They drove by the lake + ping. ‘Ahout, areand ural) ‘Around {h around his neck. - ‘Aboutjaround (in. j ajmas, prin) indic& o pozifiemigcare nedefi- nita: There aren't many cinemas sbout/around here. They walked about/around town all day. Off, out of, from Off (de pe, de ta, din} The vase fell off the table. Out of (din) exprimé the house. From (de, de 1a) indic& desparfirea, distanta, locul de unde a pomit actiunea: She came straight home irom school. TIMP: At, on, io Ata time: ai the/that time, at 8 o'clock, al noon, at night, at dinner (time), ai the weekend. adic& 9 pozitie sau miscate circulars: He has a muffler exprima separarea, desprinderea de pe o suprafata: jrea, scoaterea dintr-un volum: Ske came out of 160On day: on Sunday, on Monday morning, on New Year's day, on the 1" of March, ov the following day. In a period: in the (late) afternoon, in July, in summer, in 1990, in the following months, in the 20" century. By, before, after , 7 a mai tirziu de: You will have my answer by the end of the week. fnainte de: I talked to him before noon. / ai tirziu de, dupa: Ring me up after the meeting. From... to, till/until To poate exprima relatii de timp sau direcjie, till/until numai de timp. From (din, de la) indick momentul inceperii actiunii, to/till (pind in, pind Ja) sfirgitul ei: Ske stayed with us trom January to/till April last year. Tilljantil (gi nu to) trebuie folosit daca lipseste from: He waited for you until 9 o'clock. Until indic& sfirgitul unei actiuni pozitive sau inceputul unei actiuni negative: We worked until noon (and stopped then). We didn’t work until noon (We began then). DURATA: Daring, for, (all) throngh/throughout, over During (in timpul), exprimé perioada in timpul cAreia a avut loc o actiune (in mod intermitent): We were in Bucharest during summer. We visited the Art Galleries during our stay in Bucharest. For (de, timp de), indic& durata unei acfiuni neintrerupte: We stayed in Bucharest tor three weeks. (All) through/ihroughout (tot, tot timpul) = de la inceputul ping Ja sfir- gitul perioadei: We worked hard all through the year. It rained throughout the summer, Over (de, 1a)= indicé o perioada limitata (sdrbitori, vacan}i): We went to the mountains over the weekend. Prepozitiile de timp/durata se omit: a) in expresii cu /ast — neat, this — that, some — every: I saw a film last night (aseara). He came this morning. (in aceasta dimineata) I go to school every day. (in fiecafe zi) b) in expres ineepind cu all: He stayed there all day | week (nu: for all day/ week). : MOD, INSTRUMENT, CANTITATE: With (cu), without (fara), in... manner/way (in modul) exprim& modul in care are loc actiunea: She spoke with confidence | without hesitation / in the usual way. Mike (ca) folosit ca prepozitie este urmat de un substantiv, pronume sau ru Like exprima modul: 0 asema&nare/comparatie intre doi termeni: She walks like a dancer, He is very much like his mother. By (cu, prin, de) gi on (pe, Ja) indic& mijlocul cu care e savirgita actiunea: She entered by the back door. This dress is made by hand. He-goes to work by bus | on foot. J listen to the news on the radio. He watches the news on television. With (cu) precede instrumentul: The little child has learned to write with @ pen, She opened the door with a key. An (cu) exprim& modul sau materialul folosit: She wrote the letter in ink. By (la, cu) exprima cantitatea: Cloth is sold by the yard. Eggs are sold by the dozen. 161 3] — Gramatica limbil englezeREFERINT A: As to, as for, regarding, in regard to, concerning (furmal} = cu privire bi, (cit) despre: As to our grandmother, everybody loves her. Some interesting docu ments concerning our ancient history have just been found. About, on (despre): ‘About este folosit cu verbe ca chat, quarrel, talk: 7 They talked about their school days. On este foiosit pentru activitati organizate, dupa verbe ca lecture, write, speak: He lectured on Scottish literature. CAUZA: Because of, on account of (formal), trem, out of, for, through {din cauzd de): c We put off our trip beeause of the weather. She was fie on accaunt of the heavy traffic. He couldn't speak tor shame. He did (1 trom pity } ont at curiosity She lost her gloves through her carelessness. SCOP: tor (pentru) J went to. the chemist’s tor some asp SURSA | ORIGINE: trom (din) He comes trom france. AGENT: by (de, de citre): She was examined by « spsviclist CONCESIE: in spite, despite (formal), for all, with all (amitiar) cinda, cu toata / toate: They enjoyed the trip, in spite of the Lo . her Ulness, she still goes skiing. He was a good man, tor al Exeepfie: exeept for, but (cu exceptia): Keerybody left put Tate folosirea prepozifiilor in limba englezi gi tinibe aumeroase diferente, care preainta dificultali pentru vlevii rom avestes sjat: rani exi , Uaoele dintre the street (Engl. on ihe playground the sky the sun a the open sir he way fo ‘on the Ist floor i raund the corner | at presend af the same time | ag this moment } st last fay figs i on the tree pe stad’ pe teremnl de jocspers pe cor fs avar in @ year's time peste an a ta ony opinion Gupd parerea 1 Beyond control independent se In ail probability dupa toate probel | by my watch dupa ceasni me | by heart pe dinatars | | | | by rarstake din groseala fo go om a trip / on hotiday a merge hs eAitorie f im vacen|& qe (out) for a wali 10 took out of the uth vo gel in Heeugh 1 he's the tallest ia. 1 autside the cinema a merge le piimbar a privt pe foreas a intra pe fereaserd col mia inate dix elt fn faja einentogeatulisExisté unolo diferenfo gi tn folosirca, prepozifiilor tn variant britanica si americana a limbii engleze: [gogo nes anaach | | | towards | towara | | im the street oon the street | at the back of... in back 9; | at the weekend on the weekend | Gs ten minutes past siz. it's ten minutes alter siz, | g's @ quarter te one. it’s @ quarter before one. Plt see you on Sunday, I'll see you Sunday, etc. ete. | Particulele adverbiale sint asemanitoare ca form& cu unele prepozi adverbe. Ele se deosebesc ins de acestea prin functia lor. Particulele adverbiale modificd sensul verbelor pe care Ie insofesc, trans- formindu-te in verbe cu particule adverbiale: They have put off the meeting again = They have postponed the méeting again. Au aminat din nou godinta. Particulele adverbiale cel mai frecvent folosite sint: about, across, along, around, away, back, by, down, in, of, on, out, over, past, round, through, up. Multe dintre aceste particule adverbiale pot fi folosite sica adverbe propriu-2i He ts in. Este induntru. / Este tn casa. sau ca prepozitii: He is In the kitchen. Este in buc&tirie. sau a) In majoritatea cazurilor, particulele adverbiale modifick total sensul verbelor la care sint atagate: ile eame round after the accident. Si-a recdpitat cunostinja /Si-e revenit dupa accident. b) In alte cazuri, sensul verbului cu particuld adverbial poate fi dedus din analiza elementelor componente: go in, come out, bring back, take away. 2} Folosizea unor particule adverbiale pe ling& anumite verbe intaroste doar ideea exprimati de acestea: drink up (bea tot/pina la fund), stand up, lie down. Particulele adverbiale se agaza imediat dupa un verb intranzitiv: He turnea cound and looked at me. S-a intors gi s-a uitat Ja mine. Daci verbul este tranzitiv gi este urmat de un complement direct exprimat printram pronume sau alt determinant, particule adverbiald este agezatA Gup& complementul direct: We saw THEM olf to the station. I-am condus la gata. Pick THESE up, please. Ridica astea, te rog. Prin aceasta caracteristics, verbele cu particule adverbiale se deasebese de verbele urmate de prepozitii obligatorii, deoarece prepozifiile nu pot fi separate de verb. Comparali: Please look ME up when you come to Bucharest. (up = particuld adver. Diala}. She was looking at HIM. (at = prepozitie). 163 ueDac& complementul direct este exprimat printr-un substantiv, particula adverbialé poate fi agezata fnainte sau dupa acesta (mai ales in vorbirea familiars): He gave back THE BOOK. He gave THE BOOK back. A inapoiat cartea. Dack complementul direct este lung, sau este exprimat printr-o propozitie subordonaté, particula adverbiala este agezata imediat dupa verb: He gave buck tho hook he had horrowed. A inapoiat cartea pe care o imprumutase, Exercises L. Completayi spajiile libere cu prepositii de loc saw direcfie: 1. I live ... 53, Franklin street. My flat is... the 10" floor. 2. The tallest building ... the world is... New York. 8. Father drove . . . the corner slowly, while I went... the shop. 4, We'll leave... Brasov tomorrow. 5. They'l] stop ... Paris... their way... London, 6. They ran... school... the bus- stop. 7. He went... Oradea... a business trip last week. 8. Peter isn’t... home. He must be... school. 9, They arrived... the cinema early. 10. My uncle drove ...me... his car, but he didn’t see me. 11. The coins fell... his pocket. 12. She carried the box’... the staire... her room. 18. Let's sit. the sun. 14. He leant... the wall. 15. Don't go... the street on a red light. TL. Completati spajiile libere cu prepozifit de timp sau de duratd: 4. Pil be in the country... July... September. 2. They travelled... . the day and slept... night. 3, Eminescu was born... January 15, 1850. 4. He came... 10 o’clock, ... the same time with his friend. 5. It is very hot here... summer. 6. I phoned all my friends... New Year’s Day. 7. We go to schoot "the morning. 8. I hope I'll have finished my homework . ..9 o'clock. 9. We stayed at home ... the weekends. 10. I've been living in Bucharest . .. ten years. 11. They'll be here... ten minutes. 12, The manager won't be pack... later this afternoon. 13. Schoo! begins ... September and ends... July. 14. I didn’t understand him... first. WU, Traducefi in limba englezd: 1, La ce te uifi? 2. El se uita pe fereastra. 3. Pe cine agtepti? 4. Cit e ora dupa ceasul tau? 5. Hai sé mergem la plimbare. 6. E Ip spital de dowd sipta- mini. 7, De ce fie team&? Ele intotdeauna amabil cu pacientii. 8. Ti sin recunoscitor pentru serviciul pe care mi J-a facut. 9, L-am felicitat pentru succesul siu, 10, Tremura de frig. 11. Nu ma minfi! 12. Dimineaja s-au plimbat prin orag, dupi amiaza au stat acasd. 13. Cursul a durat c lund intreaga. 14. Au pornit-o spre riu. 15. Sedinta a inceput la ora 11 dimineafa gi a durat pind la ora 2 dupa amiaza. 16, A fost plecat in timpul vacanfei. 17, Au calatorit ca de obieci, 18. Tine o conferinfa despre arta contemporana. 19, Tabloul a fost pictat in ulei, nu in acuarelé. 20. E un program bun la televizor diseara. 164a} exprima raporturi de coordonare sau dé subordonare Intre dowd propozitii, raporturi de coordonare Intre doua parti de propozitie sau intre o parte de propozitie gi o propozitie; b) este neflexibila din punct de vedere morfologic; c) nu indeplineste nici o functie sintactic& in propozitie dar marcheazi rapor- turile de coordonare si subordonare in cadrul propozitiei gi al frazei. Conjunctiile eoordonatoare leagé parti de propozifie cu aceeagi functie sintacticaé sau propozitii de acelagi fel: J visited the Village Museum and the Art Galleries yesterday. Jt started to rain but the game continued. Dupa relatiile pe care le stabilesc, conjunctiile coordona- toare pot fi: a) copulative: and —gi; as well as —precum gi; both... and —atit., cit gi, not only... but also — nu numai... dar gi; 7 b) disjunctive: or ~sau; ori; either... or —saw... sau; neither ... nor nici... nici; c)adversative: but —dar, ci; (Veri gi $24.1 —§ 24.7) Either ... or indicé dou alternative din care numai una este posibilé, in pro- pozitii pozitive sau interogative: We can either have a snack now, or we can have lunch at noon. Can you drink either milk or tea? Pentru a exprima o negatie se foloseste either... or +-verb negativ sau neither ... nor + verb pozitiv: I can’t travel either by air or by sea. I can travel neither by air nor by sea Conjunctiile coordonatoare se agaza intre unitagile sintac- tice pe care le unesc: He opened the door AS WELL AS the window. Conjuncfiile coordonatoare nu pot fi asezate la inceputul frazei: Dan finished his homework and went out for a walk. Dan gi-a terminat lecfiile gia iegit la plimbare. Conjunctiile subordonatoare leagi propozifiile secundare din fraza de elementele lor regente: "J went to the post office, WHERE I bought a dozen post- cards. M-am dus la pogta, unde am cumparat douasprezece vederi. 165SSL, Chal Dupa felul propozitiilor pe care Je introduc. conjunctiile subordonatoare pot fi: 1) universale: that — e&; if, whether — daci; care pot introduce mai multe tipuri de propozitii subordonate: WHETHER he will be punctual remains to be seen. (propozitie subiectiva). The best way is IF you go there yourself. (propozifie predicativa) Remember THAT we must get there initime, (compietiva directa), 2) specializate: a) de loe: where —unde; wherever ~ oviunde; b) de timp: when —cind; since —de cind; tilijuntil — pina cind; whilejas —in timp ce; before —inainte ca; after —dupa ce: c) de mod: (exactly) as; (just) as -~ (aga) cum; (exact) cum; dj) de cauza: as, since, because —deoarece, fiindes; c) de scop: so that, in order that/so (that) (nai formal) — (pentru) ca, eu scopul ea. Seopul negativ este exprimat de: for fear {that) —de teama lest (formal) —ca si nu; f) conditionale: if —daci; provided (that) {on condition (that) as long asjso long as — cu conditia; unless — afar& daci, numai dacd nu; g) consecutive: so that —incit; sv (familiar) —invit; sofsuch.. (that) —agajastiel ... incit; soneesive: though, although (mai formal), while, whereas (formal), even ifjthough — desi, cu toate cd, chiar dacd; i) comparative: as...as —mai (muit)... decit; as iffas though — ca $i cum, de pared. 