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Survey of Underwater NDT Technologies for Offshore Assets

Conference Paper · September 2015

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 Survey of Underwater NDT Technologies for Offshore Assets
Ayman Amer, Fadl Abdellatif, Ali Outa, Hassane Trigui, Sahejad Patel, Ameen Obedan, Fernando Diaz Ledezma,
Hamad Al Saiari and Ihsan Taie

Research & Development Center, Intelligent Systems Team, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Abstract. In the oil and gas industry, safety and operational efficiency in offshore production
sites are of paramount importance. This paper surveys the most up-to-date offshore inspection
technologies in both deep and shallow waters, including visual inspection and underwater
nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques. Additionally, the paper demonstrates a solution to
improve both the safety and efficiency of these tasks executed by human divers by using
remotely operated vehicles1 (ROVs) and how the use of multiple NDT systems by ROVs could
improve the overall execution of an NDT examination and increase accuracy.

I. INTRODUCTION

Inspection of offshore assets in the oil and gas industry mainly involves platforms and subsea
pipelines. A significant portion of oil spills are caused by pipeline damage or leaks [1]. This can
result in various environmental hazards as well as loss of production. Inspecting pipelines for
maintenance and repair includes complex tasks involving extensive utilization of various
resources because pipelines extend for thousands of kilometers, in both shallow and ultra-deep
waters [3]. Nonetheless, regular preventative maintenance and repair is essential for fixing minor
and urgent issues in their initial stage before they result in major incidents that might require the
complete shutdown of a production line. Therefore, maintaining the integrity of long pipelines
and other offshore structures requires efficient inspection techniques that do not compromise the
environmental safety of the environment as well as the personnel involved. Among the
inspection techniques are nondestructive testing (NDT) methods that provide real-time
monitoring under actual operational conditions, remote sensing, cost-effective operation, safety
and reliability [4]. NDT uses non-invasive techniques to detect structural cracks and defects in
pipelines and risers without damaging them, using electromagnetic/acoustic waves and
electrochemical properties. Various underwater NDT techniques can be used to complete critical
tasks such as: (1) integrity assurance through visual inspection, (2) corrosion monitoring through
wall thickness measurement, (3) crack identification through electromagnetic measurements, (4)
corrosion control through cathodic protection (CP).
Nowadays, NDT is performed by trained divers. In addition to the associated high costs and
time consumption, divers are exposed to various safety hazards during the inspection. A
significant portion of the cost of an underwater inspection service involves the cost of having an
experienced diver crew and a diving support vessel2 (DSV) needed for them to complete their
task [2]. An alternative solution where diver and DSV costs can be eliminated is using ROVs to
perform the inspection tasks. In addition to the cost savings and sparing the divers the potential
safety hazards, Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) can function at an increased inspection rate
[5] [10]. To overcome the limitations of some inspection technologies, ROVs can use multiple
inspection techniques simultaneously at localized spots, providing a better and more complete
picture of the health and integrity of the asset compared to a single technique.
1
A remotely operated vehicle, commonly referred to as an ROV, is a tethered underwater vehicle.
2
A diving support vessel (DSV) is an accompanying vessel for underwater operations to provide multiple services for the diver .

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II. Underwater Pipeline Inspection Technologies

Since damage to oil and gas assets can be costly due to its toll on the environment, human lives,
and the economy, preventative regular inspections are essential to ensure the integrity of the
assets. To do so, NDT techniques can be used to complete the inspection tasks in a timely and
effective manner. NDT techniques range from the traditional simple visual inspection to more
complex techniques utilizing physical and electrochemical properties of materials. Magnetic,
ultrasonic, pressure testing, and in-line service inspection are examples of the latter type of NDT
technique. This section provides a detailed description of the various NDT techniques used in the
inspection of oil and gas assets.

1. Underwater Visual Inspection

Visual inspection is a basic NDT method primarily used as a first task for inspecting
pipelines or any structure in seawater. Visual inspection commonly means inspection using raw
human vision and/or any specialized vision equipment. It constitutes an important aspect of
practicable quality control for offshore oil and gas assets that require testing and it is often
carried out using any of these levels:

Level I - General Visual Inspection (GVI). This level of visual inspection does not usually
require cleaning, and allows either diver or ROV to carry out a visual inspection of structure by
human eye or camera system equipped with integral pan-and-tilt mechanisms, due to marine
growth coverage. This type of inspection can only observe major defects (Figure 1).

