ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND SPECTRAL LINES BY ARNOLD SOMMERFELD PROVEDSSOR OF THRORETICAL PHYSIOS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MITNICIE TRANSLATED FROM THE FIFTH GERMAN EDITION BY HENRY L. BROSKH, M.A., D.Phil., D.Sc. LANCASHIRE-SPENCER PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY COLLEGY, NOTTINGHAM, VOLUME T THIRD EDITION, REVISED METHUEN & CO. LTD 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. LondonThis Translation First Published in Ong Volume. June 1923 Second fdition see oo October 1928 Third Edition, Revised (Hirst of Tho Volumes). 1934 PRINTED IN GRRAT BRITAINEXTRACT FROM THE PREFACE TO THE 7 FIRST GERMAN EDITION FTER the discovery of spectral analysis no one trained in physics could doubt that the problem of the atom would be solved when physicists had learned to“ukderstand the language of spectra. So manifold ‘was* the cnormééf&* amount of material that had been accumulated in sixty years of spectroscopic research that it seemed at first beyond the possibility of disen- tanglement. An almost greater enlightenment has resulted from the seven years of Réntgen spectroscopy, inasmuch as it has attacked the problem of the atom at its very root, and illuminates the interior. What we are nowadays hearing of the language of spectra is a true “music of the spheres” within the atom, chords of integral relationships, an order and harmony that become ever more perfect in spite of the manifold variety. The theory of spectral lines will bear the name of Bohr for all time. But yet another name will be permanently associated with it, that of Planck. All integral laws of spectral lines and of atomic theory spring originally from the quantum theory. It is the mysterious organon on which Nature plays her music of the spectra, and according to the rhythm of which she regulates the structure of the atoms and nuclei. September, 1919AUTHORS PREFACE TO THE FIFTH GERMAN EDITION “TLN this new edition the subject-matter will be subdivided, and will appear in two volumes. The present volume, which constitutes the first portion, contains the older quantum theory, and is in part an abbreviation and in part an extension of the fourth German edition of the original work. The second volume will be an elaboration and completion of the supplementary volume, which originally appeared under the title “ Wave Mechanics.” It has become clear that it is possible to understand the new theory only by building it up from the old theory. For this purpose the present volume necessarily treats not only of the basic experimental facts, but also of the orbital ideas so far as they are required for intro- ducing the quantum numbers, and for serving as models for the wave- mechanical calculations. The final results are always given in the form in which they are presented by the new theory. Consequently, it has been necessary to refer frequently to the supplementary volume, and to leave occasional gaps in the proofs. The first seven chapters Have in the main been abbreviated. The methods involved in Hamiltonian mechanics, which I ventured to place only in the Appendix previously, have here been taken up in the text, as their technique has now become generally familiar. Conversely, 1 have transferred the instructive method of Rubinowicz for deriving the selection rules, which were previously given in the text, to the Appendix. Chapter VIIL, which treats of multiplet structures, has been extended by the inclusion of the model of the spinning electron and of Pauli’s Principle. Chapter IX., on Band Spectra, has been kept short, and does not claim to be in any way complete ; it contains only what is essential for wave-mechanics. Special thanks are due to my colleague, Dr. K. Bechert. He has not only sacrificed much time in checking the formule and in correcting the proofs, but also in making several independent contributions, for example, to Chapters VII., VIIL, and IX. Mr. H. Raether kindly prepared the index. A. SOMMERFET& Muwroy, November, 1931 vi'TTRANSLATOR’S PREFACE HE English rendering of the latest edition of Professor Sommerfeld’s classic work will, it is hoped, be no less welcome than the previous English edition. It comes at a time when a certain definite stage has been arrived at in our knowledge of the structure of the atom. Much that was speculative only a few years ago has now become confirmed by subsequent experimental re- searches, whereas in some cases our views have had to be modified. As a useful model for interpreting the main features of spectroscopic phenomena the Rutherford-Bohr atom must still be regarded as indis- pensable, No harm can come from its provisional or conditiona) acceptance, so long as it is not treated too literally or too respectfully. Although wave-mechanics and quantum mechanics are available whenever difficulties arise in the last details of refinement of spectro- scopic evidence, the less-mathematically minded physicist will probably prefer to deal with a concrete model to the deficiencies of which he is not blind. Tt was the expressed wish of the author that the translation should not be too literal and that slight modifications should be left to the discretion of the translator. It is hoped that the exercise