3 i case; h) When, as (temporale) When indicd: simultancitatea a doudachuni: When J am tired 1 vo for a walk, Cind sint obosit fac 0 plimbare. (acventul este pe tmomentul actiunii) sau succesiunea lor imediata in timp: When she rang the bell, he came to the door. Cind ea a sunat Ja sonerie, el a venit la uga As este folosit pentru actiuni paralele: Ske wept a8 she spoke. Plingea in timp ce vorbea. (accentul este pe actiunea insgi}; sau ca sinonim al lui while: As I was crossing the street, 1 heard somebody call my name. {n timp ce | Pe vind traversam strada, am auzit pe cineva strigindu-tpi numele. ‘As, since, beeause (cauzale) As exprima cauza, motivul pentru acliunea din propozitia regents: AS she liked the dress, she bought it. Fiindea i-a placut rochia, a cumparat-o. Since presupune un argument admis de interlocutor: Since you need this book, 1°ll get it for you. Deoarece ai nevoie de carte, ain 88 fi-o iau. If not, unless (condi{ionale) Jf not este opusul lui if (dacd nu): It you get sick, you'll need a doctor. If you don’t get sick, you won't need a doctor Uniess este opusul lui provided | providing that (doar daca, eu condifia ex), iar cind este folosit unless verbul din propozifia conditionala este la forma potitiva: You may see the doctor provided you have an appointment. Poti si 166inti la doctor cu conditia sa fii programat. You can’t see the doctor unless you have an appointment, Nu poi sa intri la doctor dectt daci esti programat. Unless nu este folosit pentru a introduce propozitii conditionale ireale: He couldn't have seen the doctor if ke hadn’t had an appointment. N-ar fi putut si intre la doctor dacd n-ar fi fost programat. Conjunctiile eubordonatoare se agazé la Inceputul propoai- fiei secundare, care poate precede sau urma propozitia regent: AS the weather was bad, we stayed home all day. ALTHOUGH she spoke very slowly, I couldn't understand her. I can't help you with your homewrk BECAUSE I'm busy right now. Lydia liked the book $0 muck THAT she read it three times. Spre deosebire de conjuncfiile coordonatoare, conjunctiile subordonatoare pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii: He left early because he wasn't feeling very well AND because the party was boring. A plecat devreme pentru c& nu se simfea foarte bine gi pentru ca petrecerea era plicticoasi. Exercitii 4, Formayi fraze din propozitiile urmdtoare cu ajutorul conjunefiilor din paran- teze.” 1. Alice had too much to eat. Cathy didn’t. (but) 2. I haven’t finished the book. I can’t return it to the library yet. (so) 3. I shall buy that watch. It is not expensive. (if) 4. You won’t understand. You listen carefully. (uniess) 5. Mary bought a new dress. She didn’t really need one. (although) 8. Peter got good marks in his term papers. He worked very hard. (because) 7. Father has bought a violin. Alan can‘learn how to play. (so that) 8. You must do. You are told. (exactly as), 9. I'm studying. I like to listen to radio. {while} 40, Bob is having an exam tomorrow. He can’t come to dur party. (since) 11. He had’ studied English for seven years. He couldn't speak if fiuently. (even though) 12. Paul is keen on tennis. He plays every day. (so... that} 13. It was @ very difficult exercise. Mary couldn’t do it. (such... that), ML. Completaji spafiile libere cu conjunefiile potrivite ca sens din parantese. 4, Paul was not... bright...his brothers were. (although, as... as, provided that) 2. But he had always worked harder... they ever had. (than, whereas, before) 3. He would get a scholarship... he passed the exam today. {s0, provided, until) 4. In a way he did not really care... he won the scholar. ship or not. (whether, if, unless) 5. But he wanted to do his best... it would please his mother. (only, that, since) 6. He came to the exam... he wasn’t feeling very well. (in case, lest, though) 7. He listened to the invigilator care- F he might fail to catch ail the instructions. (supposing, for fear, whether ) 8. The invigilator pronounced ail the names slowly... each of them ight hear his name clearly. (so that, such... that, provided that) 167WL. Traducei in limba englezd: ‘Au ajuns sara la hanul lui domnu Vasiliu. Vitoria gtia o& acolo are si giseascd cova. Intr-adevar, a gisit. In sat la Suha, se stirnise oarecare zvoand, jpuneau unii gi alfiici arfi nevoie sa vie vreun judecator de la ting, sd cerceteze cian cum a fost cu vinzarea oilor. Si vada daca se afla hirtia lor de cumparaturg ~ de la Dorna, gi dac& gospodarii din Suha au chitanta de paralele po care’le-au dat lui Lipan. Nu spune nimene c& asemenea gospodari cu vaza ar fi in stare a savirgi o fapta rea — dare bine s4-gi arate indreptarile. Afard de asta a mai spus nu gtiu cine cd numai decit cinstifii, gospodari trebuie s& arate martorul ori martorii care s-au gasit fafa la vinzare sau la numdratoarea banilor. E la intelegerea origicui cf numai asemonea strain sau straini, care s-au aflat de fa}, au putut si urmareascd pe Lipan, gi si-i r&peased bani oilor. S-ar putea ca acegti martori sa fie cu totul necunoscuti, Nici Calistrat, nici Hie Cufui nu i-au vazut pind atunci, nici de-atunci. Chiar daca ar fi aga, s& arate ce inféifigare aveau, co cai gi ce straie. Din putin, se pot afla multe gi faptagii ies la iveala. (Mihail Sadoveane — Baltagul) a) Prin interjectie se exteriorizeazi senzafii, sentimente, manifestari de vointi sau se reproduc sunete gi zgomote din natura’; b) interjectia este o parte de vorbire neflexibild, nefiind marcataé de categorii gramaticale ; c) interjectia poate constitui fie un clement de int&rire pe lings o propozitie, fie 0 propozitie independenta sau o parte de propozifie. Cu ajutorul interjectiilor se exteriorizeaza: 4) senzafii si sentimente: a) bucurie: Ah! Ooh! Jippee! Hurray! (a, ah, ural). ‘Ah, that’s the book I wanted, Ooh, what a delicious cake | b) surpriza: Oh! Wow! (a, ab, ob!). Oh, what a nice dress! ¢) mirare: Oh, dear! Dear me! Indeed ! (vai dragi, vai de mine, intr-adevar) Oh, dear, I can’t find my purse. Dear me! What are you doing over there? a) admiratie:: Whew! (ah, doamne): Whew, how beautiful she is! e) intelegoare: Aha/ (a, aha!): Aha, these gloves are exactly what I was looking for. f) dispre{: Fie! Pshaw! What a shame! (Ptiw, pab, ce rugine!): Fie upon you! You ought to be ashamed at what you have done. 8) dezgus Ugh! (ih!): Ugh, how dirty your hands are! ) P robar Well done! Congratulations! (Foarte bine! Felicitaril) ‘ell done, Peter ! You've passed all your exams brilliantly. 168i) dezaprobare: Nonsense! What a nuisance ! (Prostii! Ce pacoste!): ‘What a nuisance! Now I’li have to do it all over again! j)tegret: Ah! Oh! What a pity! (al oh! ce Pacat!): What a pity you couldn’t come! It was a good play. k) durere: Ouch! Ow! (vai, ah, aoleu!): Ouch, it hurts! 2) manifestiri de voinfii: a)o rugdminte, un tndemn: Ok! Help! (oh! Ajutor!); Ssh! Hush! Silence ! (Sst, linigte!): Hush! The baby’s sleeping ! b)o incurajare: Cheer up! Come on! (Curaj! Haide!): Come on, don’t be afraid! You'll manage. c)o avertizare: Look Out! Fire! (Atentie! Foc!): Fire! The house is on fire! 3) so reproduc sunete si zgomote din mediul inconjurator: Bow — wow! Miaow! Baa! Buzz! (Ham —ham! Miau! Beh! Bzz!): Bang! Click! Crash! Una gi aceeagi interjectie poate avea semnificafiidiferite, in functie de context: Ah, here you are at last! (bucurie), dar gi: Ah, it’s painful ! (durere), Unele interjectii sint folosite cu precidere de barbati: No fear! Good lord ! Folly good ! pe cind altele sint specifice limbajului fe minin: Wow! Oh, dear! Oh, my! Dear me! My goodness ! Exercises L. Traducefi urmitoarele propozitii in limba romand: 1. Ouch, my leg! 2. Ooh, this icecream’s delicious! 8. Jippee, we've won the match! 4, Wow, isn’t she clever? 5. Well done, Peter. 6. Ssh! Grandma is sleeping. 7. My goodness! What dreadful weather! 8, Grr! Isn’t it cold! 9, Look out! A car is coming. 10. Mm! This cream cake's very good. 11. ,,Well, I must be going. ,Oh, I see“. 12 ,,Well, good, luck!" .Oh, thank you‘, 13. .Ah, there you arel* 14. Dear me! You do look ill! 15. What a pity we didn’t go on a picnic yesterday. Now it’s raining. 16. Tut, tut! You are a naughty boy! 17. Welcome home, my dear! IL. Completaji spafiile libere cu interjectii potrivite ca sens: J. ... 1 We're having a holiday tomorrow! We're going on a trip! 2. ..- That was a wonderful show! I hadn’t thought I would enjoy it so much! 3, ... I've spilt my teal 4. ... What a mess! 5. . .. it's painfull 6... . that’s exactly what I necded. 7. ... how wonderfully she sings! 8... Father is working. 9. ...There’s a bus coming! 10,... you do look pale! WH. ... Peter has broken that window again! 12. ... 1 You can come with us even if you are-tired. You'll have a good rest there. 169Partea a II-a (The Simple Sentence) Propozitia este unitates de bari a sintaxei, Ea reprezinta cea mai mick unitate a sintaxei care poate aplirea de. sine. etatatoare gi care comunic& o judecata logica sau o idee cu caracter afectiv sau volifional.* de ve s) propozifiienunt Tiseovered America in 1 didn’t notice ker. Nu ao al seopulul comunicarii, propositiile se impart in: ative, care transmit o informatie: Columbus 8, Columb a descoperit America in 1492. He b) propozitii interogative, Would you like to come io our party? Veet solicit’ o informatie: A vii la petrecerea nosstrs? es} propozitii imperative, care exprima o porune’, rugimiate, indemn, ete.: Open the book! Deschide cartea. Switch on the radio, please. Deschide radionl, te rog. 4) propozifii ec prindersa, nen wife ve feurnoasé extol 2 not de vedere al sirueturii, propozifiile se impart in: {il simple (Unestended Simple Sentences}, The children ere sleeping. Copii eclamative, care exprim& o stare afectiva (sur- ia, ete,): Oh, how attractive she is] Oh a) propo numai din subject si prodica Dogs bark, Ciinii latra, b) propozifii dezvoltate (Extended Simple Sentences}, prind, pe ling& subiect gi predicat, gi alte parti de propozifie: Yesterday he went io school by bicycle. Jeri s-a dus la scoala cu bivicleta. ce) propozifii eli ‘cal Sineple Sentences }, din care Hipsese anumite parti de prop: fi completate cu uguringa: (/'ve} never heard about him. “Who is missing?” “John” (is missing}. # RGN. — Grumatica limBii remane, vol. Il, Ed. Acad, RSR, Buc 170Structura proporitiilor simple gi dezvoltate poate fi detaliaté in functie de partile de propozitie care urmeazd tn mod obligatorin anumite verbe. Verbele se impart in trei clase mari: oopulative, intranzitive, gi tranzitive, din punct de vedere al complinirii verbale, al partilor de propozitie care pot fi folosite dupa ele a) Verbul copulativ prin excelent este verbul be. Accstanu poate fi urmat dectt, de un nume predicativ sau de un complement circumstantial de lo They are { workers ia { in the factory. ») Verbele intranzitive nu poi fi urmate de complemente directe. e) Verbele tranzitive sint verbele urmate de complemente directe. Luind in considerare posibilitatile de complinire verbal&, se cbjin urmatoarele Propozijia simpla: a) subiect + verb intranzitiv: He swim: b) subiect + verb copulativ He is {a teaoe El este {profesor competent. competent. Propozitia dezvoltata subiee: -} verb intranzith plement cire the sea. El inoata in mare. b) subiect + verb copulativ + complemont circumstantial de loc: The teacher is here] in the classroom. Profesorul este aici/in clasi, c) subiect + verb tranzitiv + complement direct: Ske has found the book. (Za) a gasit carten d) subiect + verb tranzitiv +- complement direct + complement ‘direct: The man asked the boy several questions. Omul i-a pus baiatului mai multe intrebari 2) subject j-yerb. trunzitiv + compler Father gave the toy io the little bo: i) subiect b trangitiv + complement direct + element predicativ suplimentar: 7) appointed irman. L-au numit pregedinte, g) subioct verb tranzitiv +-complement direct -} complement prepozi- fional: £ felped iim with his homework. L-am ajutat s8-gi fac temele. E} inoata. nume predicativ: + com stantial: He swims in direct +-complement indirect! i-a dat juokria baiatulsi. Pa file de propezitie se clasificd in: 1) parti principale de propozifie: subiectul gi predicatul; 2) partisecundare de propozitie: complementul direct, indirect, Prepozifional, elementul predicativ suplimentar, complementele cireumstan- Viale (de timp. loc, mod, cauzd ete.) gi atributul. In limba englezit, aceste parti de propozitie pot fi identificate eu ajul ummatoarelor caracteristici 2) prin ce parti de vorbire sint exprimate; rub 7db) locul pe care-l ocupa in propozitie; c) trasituri specifice: acord, trecerea la diateza pasiva, ete. Subiectul (The Subject): a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal (printr-un substantiv sau substitut al acestuia, insofit sau nu de determinanfi) sau printr-o propozifie subor- donataé cu functie de suhicet; D) se agaza inaintea predicatului in propozitiile enuntiative si dup’ verbul auxiliar / modal in propozitiile interogative; c) se acorda in numar gi persoani cu predicatul. Predicatul (The Predicate): a) este exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv sau intranzitiv la un mod personal sau printr-un vesb copulativ cu o complinire nominala; b) se agazé de regula dupa subiect; c) are acord determinat de subiect. Complementul direct (The Direct Object): a) este exprimat, ca gi subiectul, printr-un grup nominal sau printr-o propo- zitie subordonata cu funetie nominala; b) urmeazi de regula grupul subiect — predicat; ) devine subiectul propozitiei in transformarea pasiva. Complementul indirect (The Indirect Object): a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal; b) urmeaz& complementul direct si are prepozifia exprimata (to sau for); I gave the book to Mary. c) nu poate fi folosit fara un complement direct. Numele predieativ (The Predicative Part of a Nominal Predicate. a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal, un adjectiv sau printr-o propozitie subordonata cu functie nominala; b) urmeaza verbul copulativ be sau alte copulative: become, turn, etc.; c) nu devine subiect al propozifiei in transformarea pasiva, Elementul predicatiy suplimentar (The Predicative Adjunct): a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal, un adjectiv sau printr-o propozitie subordonataé cu functie nominala; b) urmeazi grupul subiect —predicat: The boat swept close They appointed him chairman. / left the meeting a little perturbed. ©) nu devine subiect al propozitiei in transformarea pasivi: He was appointed chairman. Complementul cireumstantial (The Adverbial): a) este exprimat printr-un adverb, constructie adverbiala sau propozitie subordonata circumstantiala, printr-un grup nominal sau 0 constructie prepozitionala; b) este de obicei mo bil, adicd poate ocupa mai multe locuri in propozitie; c) este de obicei optional, adic& poate fi addugat sau eliminat dintr-o Propozitie fara ca ea si devind negramaticala. 