Level II - Detailed Visual Inspection (DVI). This level of inspection requires minimal cleaning
and can usually be achieved using either wire brush or high pressure water jetting. This level of
cleaning is also sufficient for simple spot inspection measurements, e.g., cathodic protection
(CP) or eddy current inspection (Figure 2).

Level III - Close Visual Inspection (CVI). This level of inspection requires a cleaning process to
remove the marine growth completely from a structure, unlike a GVI. This will enable either a
diver or ROV to inspect any visible corrosion, pitting, and weld damage.

Nowadays, there are visual systems that are able to capture the surfaces of pipeline and provide a
3D image in real time. Figure 3 (a), (b), show typical images developed using DimEye (VLS)
laser and Echoscope® acoustic sonar scanners [7] [8]. 3D acoustic imaging is performed by using
multi-beam sonar. The advantage of using these high resolution multi-beam sonar is the ability to
capture 3D real-time imaging for subsea pipelines and other offshore assets providing more
information on important integrity indications such as free-span.

Figure 1 General visual inspection by diver or ROV [5] Figure 2 CP and UT wall thickness readings during DVI [11]

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 Figure 3 Real-time 3D images (a) DimEye video laser scan [7] (VLS) (b) Echoscope 3D sonar [8]

2. Acoustic Nondestructive Testing methods

a) Ultrasonic methods

Ultrasonic methods of NDT use beams of mechanical waves (vibrations) of short wavelength
and high frequency, transmitted from a small probe and detected by the same or other probes.
Such mechanical waves can travel large distances through metal in a form of compression waves
and detect internal, hidden defects. Transducers and coupling wedges are available to generate
waves of several types, including longitudinal, shear and surface waves. There are several
techniques based on ultrasonic method; the most common of them include:

I. Ultrasonic Testing (UT): It is one of the most used external inspection methods. A
UT system is usually composed of a probe that generally requires a couplant and a
pulser/receiver device to send the ultrasonic waves and evaluate the pipeline’s wall
thickness. A transducer is used to send an ultrasound wave that propagates into the
pipe and, when reflected, provides information on flaws, inhomogeneity or
discontinuities inside the material based on the time intervals of the arrival of the
direct and reflected waves at different areas of the pipe’s surface [18]. A disadvantage
of this technique is that the inspected surface needs to be exposed and that it can only
be performed at a single point at a time, unless a scanner is used.

II. Guided Wave Pipeline Inspection (GWPI): Guided wave UT techniques transmit a
sonic wave along the pipe via transducers designed to appropriately transmit sound
waves in the transversal section of the pipe. This technology is a long range
inspection technique that utilizes reflections caused, among other things, by changes
in the cross sectional areas (e.g., changes in thickness, welds, pipe features, etc.) to
detect problems such as cracks or corrosion [9]. This technique allows screening long
lengths of pipe for approximate size and location of flaws from a remote location
[17].

III. Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD): The TOFD technique is an effective fully
computerized inspection method for detecting and assessing flaws. This technology

3
 uses ultrasonic diffraction instead of reflection, for which a pair of ultrasonic probes is
placed as a transmitter-receiver arrangement and is connected together. Using the
measured time of flight of the pulse, the depth of a crack can be calculated according
to the wall thickness [12] [13].

IV. Phased Array UT (PAUT): Phased array (PA) is an advanced method of ultrasonic
equipment, which is made up of many small ultrasonic elements, each of which can be
pulsed individually; forming a slice view image that detects any hidden defects or
discontinuities inside a structure or weld [13]. PAUT produces precise, reliable images
quickly and can be used to inspect efficiently a large volume of material. It is often
used as an alternative to radiography. PAUT can be used, as a separate inspection
method as well as to assist in pipe weld inspection with TOFD [9].