172Subiectul este partea principala de propozitie despre care se spune ceva cu ajutorul predicatului, in limba engleza, subiectul este de obicei exprimat, chiar atunci cind este impersonal sau generic, verbul englez avind putine desinente care s& marcheze formal persoana $i numérul (spre deosebire de limba romana): I read the paper every morning. Citese ziarul in fiecare dimineata. It’s raining, Ploud. You must do your duty, Trebuie si-ti faci datoria. Subiectul poate fi exprimat: a) printr-un grup nominal continind un substantiv, cu sau fari deter- minant, sauun substitut al acestuia: Students work hard to pass their exams. Studentii se pregatese serios ca sA promoveze examenele, Bverybody was present. Toti eran prezenti Three are missing. Trei lipsesc, The wounded were taken to hospital. R&nitii au fost dusi la spital. b) printr-o ‘corstructie cu infinitivul, participiul (prezent sau trecut) sau forma Gerund, constructie folosita de cbieei pentru reducerea unei propozitii subordonate subiective si numita subiect complex: De exemplu. ~nominativul cu infinitiv: She is said to be a good doctor. Se spune ca ea este o doctorita buna, —infinitivul cu forto: It is unusual for her to be so quiet. Este neobignuit ca ea sa fie abit de tacu 0 constructie gerundial a: John’s/Hiseoming late worried us. Intirzierea lui John ne-a ingrijorat. c) printr-o propozifie subordonata subiectiva: That nothing came out of it writated him. Faptul cé nu a iesit nimic din asta il enerva. d) printr-un element care nu are sens de sine stittator — aga numitu) subiect introductiv if sau there —care antivipeaza subiectul real, logic al propo- titiei: It is easy to do this exercise. Acest exercitiu este ugor de facut. There are three pupils in the classroom. Sint trei elevi in clas. poate fi exprimat prin pronumele one, you, he, they, seu prin substantivul people. Pronumele one, you, he, they gi substantivul people se folosesc ca subiecte pentru a desemna o persoand ir general sau un grup nedefinit de persoane: You can't do wo different things at a tine. Nu se pot face doug lucruri diferite in acelagi timp. One can find this phone number in the telephone diectory. 173Acest numar de telefon se poate gasi in cartea de telefon. People drink a lot of coffee in-this country. In jara noastraé se bea multa cafea. Pronumele if este a) al verbelor impersonale: It often rains in autumn. Deseori ploud toamne. It snows a lot in the mountains, Ninge mult la munte. b) al propozifiilor prin care se exprimi timpul, vremea, distan{a: It's nearly siz o'clock, Este aproape ora sase. It's cold. Este frig. It's quite far from here, Fste destul de departe de aici. Unele propozilii contin un subiect. gramatical (formal) gi unul logic (real), adevaratul subiect al propozifiei. De obicei, subiectul real este anticipat prin pronumele it sau clementul there (care nu este identi¢ cu adverbul there). 4) Ht introductiv este folosit cind subiectul propozit a) un infinitiv: 16 is necessary to start at once. Esle necesar sii pornesti imediat. It takes me half an hour te get to my office. Imi trebuie o jumatate de ork s& ajung Ja serviciu, b) un gerund: It was no use your erying. Ai plins degeaba, c) 9 propositie eubiectivi: It is strange that she hasn't accepted our invitation, Este ciudat cé ca nua acceptat invitalia noastra. It seems he is right. Se pare c are dreptate. 2} Sublectul introductiy ‘ere este folosit tn propozijiile in care subiectul real nu este definit: There arc some books on ihe table. Sint citeva oSrti pe mass. In stilul literar, there este urmat gi de alte verbe, mai ales happen gi occur: ‘Thore happenod that an old man remembered something ahout her, S-a intim- plat ca un batrin si-gi aminteasc’ ceva despre ea. © propositie introduc prin there este urmata de obicei de alte prin care se fac precizari: There is a man at the door. He wants to speak to you. Este un om la uss. Vrer si vorbeasca ou tine. este: Subiectul formal au coincide cu cel logic ni was cold by an old man. The story esto subi i, iar complementul de agent. an old man este su tul logic al propozifie!, Accst lueru ests evident tranatormind propotitia la activa: An old man fold the story ja diaieza pasiva Subiectul este agezat: a} inaintea verbuiui, in propozifiile enuntiative (afirmative si negative) Mary is @ good swimmer, She doesn't swim every day b} dupa verbul auxiliar sau modal, tn propozitiile interogative: Can you swim? Does she want to read this baok? c) dupa verb, cind el este anticipat de un it sau there introductiv: There is a teacher in the room. It seems she has left. 174Predicatul este partea principalé de propoaitie care atribuie sublectului # ac}iune, v stare sau o insugire, Funofia de predicat poate fi indeplinita de verbe transitive i intranzitive Ja un mod persoaal, precim gi de verbe copulative, atunci cind au compliniri nomiaale. Verhole tranzitive gi cele intranzitive formeazi predicatul verbal clasic: Birds fly. Pasavile zhoava. He wrote an interesting essay. A scris 0 comporifie interesanta. este aledtuit din: A} an verb copulativ + } un nume predi iv. A} Verbele pierdut toial sa inated a raporlulua w! tn cadrul pulative {Link Verbs) sint vorbe care sian asul lexical gi indeplinese functia gramaticals de eativ dintee doud ,numoe* (subiectul gs: numole predi- ului nominal a parfial se dic ; tick tradifionala distinge mai mulle clase de verbe copulative: 4) verbul be (Verb of Being}, tolat golit de sens lexical: He is clever. El este di Glad verbul de este folosit. cu sensnt de .aoxista, ase fla, ase wisi, a aves lor, etc. el formeazd siagur predicatul propotitiei: Where 8 my pen? The school festivey is on Sus 2) Vorbe partial golite de sens lexical: si verbe ate deveninrii (Verbs of Becoming}: become, get. grow. wrk Ra turned grey. A incdruntit. She is getting old. Imbatrineste, b) Verbe ale continudrii in aceeagi stare (Va Continuing }: cominue, keep, remain, hold, stay. He kept silent. Ticea. e)verbe ale aparentei (Verbs of Seeming): appear, look, seen: She seemed ill. Parea bolnavi, He looks pale. Bete palid Dintre verbelé copulative, verbul be prezinta cele mai multe posibilitati cornbinatorii (eu orive parte de vorbire care poate indepiini o functie nomina daierita golirii sale totale de sens lexical: @ ivacher, He ig§ very competent. admired by his friends. 175Celelalte verbe copulative se imbind doar cu ctteva parti de vorbire: —boate cu adjective: fell felt got Jooked The child ul. —unele gi cu participii trecute: seemed He} appeared § impressed. looked — iar altele si cu substantive: She may { ana ban excellent teacher. B) Numele predicativ (The Predicative) formeazi impre- un& cu verbul copulativ predicatul propuzitiei. Numele predicativ este exprimat: ; a) printr-un substantiv sau echivalent al acestuia: My nephew has become a doctor. b) printr-un adjectiv, singur sau cu o complinire: She was happy. She was eager to come. ¢) printr-un participiu treout: The village seemed deserted, Loeul numelui predicativ in propozifie este dup’ verbul copulativ: Those boys are students, De obicei, predicatul este agezat dupa subiect gi inaintea complementului: The sun was shining brightly. Soarele stralucea puternic. In unele cazuri, aceasta ordme este inversata: le interogative: Is Mary in the library? b) in propozifiile conditionale in care conjunctia if este omisa, iar predicatul confine un verb auxiliar sau modal: Had J time, I should take a walk. Daca ag avea timp, m-ag plimba. c) pentru ¢ accentua o anumita parte din propozitie: NEVER shall I forget what he did for me. N-am s& uit niciodata ce a facut pentru mine. In limba engleza, ca si in limba romana, verbul predicat se acorda cu subiectul in persoand si numar. 176a) Cind subiectul propozitiei este un pronums : verbul auxiliar se acord’ cu prontmele personal ia persone respectiva: LAM Romanian. She 18 my best friend. He BORSN'E remerader a word. b) In propozifiile relative, verbui ce scord’ pronumele personal la care se face refer! the praise. 1 say it, who AM his sister. a) Cind subiectul propozitiei este exprimat p personal, coordonst ou un alt pronume persor and, verbul se pune la persoana e ill-a pl aill-a conform regulilor de politeye, este 1: You and 1 i ‘He and 1 ARE You, Peter and I e) Cind subiectul coordonet prin eit verbul se acordé cu pronumele pen mother or 1 AM at hore in the eve ing to the & ta vorbirea curenta, consiructiiie ca cea fe verb aunillar sau model care osie invari E WILL be at home in the gau prin folk and so 2m 1. 4} 3) dupa injeles; 2) prin atzactio. Regula general a acordului ta num englez& este urm&tosrea: un sablect in la numéral singalsr, iar un sublect Is numir sau acordul gramatical din limba englezé, cere stn’ varia off gi numrul plural (veri § 2.3.4.): Romanul pe care-] citese este Joarie interesa useful. Aceste dicfionare stnt foarte Iclositoars & 5 2 — Gramatica Linki engiezeAeordul sads aiugul In cazul substantivelor invariabile, predicatul este fie numai la singular, dupa tubstantive invariabile | iumai la plural, dupa substantive invariebile la plurel, cu ctteva situafii speciale In ambele cazuri. Substantivele invariabile la singular se acordi cu verbul predicat la sin- gular. Din aceasti elask de substantive fac parte (veri gi § 2.3.8. pot, A.): 1) substantive nenumérabile concrete: Buitor CONTAINS animal fat. Untal contine grisime animal’. 2) substantive nevumirabila ahstracte: His knowlodge of English 1S good. Conostintele Ini de engtezd siat bune, My homework for today 38 difficult. Temele pentru ani sint gy 3) substantivul news: The news ¥8 good, Vegtile sint bune. 4) numele de boli: Mumps 18 infectious. Oreionul este o boal& infectioasa. 5) nume de stiinfe si obievte de studiu: Mathematics IS more difficult than Geography. Matematica este mai grea decit geografia, 6) nume de jocuri: Billiards IS a game for adults, Biliardul este un joo pentru -adulfi. 7) unele substantive proprii: capitals Greciei. : Athens is the capital of Greece. Atena esto a: 1. Printre substantivele proprii care se acorda cu verbul le singular, se numérd “Hard Times’ §5 « novel by Dickens. ple. Tales, Stories, Sketches, Notes, se pot. “Canterbury Tales’ HAVE been translated 2 Numele de car} cup insd gi cu verbul la irto Romanian. 8) adjective ¢i participii ebstracte substantivizate: In most fairy-stories the good FIGHTS against the evil. In majoritatea basmelor, binele lupta tr triva riului. : " Bxcepfil. Uncle dintre substantivole invariabile la singular se acord& ou verbul la plural in anumite situal) 4) substantivele, numirabile concrete se acordi cu verbul la plural cind denumese varieta{i: Romanian wines ARE famous. Vinurile rominosti sint vestite, 2) Unele nume de boli ca mumps se acorda cu verbul Ja singular sau Je plural, {4rd deosebire de sens: Mumps IS/ARE infectious. 3) Numeie de gtiinfe se acord’ cu verbul Ja plural cind se refera Ja anu- mite proprietafi sau la o situatie anume: The acousties of the Palace Hall ARE very good. Calitatea acusticd a j Acustica silii Pelatului este foarte buna. Substantivele invariabile la plural se acord& en verbul predicat ia plural, Din aceast& clas de substantive fac parte (vezi gi § 2.3.8. pet. B.): 4) substantive care denumese obiecte formate din dou parti egale unelte sau articole de imbriicaminte — {summation plurals}: Where ARE my glasses? Unde-mi sint ochelarii? These tights ARE too long. Acegti ciorapi- pantalcn sint prea lungi. 2) alte substantive folosite numai Ja plural, terminate de regulé tn -s (pluralia tantum }: AU the valuables HAVE been locked in the safe, Toate obiectole de valoare au fost fncuiate In seit. 178~ 3) substantive nemarcate la plural: The cattle ARE grazing. Vitele pasc. People walk in ihis park on Sundays, Lumea se plimbé in acest parc duminica, 4) adjectivele sau participiile personale substantivizate: The handicapped ATTEND special schools, Handicapafii frecventeazi scoli speciale. 5) unele substantive proprii: The Alps ARE the highest mountains in Europe. Alpii stat coi mai inalji munti din Europa. Excepfii. Substantivul propriu the United States se acord’ cu verbul la singular cind este privit ca o unitate: The United States dies in North America. Subiectul exprimat printr-un substantiv determinat de many a (construc- fie folosita in stilul literar) se acord’ cu verbul predicat la singular: Many a young girl DREAMS to become a teacher. Subiectul exprimat prin substantiv determinat de @ great (a good) deal, se acord& cu verbul la singular, deoarece insoteste un substantiv nenumérabil: A great (a good) deal of the. flour WAS of the best quality. A great (good) many se refer la un substantiv numirabil la plural gi se acorda cu pluralul: A great maniy of the students WERE present. Substentivele determinate de a lot, plenty se acordi cu singularul cind sint urmate de substantive nenuméarabile gi cu pluralul cind sint urmate de substantive numarabile: There IS a lot of / plenty of bread on the. table. There ARE a lot of / plenty of children in the schoctyard. All determing acordul a singular cind insoteste un substantiv nenumi- rabil: AM the butter IS on the table. gi acordul la plural ctnd determina un ativ numirabil: AM the pupils HAVE Jeft. Acordul gramatical se face gi cu pronumele personale si demonstrative: He IS very gaod at maths, They ARE listening to the radio. These ARE his children. Cx propumele nehotirit one, compusii lui every, some, any gi no, each one, (neither, much gi little, acordul se face la singular: Somebody HAS fold me about his arrival. Little 18 known about Shakespeare's life. Every one HAS bis hobby. One DOESN’ like to have one's word doubled. Neither of them ¥8 right. 1, Pronumele none se poate acorda gi cu un verb la plural in engleza contempo- rana cind so refer la un substantiv cu sons de plural: None of the pupils HAVE dione their homework for today 2. Desi pronumele nehotarite confinind body san one siat urmate de verbe Ia singu- lar, pronumele personale, reilexive sau posesive care se referd Ia ele sint adesea Ia numaral plural: Everybody was writing as fast as they could. No one had failed in thete duty. Acordul dupa infeles este acordul intre subiect si predicat in conformitate cu ideea de numar exprimata de subiect, care uneori este diferita de numarul mareat formal: All his family ARE at home. (Substantivul family are forma de singular in aceasta propozifie, dar sens de plural: Tofi membrii familiei sint acasa). Acordul dupa infeles are loc la urmittoarele clase de substantive: —substantivele numdrabile care primese desinenfa zero la plural: deer, Chinese, works; 179 ie— substantivele colective : audience, committee, crew, crowd, family, govern- meni, Jury, team, etc, —stbstantivele care exprima cantitatea sau felul: variety, number, sort, ind —subiectele compuse; : ~-unele pronume, gramatici considers c& substantivele numérebile cu desinenta zero ja plural: sheep, Chinese, species, etc., se acordé cu verbul predicat dupa injeles 5 nu dupa forma, deoarece nu pot fi identificate ca fiind la numarul singular sau plural decit'cu ajutorul contéxtului: This sheep is very old. Oaia aceasta e foarte biteind, These sheep give very good wool. Aceste oi dau lind foarte buné. Alte geamatici menfioneaza aceste substantive In cadrul acordulai gramatical, ele fini wemate de verbe la singular sau plural la fel cai celelalte substantive numa- rabile: Germen There IS a { in the inager’s ice. {sepenne * Semeeae oft There ARE some { Germans hin the manager's office. 1 daponese f subsiantivele numarabile care au forma de plural identicd cu singu- laral (plural zero): sheep, Japanese, species, etc, numarul substantivulal se recunoagte dupa forma verbului predicat. ‘te la singular cind substantivul este folosit ou sens de singular: 8 a deer ai the zoo. E un cerb la gridina 2oologic’. ural clad substantivul este folosit ou sens de plural: There ARE some the x00. Sint cifiva cerbi le grédina zoologica. (Pentru substantivele cave fae parte din aceasta clasé, vezi: § 2.3.2.) sLeste } Toti membrii echipajului sint pe punte. The committee agreed on the agenda of the next meeting. Membrii comitetului i de acord asupra ordinii de zi a urmatoarei gedinte. stantivele colective jau insd forma de singular sau de plural gi se u verbui predicai ta singular si la plural respectiv, cind sint folosite érabile, denumind colectivitatea ca un intreg: The commit venty people. Comitetul este format din douizeci de persoane Substantive ca: variety, number, kind, sort se acorda cu verbul la singular la plural in functie de sens: The number of foreign tourists visiting Romania TBRASES every year. A great number of foreign tourists HAVE visited this s year, The variety of goods on display at the National Exhibition ve. A great variety of goods ARE on sale at the Exhibition. Substantivele kind gi sort se acorda cu verbul la plural in engleza familiar’ ese Kind of tools ARE very useful. 3 he 180Subiectele alcatuite din doua sau mai multe elemente care formeazt o unitate se numesc de obicel subiecte compuse gise acorda cu verbul predicat la numérul singular. Ele pot fi exprimate prin 1) doud substantive legate prin and: The poet and musician WAS incited to talk about his work. Poetui muzician a fost invitat s& vorbeasca despre crea- fia sa. 2) un substantiv precedat de dows adjective coordonate: A blue and white cloth WAS for sale. Vindeau un material alb cu albastru. 3) doua sau mai multe infinitive coordonate prin and: To take care of the children, to do the shopping and cook the meals 18 very echausting. Sa ai grij de copii, si faci cumparaturile gi sé gatesti mincarea este foarte obositor. 4) expresii numerice: Three and three MAKES siz. Two kilos of apples 1S all I need. Forty pupils MEANS a large class. Five kilometres 18 a short distance. In unele caleule aritmetice se poate fol pluri 18 ARE 5) propozifii subiective: That they are leaving so “s:iy ANNOYS me. ‘Three and three { } siz, Pour times five { 7 fae Pronumele which gi what sint urmate de verbul pr plural in functie de numdrul substentivului p: i him behave like that? Ce-l face si se comporte at sint ale tale? Pronumele interogativ who este construit de obicei cu singularul: Who IS coming to dinner? Cine vine la cin? n limba vorbita, se intilnegte uneori gi vn v ARE at the table? Cine este la mas&? i Ja singular san c: What MAKES Whieh ARE yours? Care la plural dup who: Who Conform acordului prin atractie, verbui predicat se acorda cu substantival sau pronumele cel mai apropiat. In limba engiezd exist mai multe situafii de acord prin atractie: Conform regulii de acord gramaticai, doud sau mai multe subiecte in raport de coordonare (subiect coordonat) se acordd cu un verb predicat la plural: Father and Mother ABE going to the theatre tonight, Romanian and Czech beer ARE lighter than British beer. Heading and writing ARE taught in the first form. Both her kindness and her competence HAVE been appreciated, La subiectele coordonate prin either ~ or, not only — but also, acordul cu predicatul se face insd prin atractie: Hither your friends or your neighbour IS at the door. Either your neighbour or your friends ARE at the door. Not only Paul but also his parents ARE sending you their best regards, La fel se intimpla si cu subiectele coordonate prin neither — nor: Neither he nor his sister HAS phoned. degi in vorbirea curenta exist tendinta de acord cu verbul la plural, in mod similar cu subiectele coordonate prin bolh — and: : Neither he nor his sister HAVE phoned. Cind subiectele sint iegate with, together with, as well as, no less than, like, ‘ul unor cuvinte ca: , except, acordul se face cu 181primul clement: My sister, as well as my brothers, HAS learned to drive, My friends, together with their teacher, ARE going fishing. Acordul intre subiect si predicat se face prin atractie si in urmiftoarele eamuri: 4) in propozifiile eu subiect introductiv there: THERE 18 a pen, s rabher and some pencils in the peneil-case 2) in propozitii introduse de kere: HERE ARE your hooks and hag. Cind substantivele din enumeragie formeazd Inst un ansamblu, verbul este de obicei la Paral, chiar dacd primul swbstantiv este fe singular: Here ARE your coat and gloves. There ARY a table, four chairs and a sola in this room 3) in propozifii interogative: Where IS my coat and hat? 4) acordul prin atraciia ave loc si dupa: more than one, one or two: Moro than one pupil HAS expressed his satisfaction with the new teacher. One or tyro children ARE sid playing in the park. run away at dayb Everybody eays he is innocen all your books-looks like carele: its own peoples. 8. There are no ~The future of Africa is in the hands af left. 9. Whether she knew about it . She is kaowa to be a great i 11. It is essential for us to get betler results in our work, Hi, Traduceti urmétoarele pr tului iapersonal san avcati modal de exprimare al subiee- 1. Se spune c& vom aven ot cind conduc! pe o strad aglom bere. 4. Nu se gtia nici bate din spate, 6. Nu anul acesta va fi foarte bund. A lungé. &. Treby sail. 3. In acea A {ark se beam mulia mai ugor 8A mergi cn Dicicleta cind vintul e lumea, 7. Se crede of recolta de WM. Alegest forma coreeté 2 verbelor din parantesé, tintnd seama de acordul dinire subiect gi predicat: 1, The local police (has/have) helped the firemen to put out the fire. 2. (Was/Were) the news good? 3. (Is/Are) mathematics your favourite subject? 4. Fortunately ail the crew (wvas/were) saved, &, 1 want to know if this species (has/have) survived. 6. Ths poultry (is/are) fed three times a day. 7. Several Chinese (have/as) contributed new data to an important piece of research. 8. The Romanian army ght for the country’s indepen- dence. 9. The mone bic. 10, A great number of pupils (havefhas) spent th camps. U1. The variety of fruit on display (attract/att tomers. eirIV. Traduceli urmittoarele propositii tn limba englezd, find atenfi la acordul subicetelor exprimate prin substantive colective sau substantive invariabile ja singular sau plural: 7 1. Familia mea consti din tata, mame, fratele meu si mine. 2. Elevii din clas au fost nedumeriti de Intrebarile profescrului, 3, Informatiile primite aint favorabile. 4. Economiile ei au fost puse la banca. 5. Parul ei este de culoare castanie, 6. Statele Unite se invecineaz& cu Mexic gi Canada. 7, Camenii Sint intotdeauns curiogi. 8. Se di de mincare la pasari acum. 9. Sint multe famnilii tinere in acest bloc. 10. S-au cheltuit o miuitime de bani pentru utilarea aeestui laborator. Lf. Gimnastica este indragita in Romauia. 12. Olanda se aflé in Europa de Vest. V. Compiciati spajiile libere cu forma potrivitd a verbului be: 1, Latin grammar... . very difficult. 2, Shakespeare’s plays... performed all over the world. 3. Who... those girls? 4. ...everybody present? 5. Neither of them... eager to begin. 6. Either you or I... wrong. 7. There . .. a lot of food still left. 8. There ...a lot of people on the platform. ‘Vi. Traduee}i urmatoarele proposifii in limba englezit, fiind atenji la acordul subiectelor exprimate prin pronume sau precedate de all cx verbul predicaliv din propositie: eva. mi-a luat sint in clasa. nul dintre cei do’ 4. Toata mincarea este in frigider. sosit gi toata lurnea se simte bine. 6. Sau ei sau el a facut ei nu are dreptate. 8. Cine a facut acest lneru? 9, Care carfi sint ale tale? 10, E] este de v VIL. Conepletayi spatiite libere cx forma corectit a verbelor din parante: 4, The cat, together with the kittens, (Je) playing in the sun. 2. My father, as 4 wolles my mother, (be} eager ty kaow you. 3, Jolin, along with his friends. never (miss) a basketball match 4, The principies on which he worked, as well ay ne acts, (be) appreciated by his feilow-students, 5. Either my parents my younger sister to school. 6 Either Jane sisters (wash) the disHes after funch. 7. Crime and Punishment frank) among the best novels of world literature. 8. To treat them this way (be) unfair. 8, Where (2) the scissors? 10, T sort ef mushrooms (be) not good fo eat. VUE. Traduceti urmatoarele propozif‘i Gintre subiect gt predicat: ‘ind alenti la acordul limba englezé, i. 50 de minute ¢ un timp scurt pentru o tez’. 2. Majoritatea articolelor sale siat de critica literars. 8. Numérul turigtilor romani care isi petree con- cediul ia mare oregte in fiecare an. 4. De blindete gi infelegere este nevoie acum, 5. Cine este? E tata gi mama. 6. Poftim scrisoarea gi ochelarii, bunicule. sinica, Di Brown gi sotia merg de obicei la taré, 8. DI Brown, impreund anta la mare. 9. In Subcarpati se afid carbune, fier care aranjeazi totul. 11. Patru ori zsce fac patruzeci. u din Romania este vestit, , igh petrece vi 183ie cate determina act este partea secundard de propozi funcfia de predicat In proporifie. direct sint: nd complementul direct este exprimat priate un xoepfia lui i) saw prin pronumele interogativ- en, him for a tong time. Na am vizut de mult, ne-mni pe cine ai intilnit acolo. dupa predicatul exprimet day. Seau lapte in fiecare zi. v & tn care re compl & poate ii exprimat prin: wp echivalent sl ecestin: He is writing a loiter, Bl serie them yesterday. Iam vazul ieri, Of all the books they tires, Dintre toate c&rtile pe care ni le-a ardtat am prezent, bordonate is player er. Metin chet este cel mai bun jecater de tenis saw that he was crossing the street. gesi thag you should. z Exprimarea in pronurnele reflexiv g4) It este folosit anticipativ pent completiva directé, 0 constructie cu infinitivui verbe ca think, consider, find, believe I consider YT important that you should tell them the © impobtant ca tu sa le spui adevarul. I found ¥F difficult to break the ts fost greu si le spun vestile. [ think TL most dangerous your eliza zain alone, Cred ci este foarte periculos sa urci m un ii, care sta pe loenl unui camplement formal: to lord it = a 0 face pe stapinul; to © pai; eo incasa; to foot it = a merge descurca. The explorers had to rough it when they got 5 trebuit 84 se descurce cind an sjuns in ery it fos; to ra in: = 8) verbe urmate in mod obligatoriu do pronura calm oneself, enjoy oneself, excuse oneself, help We enjeyed ourselves ai the cinema. Ne-am dis’ Help yourselt! Servegte-te. ) verbe urmate de pronume reflexive seu personals in asupra creia se rasiringe actiunea ve: spalat (pe sine). She washed tilm. (Ha) !