The last two techniques, TOFD and PA ultrasonic, can be applied as single inspection methods
or in combination to deliver a highly sensitive inspection strategy. PAUT is a reflective
ultrasonic method, similar to conventional ultrasonic echo, while TOFD is a diffractive
ultrasonic method [13]. This combination has significant advantages over conventional
ultrasonic techniques, including accurate defect sizing and inspection of components with
complex geometry [17].

b) Acoustic emission (AE)

Acoustic emission NDT technique is based on the detection and conversion of high frequency
elastic waves to electrical signals. Immersed structures are usually exposed to extreme conditions
involving high pressure/temperature/mechanical stress [6] [12]. Therefore, over extended time
durations, the structures start growing cracks and corrosion products. Utilizing acoustic
emissions from these defects by directly coupling piezoelectric transducers on the surface of the
structure, piezoelectric transducers can detect the waves and, based on the received wave
patterns, the location of the defect can be determined (Figure 4). These acoustic waves are
generated passively by the structure itself during cracking and not induced by the sensor unlike
traditional UT. The rate of growth of the defect is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
emitted acoustic waves, which enables a more precise assessment of the situation and its urgency
[19].

The challenge associated with this technique is that the measurement is dynamic and cannot
be verified by repeated measurements [19], as a crack can take few seconds or minutes to grow,
during which it emits acoustic waves, but once its growth is inhibited, no acoustic waves will be
emitted from the static condition.

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 Figure 4 Underwater acoustic emission (AE) sensors [6]

Table 1 shows an overview of the techniques based on acoustic NDT methods.

Table 1 Overview of the surveyed Acoustic NDT methods

NDT Transmitter/
Range Wave Propagation
Technique Receiver

GWT Long Reflection, shear horizontal wave Separate probes

TOFD Short Diffraction, shear vertical wave Separate probes
PAUT Short Reflection, shear horizontal/vertical wave In the same probe

3. Electromagnetic methods

Electromagnetism or electromagnetic effects resulting from the interaction of electricity and

magnetism are the basis for eddy current testing, magnetic particle inspection, magnetic flux
leakage testing, and ACFM. Electromagnetic induction tests are applied to all stages of metal and
alloy fabrication and processing.

a) Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) – MPI is used to detect surface and just below
surface discontinuities such as cracks in ferromagnetic materials. When the surface of
the pipe is magnetized, either by an electromagnet or by passing an electric current
through it, the magnetic field is continuous unless there is a crack on the surface. If the
crack is located in between the poles of the magnetic field, the magnetic flux leaks out
of the material. This effect will collect ferromagnetic particles spread on the surface
(for inspection purposes) with an orientation condition — north and south poles —
formed at the edges of the crack allowing visual approximation of the size and shape
of the flaw [14] [20].
b) Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) – MFL technology consists of permanent magnets
used to temporarily induce a magnetic field in the body of a pipe. Then, the magnetic
leakage field (i.e., changes in the magnetic field) is measured and recorded along the
pipe’s surface. The magnetic flux should be uniform in the pipeline except in regions
where internal or external flaws are present causing distortions in the magnetic field.
These distortions can be associated to small defects caused by cracks, corrosion and
pitting [16] [21].
c) Eddy Current Testing (ECT) – EC is one of the several NDT methods that use the
principle of electromagnetism. When using an eddy current inspection tool, the probe
sends an electrical signal which magnetizes the pipe’s steel. After the probe stops the

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 magnetizing signal, the steel demagnetizes generating an eddy current. This eddy
current is registered by a receiver and analyzed providing the wall thickness for
corrosion inspection [10] [23].
d) Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) – ACFM is an electromagnetic
technique for detection and sizing of surface defects without the need for a calibration
measurement. It used on conductive materials through conductive or non-conductive
coatings with the surface up to 400 degrees Celsius [23]. An ACFM probe is induced
in the component rather than through direct contact and the magnetic field above the
component is measured rather than measuring the electric field on the surface. These
advances have resulted in a non-contacting technique, which can measure crack size
through paint and other coatings.