-a a spel lovit-o. He hurt himself. (E!) s-a lovit Ite verbe de acelasi fel siné: dress, comb, shave, fh limba vorbita se tinde spre omfteres pr dressed in o hurry, S-a spalat si imbr’ e} verbe care pot fi urmate sau ‘nu de pronume » sens: He applied lmself 10 the task. S-2 apvcat a job, A facut cerere de serviciu. Complementul direct este exprimaat: a) prin pronumele reciproce each other vorba de dowd persoane: The iwo boys helped Cei doi baieti s-au ajutat (anul pe eitul) 8 fa b} prin: one anciker = unul pe altulfe persoane: The children helped one anoi Sau ajutat unul pe altul sé acd curtteni Complementele directe sint intrebu verbe: a) Verbe tranzitive umate de un complement need, read, seek, write: J need your advice, Am nevoie de afatul tau. 188b) Verbe tranzitive urmate de dowd complemente directe: ask, envy, save, strike, teach: He taught the children arithmetic. Le-a predat copiilor aritmetica. We asked Aim several questions. I-am pus mai multe intrebari. c) Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct gi un complement indirect: bring, give, hand, lend, offer, read, shaw, write ete.: , He gave sweets to the children. Le-a dat copiilor duiciuri. He handed her the Teter. I-a inminat scrisoarea. : d) Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct gi un complement prepo- zitional: accuse of, compare with, congratulate on, prevent from We congratulated him on his promotion. Lam felicitat pentru promovare. Complementul direct intern (The Cognate Object) Exist gi unele verbe intranzitive care pot avea un complement direct. ‘Acesta este exprimat printr-un substantiy care provine din aceeagi ridacink cu verbul determinat sau este inrudit semantic cu el: smile @ smile, sing @ song, laugh a laugh, fight a fight/a batile, dance a dance. In acest caz, verbul se comporta ca un verb tranzitiv: He lived a long and happy life. A trait o viaga lung’ gi fericita. Last night J dreamt a strange dream. Noaptea trecut{ am visaf un vis ciudat. Constructiile cu complemente interne sint caracteristice limbii oI dupa cum se vedo $1 din exemplele de mai sus, complementele sin’ de ebicei Insofite de atribute. Aceste verbe reprezinta majoritatea verbeicr tranzitive di aenglez’. Exemplele sint numeroase: drink, eat, love, meet, need, read, seek, write, etc. Loeul acestor complemente directe in propozitie este imediat dupa verbul tranditiv, inaintea complementelor cireumstantiale: She speaks English well. Vorbeste bine englezeste, J need the book tomorrow, Ara nevoie de carte miin ‘Transformarea pasivd. Cind o propozitie continind un predicat exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv si un complement direct este transiormatii la pasiva, complementul direct devine subiectul diatezei pasive, iar su se transforma in complement: de agent: The pupils loved th teacher was loved by his pupils. Profesorul era iubit de elevii | Aceste verbe sint putine ia numar: ask, envy, save, strike, teach: Did she ask you any questions? Ti-a pus vreo intrebare? Dintre cele dowd complemente directe, primul desemneaz’ o peysoand, jar al doilea un obiect: He taught THE CHILDREN 2 new lesson. Le-a predat elevilor 0 lectio nous. They envied US our success. Ne invidiau pentru succesul nostra, in limba roman, complementul perscanei este de regulé ind traducerile exemplelor de mai sus), (Veet 186Transformarea pasivi. Construcfiile cu doud complemente directe av .dous transformari pasive: He taught us a lesson, devine: 1) We were taught a lesson, sau: 2) A lesson was taught to us. Varianta freeventa este (4) cu complementul personal foto: in construcfia pasivé, complementul obiectului fiind retinut, In varianta (2), complementul obiectului devine subieetul Propozifiei, iar complementul persoanei este introdus de prepozitia to. sit ca subiect Aveste verbe sint urmate de cele dowd complemente in ordinea comple- ment direct-complement indirect: I bought the blouse for mother. Ata cumparat bluza pentru mama. I gave the notebook to Mary. T-am dat eaietul de notife Mariei. 1. Ordinea complement direct — complement indirect ato folosita deseort Pentru accentuare: You must pay the money te her (uot to him). Trebuie sii plavesi e! banii (nu Ju 2. In alte cazuri, aceasta ordine este obligatorie: 2) cind complementul indirect este urmat de © propozifie subordonata: He gave @ book to his friend who is visiting him. I-a dato carte Prietenului care 1! vizita. b) cind cele dowd complemente sint exprimate prin pronume personale: J gave it fo her. Tam dato ei, ©} dupé verbele ca: address, announce, communicate ete.: I communicated the result of the experiment to everybody concerned. Am comunicat reauitatul experimen. ui tuturor celor interesati, Ordinea celor doud complemente poate fi gi: verb tranzitiy 4 complement indirect + + complement direct. % prepotifis to saui for este omisd: Z bought mother « blouse. 1 gave Mary the notebook. ‘Trensformarea pasiv’. Cind propoziia cu un compien indirect este transformata la diateza pas subiecte: Activ: They showed us tho house a) Pasiv: WE were shown the house. Complementul indirect ai persoanei devine subiect, iar complementul direct al obiectului igi pastreazé functia, este complement refinut (retained object ). b) The house was shown to US. Complementul direct devine subject, iar cel indire ct tst pastreaza functia, este complement indireet refinut (retained ind:rect object} Diferenta dintre cele doug variante const in faptul ¢& prima accentueaza Persoana iar cea de a doua obiectul, mai frecventa in vorbirea curenta find prima. direct si unul , ambele complemente pot deveni 187Din aceasta clas fac parte verbe ca: blame smb. for smth = a da vina pe cinova pentre ceva, charge smb. with smth. =a acuza pe cineva de ceva; cure smb. of smth. = a vindeca pe cineva de ceva, deprive smb of smth. = a lipsi pe cineva de ceva, help smb. with smth. = a ajuta pe cineva cu ceva, ete.: Did the doctor manage to cure the child of that disease? A reugit doctorul s& vindece copilul de boala aceea? They charged him with an important mission. I s-a dat o misiune importanta. Ordinea acestor complemente in propozitie este: verb tranzitiv + comple- ment direct + complement prepozifional: J helped him with his homework. Cind complementul direct are o complinire sau este exprimat printr-o propozitie subordonata, complementul prepozitional este agezat imediat dupa verb: They accepted with great pleasure the invitation sent by our foreign trade company. Av acceptat cu mate placere invitatia trimisa de intreprinderea noastra de comert exterior. In transformarea pasiv a unui verb tranzitiv urmat de un complement direct si unul prepozitional, complementul direct: devine subiectul formal al propozifiei, iar cel prepozifional este refinut: We congratulated him on his success. He was congratulated on his success. Complementul indirect este partea secundara de propozitie care indick persoana (vareori lucrul) asupra cdreia se risfringe in mod indirect actiunea verbului. Indicii formali ai complementului indirect sint: a) cazul dativ, cind complementul indirect este exprimat printr-un pronume personal (cu excepfia lui it) sau prin pronumele interogativ- telativ who, precedat de prepozitia to sau for: Please, send a postcard to me. Te rog trimite-mi o ijustrata. To whom did you lend the tape recorder? Cui i-ai imprumutat magnetofonul? b) locul in propozifi —dupi complementul direct + prepozitia to sau for: He sold his car to his neighbour. Si-a vindut magina vecinului. She bought a new shirt for her brother. A cumpirat o clmag& nou& pentru fratele ei. —inaintea complementului direct, fara prepozitie: Tom sold us his car. She bought her brother a new shirt. 188c) bransformares la diateza pasivé indirect al persoanei: — poate deveni subiectul formal al p to us. We were promised the tickets (oy Pets). — poate fi complement indirect rejinut: They showed town sas shown to us. un echivalent al acestuia, precedat Ge p 7 ers { *0 our teacher. We offered flowers { alg She bought books { for ber ehildven. ae for them. Prepozitia to sau for se omite: a) cind complementul indirect se children some sandwiches. Mama } her ¢ message, Tam érimis un zaes dupa verbe ca: afford, allow, forgive Can you spare me a few minutes? tm rae to ask a question, Perraiteti-mi s& pun o intrebare, oo Compiementul indirect este intrebuinfat: a) dupa verbe tranzitive urmate de un compl ciiror ordine poate fi sehimbat8, impreund cu omiteres buy, choose, do, leave, make, order, reserve, 25 She GRDERED a new dress tor hersel: Si-a comandat 0 rochie noua. b} dupa verbe tranzitive urmate de un. c&ror ordine poate fi schimbata, impra bring, give. hand, lend, offer, owe, promise, red : He showed the stamp hook tc the visitors. He showed the book. Le-a ardtat vizitatorilor clasorul. c) dup& verbo tranzitive urmate de un compi complement indirect + prepozitia to tn aceas' communicate, describe, explain, iniroduce, translate, etc.: The boy explained everything to bis father. sku, ment dire 189Li5. Laenl Complementul indirect in proporitie este agezat de regul: fa) dupa complementul direct (+ prepozitia to sau for): He said goodbye to them. Le-a spus la revedere. Ske made coffee tor all of us, A facut cafea pentru tofi. b) inaintea complementului direct, cind complementul direct. este mai lung sau urmat de o propozifie subordonata, prepozifia fo sau for find omis&: 7 bought Helen all the English books I saw in the bookshop. T-am curpérat Elenei toate cartile englezesti pe care le-am vazut in librarie. 54: Complementelo indirecte dup’ verbcle urmate obligatoriu de prepotijia to § 454. pet. c| nu pot fi agezate de regula inaintea complementelor directe, iar prepotifia to nu poate fi omisd: She Introduced her husband to the people present. Siva prezentat soul celor de faa Dar gi: She explained to him the new regulations/ how she had got the information. 1-a explicat noul regulament/ cum a objinut informatia ¢) la inceputul propozitiei, pentru subliniere: To her f gave the dictionary, not to him. Ei i-am dat dictionarul, nu iui. For her children she does her best. Pentre copiii ei ea face totul. Verbele tranzitive urmate de complemente directe gi indirecte se trapart tn down geupe mari, dupa felul in care se transforma la diateza pasivl: 8) Unele verbe au o singura transformare, in care complémentul direct devine subiectul propozitiei pasive, iar cel indirect este retinut. Asemenea verbs sint cele-de la punctul (c), § 15.4, urmate obligatoriu de prepozitia to: He conveyed the message to them. The message was conveyed to them. gi de la punctul (a), urmate de prepozitia for: Have you deft any food for the others? Has any food been left for the others? b) alte verhe, ca: give, offer, tell, show, promise (punctual b), av douk transfor- mari pasive. “Transformarea mai frecventé este cea in cate complementul indirect al persoanci devine subiect, iar complementul direct este retinut: ‘Activ: The teacher gave the prize to Mery. Pasiv: Mary was giver the prize. Este posibila gi transformarea: The care complementul direct devine subiect, i ‘Aceast& transformare este folosita mai rar. prize was given ta Mary, in Jementul indirect este rofinut. Complementul prepozitional este partea secundaré de propozitie care determing predicatul propozijiei, exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv sau intranzitiv. :Indicii formali ai complementului prepozitional stnt: a)cazul acuzativ, cind complementul prepozitional este exprimat prin prepozifie + pronume persowal (cu exceptia lui it}, pronume refiexiv sau pronumele interogativ-relativ who: She looked at Kim. Sia uitat la el. She looked at herself in the mirror. S-a privit in oglindd. At whem was sie looking? La cine se vita (ca)? (forma caracteristicg limbii scrise) b) locul in propozifie: ; ; : —dupa predicat, ctnd acesta este exprimat. printr-un verb intranzitiy: He was talking with his friends. Vorbea cu priatenii lui. — dupi complementul direct, cind predicatul este exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv: Has anyone compared the iransiation with the original? 4 comparat cineva traducerea cu originalul? c)transformarea la diateza pasiva, in caro uncle verbe intranzitive ou prepozitie obligatorie se comporté ¢a verbe tranzitive prepozifia riminind atagata de verb, iar elementul nominal dia comple. mentul preporitional devenind subiectul forma! al propozifici: Crandmorher looked IB the children, ‘Phe children were looked AFVER by iheir grandmother, Complomextul prepozitional esis exprimat prin: a) un substantiv sau echivalent al ccestuia, precedat de o prepos fie: He is looking tor his tie, Ii cauta cravata. J ran atier them. Ara fugit dupaei, b) o construofie infinitivald sau gerondiald precedats de o prepozigie: Would they agree to atart at once? Ar fi de acord s& incepem imediat? He being the best football player in the schoci. Se laud& c& este vel mei bun de fotbal din geaala. ©} 0 propozifie eubordonata: He bousis that ho ig the best football playor in ths sehesi. Complementnl prepozitional este intrebuinjat dupa: 8) verbo intransitive cu prepozitic obligatorie: care fur, compl on, hint at, insist on, long for, look at, pass for, warn of, sander at The success of the picnic will DEPEND on the weathor, Succesul Va depinde de vreme. Would you CARE ior one of theso pain in of, depend worry about: enieului ings? Tier Place unul dintre aceste tgblouri? She COMPLAINED of the heal So plingea de céldura. h) verbe intranzitive cu dowd prepozifii: agree with smb about smth, argue with ti smb about s ¢) verbe tranzitive ov prepo: sinb. about smith, assure a cequaini smb with amth, advise tie obligato: f ame stab. for smth, boiker smb. of smth, bh 191with smth, convince smb. of smith., entrust smb with smth, mistake smb. for smth, warn smb about smth.: I warned him about the danger. L-am avertizat de pericol. 4) adjective sau participii care indeplinese functia de nume predicativ tntr-un predicat nominal, urmate de o prepozifie obligatorie: ‘about: He was REASONABLE about her decision. at: She is 600D at chomistry. in: He is INTERESTED in astronomy. of: Lam AWARE of your efforts. on: Romania's foreign trade is BASED on co-operation and equal rights. with: He is ANGRY with your behaviour, ‘Alte adjective si participii urmate de aceste prepozifii sint: —angry, zlad, happy, knowledgeable, mad, annoyed, frightened, pleased, worried + ABOUT: : 5th bad, clever, hopeless, terrible, alarmed, amused, annoyed, delighted, pleased + AT; — efficient, fortunate, lucky, outstanding, persistent, (un )successful + IN; = afraid, certain, conscious, fond, glad, convinced, scared + OF; — dependent, insistent, keen, lent, set + ON; —busy, fun )eomfortable, (in Jcompatible, content, furious, (unhappy, impatient, sick, uneasy, annoyed, bored, concerned, delighted, disapointed, excited, exhausted, horrified, obsessed, occupied, overcome, pleased, satisfied, upset + WITH (Vezi si cap. 8.) Locul complementului prepozifional in propozitie este de obicei: a) dupa numole predicativ oxprimat printr-un adjectiv sau participiu: She was convinced of his loyalty. Era convins& de loialitatea lui." b) dup& complementul direct, in cazul unui verb tranzitiv: Nobody prevents your friend trom asking that question. Nimeni nu-] impiedicd pe prietenul tau 8& pund aceasta tntrebare. Unele verbé intranzitive cu preporiie obligatorie: agree about | on|to, aim at, argue about, arrange for, ask for, believe in, call for, call on, conceive of, Taugh at, look at, look for, look after, look into, run over, sleep in, speak of | about, talk of, think of, write about, etc. se comporta ca verbe tranzitive in trans- , formarea pasiva. Elementul nominal din complementul prepozifional devine subiectul propozifiei pesive, iar prepozifia ramine dupé verb: A bus ran OVER the noighbour’s dog. The neighbour’s dog was run OVER by a bus. Tn transformarea pasivé a verbelor tranzitive urmate de un complement direct si de unu! prepozifional, complementul direct devine subiectul propo: zifiei pasive, iar cel prepozitional este retinut: They bothered HIM with silly questions. HE was bothered with silly questions. 192L PREDI TTY SUPLIMENTAR (The Predicative Adjunct} Elementul predicativ suplimentar este partea secundard de propozitie care determing atit predicatul, exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv, cit si un substantiv sau inlocuitor al acestuia care are funcfia de complement, direct al predicatului: She BOILED the egg hard = She BOILED the egg. The egg was hard. elemeniuui predicativ sxj Elementul predicativ suplimentar este exprimat de regula prin: a) un substantiv, dupa verbe ca appoint, choose, elect, proclaim, call, name: They elected Mr Brown (as) chairman. L-au ales pe dl. Brown progedinte. They nominated him President. L-au desemnat pregedinte. They have named the baby Dan. L-au numit pe copil Dan. b) un adjectiv (care exprima starea sau condifia ca rezultat al actiunii verbului), dup& verbe ca: boil (hard), bake (hard), open (wide), drive {erazy, mad), break (open), wash (clean), push (open, shut), paint (white, green), etc.: Can you push the gate open? Poti si deschizi poarta? They've painted the fence white. Au vopsit gardul alb. 2 fat Locul clementului predicativ suplimentar este dup& complementul direct (exprimat printr-un substantiv sau pronume fn acuzaliv) care urmeazd predi- catul (exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv): They elected him president. Push the door open. Termenul de constructii complexe se refer la constructiilo infinitivale, participiale si gerundiale, care sint folosite de obicei pentru reducerea unos Propozifii subordonate la pirfi secundare de propozifie. Aceste constructii sint: 1938 13 — Gramatica limbit engleze -infinitiv — Acuzatival cu participin prezent participiu trecut, eee infinitiv —Nominativul ou { participiu prezent —Infinitivul cu for —to infinitiv —Nominativul absolut cu 4 participiu prezent participiu trecut ~Constructiile gerundiale Construcfiile complexe au un caracter predicativ, deoarece tntre cei doi membri ei constructiei: elementul nominal (reprezentat de reguli printr-un acuzativ sau nominativ) si elementul verbal (reprezentat printr-un. infinitiv, forma in -ing sau partigipiu trecut), exist& un raport predicativ implicit. Forma nepersonala a verbului functioneaz& ca predicat al elementului nominal, dar-aceasta functie este considerata implicit gi nu exprimata, deoa- rece formele nepersonale nu sint marcate formal pentru redaréa categoriei de persoand. Caracterul predicativ al raportului dintre cele doua elemente reiese din funcfia acestor constructii, de tnlocuire sau reducere a unor propozifii subordonate, deci a unor elemente sintactice continind predicat: We know her to be a gifted actress = We know that she is a gifted actress. Stim c& ea este 0 actrita foarte bund. Infinitivul, participiul prezent gi participiul trecut formeazd impreuné cu elementul nominal constructii similare: Construcjit complexes ce seutivale I oe nonlanial | ____Nominatival aint Acuzativ eu infinitiv: Nominativ ew infinitiv: Nominatiy absoluten infiniti They warned me not to be | I was warned not to he Iate.| He sent the booke first, the late, stationery to come later, Acuzativ ou participin iv cu participin | Nominativ absolut eu parti- present: cipiu prexent: She could feet her heart ‘He was noticed standing ‘The value of ,,x* belng}known, eating. ‘near the door. the value of sy" can be found. Acuzativ cu partieipin ~ Nominativ absolut cu parti- trecut: cipiu treeut: J wont this work finished ~ His task performed, he left quickly. the office. dintre cele trei feluri de constructii (cu infinitiv, participiu prezent sau participiu trecut) reies din modul in care este privita acfiunea: . 194a) in constructiile infinitivale ne intereseazi acfiunea in sine, faptul petre- eut, care este vazut ca incheiat: We saw him come (= that he came). Am vagut c-a venit. b) in constructiile cu participiul in ~ing, actiunea este vazutd in desfagurare: We saw him coming (= that he was coming). L.-am vézut venind. c) in construcfiile cu participiul trecut, actiunea este privita ca un rezultat: We found the log cabin deserted. Am gisit cabana parasita. 18.24 ale acestor constructii sint urmitoarele: 1) complement direct complex (constructiile cu acuzativul): 1 saw the ambulance coming. Am vizut sosind magina salvarii. We had our house repaired and painted. Ne-au reparat si vopsit casa. 2) subiect complex (constructiile cu nominativul): This part of the land is believed to have been wnder the sea. Se crede cd acest colf de pamint a fost sub aps. He happened to give the best solution, S-a intimplat ca el si dea cea mai buna solutie. He was seen passing the shop. A fost viizut trecind prin fafa magazinului. 3) complement circumstantial (nominativul absolut): Everybody being present, the lesson can begin. Toatd lumea find prezentd, lectia poate incepe. The shopping dune, they returned home. Dup& co gi-au facut cumpératurile, s-au intors acasa. Constructiile cu acuzativul sint formate dintr-un substantiv Sau pronume in cazul acuzativ gi un verb la infinitiv sau participiu (prezent sau trecut): care se afld fata de primul element tntr-un raport predicativ: I noticed them shake hands. Am observat ci gi-au dat mina. Verbele transitive urmate de obicei de un acuzatiy cu infinitiv sint cele care exprima: a) perceptia senzoriala: see, hear, watch, feel, notice, perceive, observe: Did anyone see Mary leave the house? A vazut-o cineva pe Mary plecind de acasi? b)activitayi mintale: think, ktow, consider, expect, suppose, believe, imagine, fancy, understand (in stilul literar): They knew the man to have been very ill. Stiau ci omul a fost foarte bolnav. A lot of people supposed hor to be right, Multa lume credea c& ea are dreptate. ©) doringa sau inten tia: want, wish, desire, intend, mean: ‘She wanted me to explain the rule. A vrub ca eu sé explic regula, Did she ~ mean me to go there in her place? A intenfionat ca eu sa mergin locul ei? 4) sentimente: like, dislike, love, hate, prefer: 1 should like them to keep their promise. Ag vrea ca ei si-gi respecte promi- siunea. J hate you to be troubled. Nu-mi place sa fii deranjat, 195 13"e)un ordin sau o permisiune: command, order. request, allow, compel, force: Our form teacher allowed us to go to the conference. Diniginta ne-a permis si mergem la conferinta. The officer ordered his soldiers to advance. Ofiterul le-a ordonat soldatilor si inainteze. f) verbe cauzative: cause, make, have, get, induce, let: What makes you think so? Ce te face sa gindesti astfel? Get them eome cs early as possible, Determina-i 84 vind cit mai devreme posibil. g)verbe declarative: declare, pronounce, report, de obicei cind subiectul este animat: Everyone reported him to be good for this job. Toti au spus cd el este bun pentru aceasta treab’. They declared the chief engineer to be a member of their committee. L-au declarat pe inginerul gef membra al comitetului. h) unele verbe prepozifionale: count on, depend on, wait for, hope for, etc.: We cannot wait for the weather to change. Nu putem agtepta ef se schimbe vremea. 1. Verbele de perceptie (ct exceptia lui perceive}, verbele let gi make si verbul cauzativ-have sint urmate de infinitivul Piri to: He made me leugh, M-a ficut st rid. 2. Verbnl help este urmat de obicei de infinitivil cu to tn variania britanie’, si de infinitivel fea to In varianta americana a limbii engleze: I helped ber (to) lay the fabio. Am ajutat-o si pan’ masa. 8. Unele verbe (cu excepfia lu! want de Ja pet. ¢} subordonate intreduse de that, tntre folosirea acesto: existind anumite deosebi a] He requested us to come in time. (us —substantiy animat} He requested that the mecting should begin on sime. (meeting — nimat} b} I wisk you to be careful. (In general) J wish you would be careful. (dav nu cred c& ai SA fii} c)-We think him to he very loyal. (in engloza titerara) We think that he is very loyal. (In yorbirea curenta). €) I hear him come. (acum) J hear that they are away. (dueata) 4 Acuzativul cu infinitiy este folosit dupit yerbele care exprin activitate mintali mai ates in limba literar‘, iar iafinitivul esie cel al verbul 2 believe him to We honest. Cred c& este cinstit. / suppose it to Reve been a n Presupun ci a fost o greseald In vorhirea curenti, aveste verbe sint de obicei ate de e propozifie completiva direct introdusi de that: I believe (that) he ts honest. F suppose (thal) ft was a'mistake. pol fi urmate si de propesil si @ constmctiel infinitivale sta Consiructia Acuzativul cu infinitiy este folosita dupa anumite clase de verbe (vezi si § 1.45.3. pet. 6b). Un acuzatiy cu infinitiv poate apirea si dupa un adjectiv sau substantiv, situaiie in care el este pre~ cedat de prepozitia for: It was UNUSUAL for him to write such a tong Letter. De obicei el nu scria o scrisoare aga de lungd. /¢ was MADNESS for them to Jeaye in such weather, Era o nebunie ca ei si piece pe o asemenea vreme. Existd gictieva verbe urmate de prepozifia jor cu jor — to Printre ele se numérd: arrange, ask, hj -e pol {i folosite ou infinitivul long, plan, pray, provide, ring, send, telephone, wait, etc ‘arranged They planned }for her to come. Sent 196Infinitivul cu for —to este format din prepozitia for, urmata de un sub- stantiv sau pronume in acuzativ gi de un infinitiv cu to, care se afla intr-un raport predicativ fata de (pro)nume: /t was difficult for him to believe such a thing. Ti venea greu 8 creada un asemenea lucru. Aceasta constructie este intilnit a) dupa adjective: (it isiwas) necessary, advisable, imperative, impossible, easy, difficult, ete, b) dup& substantive: problem, subject, idea, etc. c) dupa unele verbe intranzitive sau tranzitive. afinitival cu for — to este utilizat pentru reducerea unor propozitii subordonate Ja pari principale sau secundare de propozitie: 4) subiect real introdus de it anticipativ: It is advisable for him to learn foreign languages. Este recomandabil ca el si invefe limbi straine. It is difficult for them to come. Este dificil ca ei si vind. 2) nume predicativ: The best thing is for him to agrée with me, Cel mai bun luern este ca el si fie de acord cu mine. 3) complement direct: He wished for the parcel to he sent at once. A dorit ca pachetul sa fie trimis imediat. 4) complement prepoz' : I would be delighted for you to meet her. Ag fi incintat s& 0 cunos! 5) complement circumstantial de scop: I’ve brought some magazines for you to read on the rain. Am adus citeva reviste s& le citesti in tren, 6) complement circumstantial consecutiv: This book is too difficult for me to read. Aceast& carte este prea grea ca s-0 citesc. Aceasta este 0 constructie asomanatoare cu acuzativul cu infinitiv, dife- renfa fiind de aspect al actiunii verbale: folosirea infinitivului reda actiunea ca Incheiata, sau mentioneazd doar actiunea, pe cind_participiul prezent prezinta acfiunea In desfagurare: J heard them come. (= That means they have arrived), 1-am auzit venind (Au venit). I heard them coming. (— I heard them making noise while they were coming). I-am auzit venind (in timp ce veneau). Acuzativul cu participiul prezent se foloseste dupa: a) verbe care exprima perceptia senzoriala: see, hear, feel, watch, notice, observe. J heard the children talking about their holidays. Tam auzit pe copii vorbind despre vacan{i. We waiched the sun rising from behind the hills. Am. privit soarele rasarind de dupa dealuri. b) find, leave, set, catch, send: I found hira mending the radio. L-am gisit reparind radioul. Aceasta constructie este intrebuintaté dupa: a) verbe care exprimi perceptia senzoriala: He heard his name mentioned. Si-a auzit numele mentional. b)} verbe care exprima un ordin : He ordered it finished. A. ordonat s& fie terminat. ©) verbele cauzative have gi get: I must have these shoes repaired. Trebuie st-mi dau pantofii ia reparat: 197Constructiile cu nominativul sint alcdtuite dintr-un substantiv sau pro- nume in cazul nominativ gi un verb la infinitiv sau participiu prezent tntre care se afld un verb la o forma personali: He happened to he a hard-working pupil. She was seen erossing the street. se foloseste dupa urmatoarele verbe: t) dupa verbe intranzitive: seem, appear, happen, chance; prove, turn out; He { appeared } t6 be pleased with the arrange- care sint perechi sinonimice: seemed chanced \ ty be ment. El parea si fie mulfumit de aranjament. Her brother { aed there. S-a intimplat ca fratele ei si fie acolo. 2) dupa verbe declarative la diateza pasiva: say, declare, report, announce: "Phe old man was reported to have disappeared. S-a anunjat c& batrinut a disparut. 3) dupa verbul copulatiy be si unul dintre adjectivele: likely, unlikely, sure, certain: He is sure to think of every possible advantage. Cu siguran}& ci se va gindi la toate avantajele posibile. The train is likely to be late. Este posibil ca trenul s& intirzie. 