Table 2 contains an overview of the four techniques based on the electromagnetic effect.
Table 2 Overview of the surveyed electromagnetic NDT methods

Works High and

NDT Material Detection Defect Remote
through Low
Technique applicable capability Depth Detection
coatings Temperature
Surface, near-
MPI Magnetic[14] No No No No
surface[14]
Surface, near-
MFL Magnetic[21] Yes No No Yes
surface[21]
Surface, near-
ECT Conducting[10] No Yes No Yes
surface[10]
ACFM All[23] Volumetric[23] Yes Yes Yes Yes

4. Electrical Nondestructive Testing methods

There are several methods used to control underwater corrosion, which is an electrochemical
process that involves the formation of an electrical circuit between areas of active corrosion
(anodes) and passive areas (cathodes). In the corrosion process, the salt water acts as an
electrolyte allowing the flow of ions from anodes to cathodes. Cathodic protection (CP) applies a
negative voltage on the surface to make it a cathode and thus protecting it from corrosion. CP
can be achieved by (a) using a galvanic anode, where the current is a result of the potential
difference between the two metals, or (b) it may be an impressed current anode, where the
current is impressed from an external DC power source

Cathodic protection (CP) measurement is an electrical test performed periodically to evaluate the
level of protection and corrosion control. The condition of the CP is assessed by taking readings
of the driving voltage between a probe and an external anode that is connected to the metallic
surface. [25]

6
 Figure 5 Cathodic protection measurements performed by a diver [14]

III. Multi-inspection Technology Approach

It is worth mentioning that each single NDT inspection technology has its own limitations.
Increasing operational efficiency results in receiving the maximum amount of data from a single
inspection run[15]. Therefore, a combination of multiple inspection technologies on a single
inspection tool could be an effective solution to provide a more complete image of the condition
and integrity of the asset being inspected.

Several companies have developed their own fleet of underwater vehicles with multiple
inspection capabilities. An ROV is capable of carrying a multitude of inspection tools and
logging a large amount of data gathered from the onboard sensors. This allows for a more
comprehensive inspection compared to what a diver can achieve. For instance, ECA ROVING
BAT-INS offshore ROVs (Figure 6) that are designed to operate on pipelines and rigs in rough
sea environments. Additionally, they are capable of conducting quantitative measurements for
CP surveys and thickness measurement using UT. Among other applications, this ROV can be
used for marine growth removal using high pressure steam of cavitation bubble [28].

Figure 6 ECA HYTEC ROVING BAT ROV [28]

Also, there are companies that are specialized in internal pipeline inspection focusing
particularly on the development of in-line inspection (ILI) tools that carry multiple inspection
techniques [26] [31]. For instance, LineExplorer UC (Figure 7) is designed for the detecting,
sizing and locating of cracks and crack-like defects in the main body as well as the weld zone of

7
a pipeline. This technology includes MFL, eddy current, UT sensors among other inspection
tools. ILI tools are inserted into the pipeline at certain locations with special configurations that
allow the tool to be loaded into the system. The pipeline flow then moves the tool through the
line. When the tool is retrieved, the recorded data is extracted for analysis [22] [30]. This
modular design concept of such a tool allows different inspection technologies to be successfully
implemented without any negative effect on performance of the measurement system.

Figure 7 LineExplorer UC in-line inspection tool (ILI) [32]

IV. CONCLUSION

The oil and gas industry is a vital pillar in the region's economy and the world's; therefore,
preserving its efficient operations is an absolute necessity. This can be achieved through regular
inspection of assets by utilizing various technologies so as to prevent significant damage and
shutdown of various oil and gas assets. Neglecting to maintain asset integrity can interrupt
production and expose the environment as well as human lives to high risks. NDT techniques
provide a cost-effective and efficient way for inspecting oil and gas assets in a non-invasive
manner allowing real-time inspection under actual working conditions, and without interrupting
day-to-day operations. NDT inspections are currently performed by highly trained divers. The
divers require expansive DSVs for supplying diving utilities and inspection equipment, which
makes the inspection process expensive and not very efficient. Additional challenges include
various hazards faced by divers and also the unfitness of DSVs to access shallow waters. ROVs
offer an alternative approach to NDT inspections. Inspection cost per kilometer of pipelines by
an ROV is highly economical, as these vehicles can remain underwater for relatively long
durations enabling the coverage of long distances in a more timely fashion. Utilizing multiple
inspection technologies on a single ROV would enable executing multiple measurements
simultaneously to provide a more complete picture of the asset integrity. This survey summarizes
the main NDT techniques currently used and highlights the benefits of ROVs as a future
improvement in inspection technology.

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to acknowledge and extend our gratitude to the Research & Development
Center of Saudi Aramco for the support in publishing this paper.

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