1. Prin trecerea predicatului de la diateza activa la cea pasivi (pasivizare = ‘passivization }, uncle construcfii cu acuzativul se transforma tn construefii cu nomina- tivul. Astfel, nominativul cu infinitiv apare dupa verbe tranzitive care pot fi urmate. de acuzativ cu infinitiy la diateza activa (cu excep{ia verbelor exprimind dorinta sau intenfia) si care exprima: a) perceptia senzoriala: see, hear, feel, etc.: She was seen to leave the office. A fost vaaut& plecind din birou. (Nominativ + infinitiv lung) bj activit8}i mintale: think, know, consider, expect, understand, believe, suppose, ete. Space flights are considered to provide important scientific data. Se considers ed zborurile cosmice aduc importante date stiintifice. c) un ordin sau 0 permisiune: command, order, allow, let, etc.: The boy was allowed to go out. Baiatului i s-a permis si iasé afara, d) determinarea: cause, make, have, force, compel, etc.: He was compelled to start all over again. El a fost obligat s& ia totul de la inceput. 2, Costrucjia Nominaiivut cu infinitis dup’ verbe de activitate mintala nu este timitata 1a engleza literar& (cum este Acuzativul cu infinitiv), ea putind fi tnttinits in vorbirea curenta (si cu alte verbe decit be): Are we supposed to do this? Trebuie s& facem asta? Aceasta construcfie este similari cu Nominativul cu infinitiv, cu aceeagi diferenfa de aspect (sublinierea ideii de durata, de desfagurare a acfiunii): ‘The old man was seen leaving the house. Batrinul a fost vazut plecind de acasa. Aceasta constructie se foloseste dup verbele urmate la diateza activa de acuzativul cu participiu prezent (see, hear, leave, catch, find, etc.): ‘The baby was heard erying. Copilul a fost auzit plingind. 198Nomainativul absolut este intrebuintat cind subiectul constructiei predi- cative cu infinitiv sau participiu (prezent seu trecut) este diferit de cel al propozitiei care confine un verb predicativ. Constructia cu nominativul absolut confine in structure sa un substantiv la ngminativ gi un infinitiv, participia prezent sau participiu trecut, care se alla in raport predicativ fald de substantiv: They forwarded the heavy equip- ment by sea, the perishables to be sent dy air. Au expediat echipamentul greu cu vaporul, urmind ca m&rfurile perisabile s& fie trimise cu avionul. The original text being too difficult, he asked for @ translation. Textual original fiind prea greu, a carut o traducere, His hopes attained, he was perfectly happy. Sperantele lui fiind implinits, era foarte fericit. Subiectul constructiei Nominativul absolut cu participiul prezent poate fi anticipat de iz sau there: There being acthing io say, they sat looking at each other, Neavind nimic de spus, st&teau si se uitau unul la altal. Constructiile cu nominativul absolut sint folosite pe plan sintactic pentru reducerea unor propozifii subordonate circumstantiale la complemente circum- stanfiale: . a) de timp: Dinner being ready, the family sat down round the big, oval dinner table. (= When dinner was ready ...); b) do cauzi: He felt exhaxsied, his self-control having been strained to breaking point. (= as his self-control had been sirained...); ©) de conditio: Weather permitting, we shall go to the beack tomorrow. (= I! the weather permits ...). Consirucfiile cu nominativul absolut se intflmesc rar in yorbirea curenté. Blo sint caracteristice englezel scrise, jiterare. Consiructiile gerandiale (Gerund Constrections}. La fel ca si infinitive gi participiul, forma Gerund intr& in componenta tnor construciii complexe, in care Gerund-ul se aflé intr-un raport predicativ fafa de um substantiv sau pronume: Your refusing to see him surprised everybody, Refuaul tau de a-l vedea a surprins pe toata lumea, Substantivul poate fi: a) la cazul genitiv sintetic (constructia cu genitiv e folosita pentru substantive nume de persoane): He seemed surprised at Mary’s expressing no interest in the subject, A pirut surprins de faptul c& Mary nu a aratat nici un interes pentru aceasta problema. b) la camul acuzativ: Did you mind him/Tom speaking so loud? Te-a deranjat faptul cA ¢]/Toma a vorbit aga de tare? Acuzativul este folosit: 4) etnd_substantivul este animat sauinanimat: 7 could sense the smell spreading, Simjeam cum se r&spindea mirosul, 1982) cind substantivul este urmat de o complinire atributiva: J remember a friend of mine going on such a trip. Imi amintese de un pricten de-al meu care a mers intr-o astfel de exeursie. 3) in vorbire, pentru substantive nume de persoane, substantive animate sau inanimate. Daca partea nominala a constructiei este exprimata printr-un pronume, acesta poate fi un pronume posesiv, sau, in vorbire, un pronume in acuzativ: I couldn't understand {ie } seting like that. him coda aga. I-remember theirjthem saying that. Imi amintesc c& au spus asta. Constructia gerundiala este folosita dup’ aveleagi cuvinte ca gi forma Gerund simpla (vei § 1.17.8 Constructia gerundialé are rolul de a inlocui: a) propozifii subordonate subjective: Yeur trying to convinee him was quite obvious = That you tried to convince him was quite obvious. b) cireumstantiale: She being absent, nothing could be sent, nothing could be done. etc. Nu puteam si infeleg de ce pro- As she was ab- ind Complementul circumstantial este partea de propozitie care determ sau modificd un verb, un adverb, un adjectiv sav o intreaga propozitie. Ca determinant al verbului, complementul circumstantial indict imprejo ratea in care se petrece o actiune (locul, limpul, scopul, cauza ete.): A taxi appeared at the corner of the street. (loc) They arrived half an hour later. (timp) ‘Atunci cind determina un adverb, adjectiv sau echivalenti ai acestora, complementul circumstantial arati cum se prezinta 0 Insusire: [t was néarly dark, Era aproape intuneric. They are nearly there, Aproape an ajuns. Complementele cireumstantiale in limba eng! romani, in: complemente circumstantiale de loc, de de condifie, de scop, concesive, consecutive, ete. Complementul circumstantial de loc indi tul de plecare, directia sau limita unei acfiuni sau stir Unele complemenie cireumstanfiale de ioe exprimate prin adverbe de loc indica loc ul propriuczis: here, there, somewhere, Allele indica @irec{ia: 8 Ieeul, punc- 200aside, forward(s}, backward (s), right, left. Majoritatea adverbelor de loc Insé, pot fi folosite pentru a exprime attt locul, cit $i directia: Loc: He doesn’t live tare Nu locuiepte depurte: Directie: He didn's go Nn sa dus departe. (Vezi gi § 7.5.2.) . Complementul circumstantial de loc este =: prin: a) un adverb sau o perifrazi adverbial de loc: She is here. He was walking to and tro, b) un substantiv cu sau far% prepozifie: Helen is in town for the moment. They went home. c) un substantiv in cazul geniiiv precedat de o prepozitie: We buy bread at the baker’s, d} © propozitie circumstant} else does. —*:° complementului circumstantial de Joc este de obicei dupa predicat (+ compiement direct) (+ compl. cite. de mod): She has beon § working har@) Vy 1 : She has beon ie “ling (4 hook) }IN THE LIBRARY a! dey. Bxeeppii: Compiementul circumstantial de loc poate fi agezat intre verb gi comple- meentul sku direot dacs complementul direct este prea lung sau este exprimat sintr- ozitie subordonate: They $120k into] 4 printr-o propositie subortonata: They { 0k ® iat the resding room all the Gistionaries they needed. Complemen umstantial indicind Jooul propriu-zis poate apéree i is inceputul propozitie!, mai ales cind este exprimat printi-o construc- ie prepozitiona’a: Somewhere near the tiver the children were playing football. Compierneniul circumstanfial care indick direc}ia se agazd uneori direct dup§ verb (mainiea adverbului de mod), dac& verbul exprima migcarea : He went to sehook by bus, plemente circumstantiale exprimind directia pot aparea in a ds forfi deamatica exprimarii, cu verbe la mplu: in they come! Away they went! iard, ou verbe ca. go, come, get la prevent sau la impe- she comes. There they go. in (bed) you get. Here si there apae in cllava e cu verbul be: Here/There you are. Foftim... Here we ore. Am ajuns tn sfirgit ore, Veai c& am dreptate (Asta intireste ce-am spus}. Dact subisctal fa aceste expresii este exprimat printr-un substantiv si nu priner-un pronume, sre loc inversiune Sntre subiect gi predicat: There he is! ‘There is your lather! Here they are! Here are-your glasses! iementul circumstantial de timp indicd: now, nowadays, today, then, ete.; timp: afterwards, before, eventually, formerly, a}moment b) succesiune previon 201c) durata: lately, recently, since, still, yet; d) frecventa: ; —definit&: weekly, three times a day; —nedefinita&: often, usually, seldom, once in a while. 29.4.2. Complementul circumstantial de timp este #5! 1) 0 parte de vorbire singur& sau cu compliniri: a) un adverb de timp: She arrived yesterday. b)-o perifrazé adverbiali de timp: They eisit their grandparents from time to time prin: e. c) © constructie adverbiali (substantiv/numeral cu prepozitie, ete.): Tom was born in 1965. 2) 0 constructie complexa, utilizata pentru reducerea unei propozitii circumstantiale de timp la un complement circumstantial de timp: a) nominativul absolut cu participiul trecut: His homework written, the boy went out to play. b).un participiu prezent sau trecut, precedat de 0 conjunctie temporala: He doesn’t feel quite well when travelling by plane. c) un Gerund precedat de o prepozitie: On Jeaving the house, she asked me to look after the child. d) un substantiv cu sau fari prepozitie introdus printr-o conjunctie temporala: ‘While in Australia he learned English. I played this game when a hoy. 3) o propozitie cireumstantiali de timp: We is always air sick when he travels by plarie. A) Majoritatea complementelor circumstantiale indicind momentul actiunii sint agezate la sfirgitul propozitici: He went to the cinema yesterday! last night. Nowadays si presently ocups de obicei pézitie initial: Nowadays all children of school-age attend school in Romania. Dac& intr-o propozijie apar mai multe complemente circumstantiale indicind momentul actiunii, acestea sint agezate succesiv, de la perioada de timp mai scurta la cea mai lunga: He was born on Monday, the 19 of February 1970. P'll see you at ten o'clock on Sunday. sau: On Sunday Pll see you at ten o'clock, B) Complementele circumstantiale indicind succesiune a aefiunilor ocupa de obicei pozifie initial sau mediald-in propozitie: First he rang the bell. Next he knocked on the door. He then rang again, And finally he started banging on the door. C) Locul complementelor circumstantiale. de timp exprimate prin adverbe de frecven{a (definita si nedéfinita): Adverbele care exprima frecventa unei actiuni in. mod definit: daily (zilnic), once (odata), again (din now), twice (de dona ori) etc., sint de obieci agezate la sfirgitul propozitiei: The school board meets weeklythree times a week. Ordinea mai multor adverbe de frecventa definita este de la unitatea mai mica la cea mai mare: She phoned him hourly each day. sau: Each day she phoned him hourly. Adverbele de freceventa nedefinita: usually (de obicei). always (intotdeauna), sometimes (uneori, citeodata), occasionally (uneori, citeodata), often (adesea), never (niciodata), seldom (rar)gsin: de obicei agezate tntre subiect gi predicat: / often go to the theatre. 202Daca predicatul confine un verb auxiliar sau un verb modal, adverbul de frecventa este agezat dup& acesta: J have never seen her. You must always do your duty. Adverbele de frecventa nedefinita se agaz& dupa verbul be, inaintea nume- lui predicativ: He is often date. Daca verbul este folosit ia diateza pasiva, adverbul de frecven{a nedefi- nita este agezat dupa primul auxiliar: //e has never been seen like this. ‘Sometimes poate fi asezat si le Inceputul propozifiei: J sometimen go for a walk in the woods. sau: Sometimes I go for a walk in the wooils. Unele adverbe nedefinite de freeventa pot ap&rea Ja inceputul propozifi —daci aceasta este negativa: Generally / Normally / Usually he doesn’t drink coffee. —pentru Intarire: Usually I meet her at conferences, but yesterday I ran into her in a department store. | Stenatte: | sunieot | ausifncaat | iasrenie i Z | Forma verbals | _ simpli ae natal a They | have Verb auxiliar + j_ ee | usually Verb notional i 1 |» sometimes Verb modal + rarel Verb notional She | can | rarely PEE | sete He is | ii, Verba | ume predicativ | ha | ven a | D) Ordinea mai multor complemente circumstan- fiale de timp im propozifie este urmatoarea: duraté —freoventa — moment: I went to the country for a month every year during my childhood. E) Ordineg mai multor complemente circumstan fiale diferite in propozitie este: MOD’ —loc —timp. They played VERY WELL in the match yesterday. Aceasti ordine poate fi schimbata: a) pentru a sooate in evidenta un anume circumstantial: Each day she phoned him hourly. b) constructiile adverbiale (mai lungi) sint agezate de obicei dup& adverbe (mai scurte): I was walking earlier in the Botanical Gardens, ¢) © propozifie subordonats circumstanfialé se agazi dupa un complement circumstantial: We walked for hours where the Exhibition had been. 203- Complementul circumstantial de mod indica modul in care se indeplineste o actiune sau apare o insusire. 2, Cinaifiencs. Complementele circumstantiale de mod se impart in: 1) complementul circumstantial de mod propriwziss 2) complementul circumstantial de mod comparativ. ¥ indica felul, modalitatea in care decurge actiunea sau starea: well, badly, quickly, slow! Ele mai pot reda gi alte sensuri —cantitate: enough, much, a litile; int&rire: actually, certainly, obviously, really; —amplificare: absolutely, completely, greatly, highly, barely, hardly, searcel de afirmatie sau nega yes, no, of course, not at all; —probabilitate: maybe, perhaps, possibly. Complementele circumstantiale de mod propriv-zise: a) modific& 0 parte de_propozitie; b) tin locul unei propozitii intregi- a) Complementelé circumstantiale de mod propriw-zise modifi —un verb: He DRIVES earefully. —un adjectiv: He isa little TIRED. —un adverb: You speak too FAST. J can’t follow you. b) Cuvintele care.exprima probabilitatea, afirmatia sau negatia fin de obicei locul uvei propozifii intregi: A: Can you ski? B: Yes, I can. Schiezi? Da. sau se referé la o propozitie intreagt: Surely you aren't iJ. Sigur nu egti bolnav. . al unei parti de propozitie se face prin agezarea ei in pozitie initiala. ; Cu verbele be, have, aceasta atrage dupa sine inversiunea totala subiect~ predicat: NEVER Was he in time. Niciodata nu era punctual. Cu verbele notionale, are loc inversiunea partial subiect — verb auxiliar/ modal: HARDLY could he talk about that subject. Cu greu vorbea despre acel subiect. Daca verbul este la Present sau Past Simple, se adauga auxiliarul do/does, respectiv forma de Past Tense did: . NEVER does he listen to anyone, Niciodata nu asculta de nimeni. NOT A GOAL did their goalkeeper miss. Nu i-a scApat nici o minge porterului lor. be Hegares : se realizeaz& cu ajutorul adverbului no sau not: ‘Do you luke him?’ ‘No. Adverbul negativ no este de obicei insofit de un subiect exprimat prin pronume, de auxiliarul verbului din prima propozitie si negatia contrasd -wt: ‘Have you seen Tom? ‘No, I haven't.’ Adverbul not este folosit’ dupa citeva verbe principale (think, hope, expect §i, mai rar, believe, suppose) la timpul Present sau Past Simple, pentru a hega 0 propozitie intreagi: “Do you think it will rain?” “I hope not.”/ “I think not.” Crezi ci 0 si ploud? Cred c& nu/sper ci nu. Forma alternativa pentru think, believe, suppose este cu do + not so: “Are they going to broadcast the show?” “I don’t think so.” Au s& transmita spectacolul la radio? Nu cred / Cred ca nu. 2. 1, Acordul unei persoane cu o propozifie negativa se exprima in limba englezd cu ajutorul adverbului negativ no si a unui réspuns scurt (spre deosebire de limba romana unde se foloseste da): ‘This is not a suitable dress for you.’ ‘No, it isn’t.” Nu este o rochie potrivitd pentru tine. Da, nu este. "2, Folosirea lui yes in limba englez& inseamna, dimpotriva, exprimarea unui dezacord: ‘This is not a suitable dress for you.’ ‘Yes, it is,’ Nu este o rochie potrivita pentra tine, Ba da, este. 8. Tot pentru exprimarea acordului cu o propozifie negativa se pot folosi si con- junctiile neither{nor in pozitie initiala, urmate de un verb afirmativ+subiect sau eitherjor in pozitie final&, precedate de un verb negativ: ‘I’m not good at gardening.” {Rater am J.?/ ‘I'm rot either.’ — Nu ma pricep la gridinarit. — Nici eu. ‘Nor 4. Acordul vorbitorului cu un enunj afirmativ seface cu ajutorul adverbului too, asezat la sfirgitul propozitiei, sau so, tn pozitie inijiala (+ inversiune): Tike English. { Ze, too,! — {mi place engleza. — $i mie. Propozitia interogativa este folosité pentru a cere o informatie de la interlocutor. Confinutul interogativ al propozitiei este exprimat de regula prin forme interogativa a verbului. 223ands iim cazul verbelor be gi have folosite ca verbe “Was be at home?” Eva acasi? Has ag nous? sitiar/medal in caza! verbelor modale o: WILL THEY have arrived by eni la ora cinel? op prin inveraiune 5 i Present Simple, P & ined ‘6 WOH understand me now? an inteles el DOES the in provost | yey autem |e Deon fer 9 tong) | pat \ Being washed? =f —| by Calembus? | when gou came? 1970? | a | Aaa te oney fort}Verh notional Ia thmpurk per- feete Present Perfect finished already? Past: Perfect ‘orilten to you? Future Perfect have arrived | yel? | Perfect Conditional | have done this? | Ver nofional In: Sika thie? | Present Simple elong fo you? Pasi Simple come intime? ‘Yerb nofionsl + speak English? — Verb modsi : Se pot formula intrebari si despre situafii negative, cea ce rezulté in In acest caz, inversiunea are loc intre subiect, — verb auxiliar / modal, iar negatia not se agazé dupa subiect: WILL TOM not do it? (forma ulilizata in limba serisi, litererd). Cind se Toloseste forma contrasa -n’l (frecventa in vorbire), ea face corp comun cu auxiarul: Won’t Tom do it? N-o sa facd Toma asta? folosese in general aceleagi pronume, je negative. in propozitiile interogatir adjective sau adverbe ca gi in propozi 4, Any gi compusii lui pot fi folosifi gi in propozitii afirmative, cu sensul de arivine, orice, oriunde: You can take any book you like. Poti sa iei orice carte vrei. Anyene can do this, Oricine poate si faci acest lucru, Take anything you iike. la tot/orice doresti. You can get it anywhere. Se gisegte (de cumpirat) peste tot/oriunde. 2, Some si compugii lui se transforma in any gi compugii lui gi in propo- ziti conditionale pentru a reda sentimentul ,negativ“ al vorbitoruluic Jf you see any children in the playground, come and tell me (But I don’t think there are any children in the playground). Dac& vezi vreun copil pe terenul de sport, vino si spune-mi. 3. Some este folosit in contexte tn care se folosegte de obicei any, pentru a reda sentimentul ,pozitiv® al yorbitorului. If you see some children in the play- ground, come and tell me. Dac& vezi nigte copii pe terenul de sport, vino gi spune-mi. Folosirea formelor afirmative in intrebari: Was. there someone there? Would you like some tea? indic& orientarea pozitiva a intrebérii, vorbitorul agteptind un raspuns afirmativ, o confirmare a.intrebarii sale: E adevarat ed a fost cinéva acolo? Doriti nigte ceai? Prin propozitiile interogative se pot formuia mai multe feluri de intrebari: generale, speciale, alternative gi disjunctive. se referé la predicat gi agteaptd un raspuns scurt afirmativ sau negativ, éxprimat de regul& prin 225 34 — Cramaticn limbit englereBa propoaltiite Proposifia efirmetivé | Propozitia nogativas Propositia iiterogativa | ‘Verb atirmativ + some | Vorb atirm.-+.n0-+ | Verh neg, + any (+ som, Verd interog. “i any (compu (+ compugi) a ee it senor) (+ compagi) 1 l { | | | Fve get some tooks.| Fee got 40. books. | I haven't got any iooke. | Have you gol any books? | Am nigte Arti. Nu anrnici o carte, | Aivreo carte? 1 Tee got something,| I'ee got nothing, *| I haven't got anything, | Has he got enything? ‘Am ‘ceva. Nu am nimic. j Are (el) ceva? someone. one. A anyous. |", fanyoue? 1 see { sompety. as. | T don't see sped. | Cot you see apoiye Vad pe cineva. Na vid pe timeni. Yeti po cineva? Ht must de some} He is nowhere to be | He isn't anwshere to | Con ihis be found any- where, found. be found. where? Se géseste asta unde- Trebuio si fio un- Nu nicdieri de gisit. | deva. i | va? | | J Yes/No + pronume + verb auxiliar/modal: ‘Can you ski? ‘Yes, I can? Stii s& schiezi? Da, stiu. ‘Have you written to him? *No, I haven't,’ Tai cris? Nu (nu i-am seris). Intonafia acestor intrebari este ascendenté: “Did you talk to him last night?t‘Yes, I did.’ iar ordinea cuviniclor este: euxiliar/modal + subiect + ++ verb notional {-+ complemente): Will you be seeing them tonunorrow? Ji tnttinesti mine? 2 Intrebarile generale pastreaxd uneori forma propozitiiior enuntiative, confinutul lor interogativ find indicat doar de semnul inirebarii gi intonatia ascendenta ‘You saw him?‘ Yes, J did.’ : Aceasta forma este caracteristic’ exprimarii familiare, fiind folosita sau cind vorbitorul agteapta un raspuns afirmativ: You live here? (Tu locuiesti aici?) sau pentru exprimarea surprinderii: You paid a fine? Ai platit (tntr-adevar) amend&? formules o anumit& parte de propozifie si agteapta un rispuns definit r ‘When did they arrive?’ ‘Last night. Ctad au sosit? Aseara, Intrebarile speciale sint introduse de pronume, adjective sau adverbe interogative: — Who pentru fiinje: Who is coming? Cine vine? Whose is the book? A cuie cartea? Who did you talk to? Cu cine ai vorbit? — What pentru obiecte: What subject do you like best? Ce obiect de stadia {ti place cel mai mult? Which pentru a indica alegerea su preferinja dintre doud sau mai multe persoane sau obiecte: Which of these books do you want? Pe care dintre aceste carfi o vrei? — How pentru indicarea modului: How did you get this? Cum ai obtinut asta? ~- How many pentru indicarea numirului: How many guests did you have lost night? Citi musafiri ai avut aseard? : —How much penira indicarea cantitafii: How mueh rice did you buy? Cit orez ai cumparet? How much did it cost? Cit a costat? 4 intrebari despre eferitor la aceasta: 226— How old pentru indicarea virstei: How old are you? Citi ani ai? ~ How far pentru indicarea distanjei: How far did Rerun? tht de departe a alergat? — Where pentru indicarea locului: Where did you find this? Unde ai gisit asta? —When|what time pentru indicarea momentului: When did they arrive? Cind au sosit? What time did you get up? La ce ora te-ai sculat? — How long pentru indicarea duratei: How long did you stay there? Cit (timp) ai stat acolo? — Why pentru indicarea cauzoi: Why are you lute? De co ai intirziat? Intonatia intrebarilor speciale este descendent; ‘What are you doing now?" \'I'm reading, Ordinea cuvintelor in intrebarile speciale Cuvintele interogative ocupa pozitie initialé in intrebarile speciale, iar predicatul sau o parte a lui precede de obicei subiectul, ordinea cuvintelor find: a) cuvint interogativ (+ compliniri) -+‘he/have {Present/Past simple) +- subiect (+ complemente): [AT has he in his hand? Ce are in mind? WHERE were they last night? Unde au fost aseari ? b) cuvint interogativ (+ compliniri) + auxiliar/modal + subiect +-verb no- fional (+complemente): HOW MANY postcards have you written today ? Cite vederi ai seris azi? ¢) cuvint interogativ (+ compliniri) + predicat( - complemente) cind cuvintul interogativ este subiectul propozitiei interogative. In aceasta situafie nu mai are loc inversiunea subiect — predicat sau subiect — auxiliar, iar la Lumpur le Present Simple si Past Simple uv se mai foloseste auxiliarl do: MANY PUPILS have written to you? Cijs elevi fi-au 2 WHAT happened? Ce s-a intimplat? WHO rings you up every day? Cine {fi telefo- neaz& in fiecare zi? In toate cele trei cazuri (a,b, c), cuvintul interogativ ocupl pozifie inifiala. © exceptie o constituie situafiile in care ouvintul interogativ este precedat de © prepozitie: At whom are you looking? La cine te wifi? constructie caracte- risticd englezei literare. In vorbire, prepozitia se agaz& Ja sfirgitul intrebarii: Who are you loo- king at? se referd la una dintre doud sau mai multe alternative, legate prin conjunctia or: Did you see a film or a play last night? Ai vizut un film sau o piesd de teatru aseark? Prima sau primele alternative au o intonafie escendenté, iar ultima, descendent’ : Did you talk to Peter,} John or Mary about it? Intrebarile alternative au structura fie a unor intrebari generale: Did yeu go there by bus or by tram? fie @ unor intrebari speciale: How did you get there: by bus or by tram? in consecin}a, ordinea cuvintelor in intrebarile alternative este acceagi ca in intrebarile generale sau speciale, cer raspuns sat nunf pozitiv sau negativ, prin réluarea, in final, a verbului subiectului exprimat prin pronume, la forma interogativa auxiliar/modal sau interogativ —negativa, dupa cum urmeaz a) Enunj pozitiv + forma interogativ —negati now, ean’t he? Toma poate s& rispundé acum, nu-i aga? Father hes lost his keys, hasn’t he? Tata gi-a pierdut cheile, nu-i aga? onirasi: Tom can answer 227 15Situagie: Gartat interog. | Verb, surliae/ | Sabient Preponitio Who a Cuvintul | came yesterday? ingrogative Lee eeineon Beret subleotul proporitiet How many | are present? Which books | have been chosen #| see? “| live? be brought? | Cuvintal going to do it? | interogativ= like him? | alté parte do proporitte en? deceit sublectn! studied English?) cost run? ‘speaking Cuvintul ‘en promi tn the man | shown tnterest Fee. + prepozific the scientist | work on? the weather does [he took b) Enunt negativ + forma interogativa: You don’t wateh 7V every night, do you? Nu te uifi la televizor in fiecare searé, nu-i aga? They haven’t come yet, have they? N-au sosit incé, nu-i aga? c) Enunt pozitiv + forma interogativa (pentru exprimarea surprinderii sau neincrederii): He comes here every day, does he? Chiar vine pe-aici.in fiecare zi? Intonafia intrebarilor disjunctive este: —descendenta , dac& vorbitorul nu asteaptd un rspuns real, ci doar o confirmare formala a enuntului siu: ‘The weather is lovely today, isn’t it?” | °Yes, it is,’ Ce vreme frumoasa e azi, nu-i aga? Aga e. 228— ascendent, daca el solicit un raspuns, o confirmare sau negare reald a celor spuse: '/1 is cold outside, isn't it?"4 E frig afaré, nu-i aga? printr-un rispuns afirmativ sau negativ: ‘Yes, it is,’/No, it isn’t.’ Da, este, {Na, nu este, Particalari ale intrebarilor disjunctive Intrebarea disjunctiva care confine forma I am se termina cu aren't I: J am efficient, aren’ 12 Sint eficient, nu-i aga? Daca subiectul din prima parte a intrebarii disjunctive este un pronume sau adjectiy nehotarit, pronumele din partea a doua este he, she, we sau they, dupa sens: Each participant has to fill in a form, doesn’t he? Fiecare participant trebuie s4 completeze un formular, nu-i aga? Everybody will be delighted, won't they? Toti vor fi incintati, nu-i aga Observati si intrebarile disjunctive continind verbe modale: You bave to be there ai nine, don’t you? Trebuie s& fii acolo la ora 9, nu-i aga? He used to go fishing in summer, didn’t he? Obignuia si meargi la pescuit vara, nu-i aga? You'd better stay, hadn’t you? Mai bine ai riimine, nu-i aga? You'd rather go, wouldn’t you? Ai prefera sg pleci, nu-i aga? Propozijia imperativé exprim& ua ordin;-o rugaminte, un indemn, 0 interdictie, etc, caracteristic’ propozifiilor imperative este modul imperetiv, aspectul simplu, disteza activa. Imperativul are o singur% forma, care coincide cu infinitivel scurt al vesbelor, utiliza pentru persoana a !I-a singular gi plural: Read the lesson! Citeste ‘i ane }rectiat La persoana J si a ITI-a singular si plural, ideea de imperativ esto expri- mata prin construcfie /et -+ substantiv/pronume personal in acuzativ + infini- tivul scurt al verbului notional: Let me try. SA incere eu. Let Mary do it. Sa facd Maria asta. Let them come in. $& intre. La persoana I plural, pronumele personal in acuzativ este de obicei contras fn vorbire: Let us slop now = Lei’s stop now, S& ne oprim acum. Forma negativii a imperativului se construieste cu verbul auxiliar do + negafia not: Pe not | read the lesson ! Nu citi(fi) ectial pate } let Mary do it! SA nu facd Maria asta! La persoana I plural sint posibiie dowd form a) cu auxiliarul do, cavacteristicd exprimarii familiare: Don’t let's stop / b) f8ra auxiliarul do: Let's not stop / S& nu-ne oprim! 229