of this privilege has caused no change in sense while conferring freedom of idiom. I wish to take this opportunity of again thanking Professor Sommerfeld for his repeated assistance and courtesy. He has earned the gratitude of physicists throughout the world for carrying out so successfully the monumental task of giving a comprehensive and lucid exposition of modern atomic physics. He, himself, and his collabor- ators have contributed no mean share to these results, indeed, a great deal more than may be gathered from the author's own modest state- ments and references. Acknowledgment must be made to Dr. E. Gwynne Jones (Beit Research Fellow of the Imperial College of Science and formerly Research Scholar of University College, Nottingham) for writing the section on hyper-fine structure, which has received the approval of the author. The addendum at the end of the text has been added by the translator. viiviii Atomic Structure The thanks of the translator are due to Mr. R. G. Horner, B.A., for kindly checking and correcting the proofs, a task to which he has devoted much time and care. The index was prepared with the help of Miss Barbara Hitchcock, B.Sc. HENRY L. BROSE University (otrear, NorrinauaMCONTENTS Autnor’s Preraces . : . . . : . . . . TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE . . . . we . . . CHAPTER I Intropucrory Facrs . . ” . . . . . § 1. Retrospect of the Davolopmnont of Loctrodynumies § 2. Tho Atomicity of Kloctricity. Tons and Klectrons : § 3. Cathode Rays and Canal Raye Ty s)/fil41: § 4. a- and B-rays . : § 5. Rontgen Rays anil} y reys . . . . + . $6. Photo-electrie Effoct and its Convorse. Glimpses of the Quantum Hypothesis 1 ttt § 7. Wavo Theory and Quantum Theory. Compton Effect § 8. Radioactivity (ey CHAPTER II Tax Hyprooen Srrorrum : SERPS § 1. Nuclear Charge and Atomic Number. The Atom as a Planotary Sys stem + . . . §2. Empirical Data about the Spoctra of Hydrogen. The Principle of Combination . Tt § 3. Introduction to the Theory of Quanta, Oscillators and Rotators + §4. Bohr's Theory of Balmer’a Seria =. ws eee = §5. Relative Motion ofthe Nucleus =. . ww ee § 6. Introduction to Hamiltonian Mechanics . . swe + § 7. Elliptic Orbits in tho Caso of Hydrogen. _ $8. Quantising of the Spatial Position of of Kepler Orbits, ‘Theory of theMagneton . «Se 1+ CHAPTER III Tue Natura System or ELEMENTS . . . § 1. Small and Great Periods. Atomic Weights and Atomic Numbers §2. The Laws of Radioactive Displacements and the Theory of Tsotopes 7+ +442 §3. Poripheral and Contral Properties of the Atom. Visiblo and X-ray Spoctra. Configurations of the Inert Gases §4. Introduction to the Theory of the Periodic System. Pauli’s Principle. § 5. The Structure of tho Elements in the Periodio System ee § 6. Some Remarks about Nuclear Physics . 7 b ix page, 61 61 68 76 96 108 119 130 130 135 143 150 155 165X-Ra Tarory -g1 §2. Porants: gl. 3 Sane Atomic Structure CHAPTER IV SPECTRA. . . . . . . . . . . Laue’s Discovery Methods of Measuring Wave-lengths | Survey of tho K-, L-, and M-sories and the Corresponding Limits of Excitation : ‘Tho K-sories. Its Bearing on the Periodic System of Elements | ‘Tho L-series. Doublot Relationships Excitation and Absorption Limits. Regularities in the Absorp- tion Coeficients General System of X-ray Spectra. “Tables of Terms. Solection Rules. X-ray Spark Spoctra. Rolationships with tho Periodic Sytem wee CHAPTER V ov Fins Structure 5 eee le Rolativistic Keplor Motion eee ; Gonoral Inforoncos. Lino-separations ‘and Relativity rections . . . . Comparison with tho Results of Experiment . Rolativistie Doublets in the X-ray Rogion . Irregular or Scroening Doublots see . Universal Spoctroscopic Units, Spectroscopic Confirmation of tho Thoory of Relativity CHAPTER VI ATION AND INTENSITY OF SpEcTRAL Linus Bohr’s Correspondence Principle in the Caso of the Hystrogen Atom ; . The Orbits of the Hydrogen Electron in the Stark Effect . Resolution of tho Balmor Lines in the Stark Effect . The Normal Zeeman Effect . Anomalous Zeoman Effect . The Adiabatic Hypothesis . CHAPTER VII Serres Laws iv GENERAL . gl. §2. §3. §4. §5. 56. §7. $8. Experimental Results Connected with the Series Scheme Expressing Series by Formule. Tho Selection Principle for the Azimuthal Quantum . : Testing the Sories Scheme by the Method of Electronic Impact Quantum Theory of the Series Formula. Penetrating and Non- penetrating Orbits Application to the Representation of Rontgen Spectra in Terms. Magnitudes of tho ‘Terms. Relationship with the Periodic System eee Series Types with ‘Different Limits. Varying Constitution of the Atomic Core . et Spark Spectra of Different Orders. “Stripped Atoms” and the Laws underlying their Structure... 3 . 3 . - PAGE 176 176 186 199 206 214 226 258 262 273 281 286 292 292 300 312 321 330 341 360 371 387 395 397 403 407Contents xi CHAPTER VIII PAGE Tue Comptex Structure or THE Senres TERMS . . . » 419 § 1. Inner Quantum Numbers. Theory of Multiplots : . » 419 § 2, Alternation of Even and Odd Terms in the Periodic System » 431 § 3. Russell-Saunders Coupling. ‘orm Systems of Given Configura- tion containing Two Outer Electrons. . . . » di § 4. Configurations of Several Electrons. Tho Iron Group’ and the Group of Raro Earths. ‘The Spectra of the Noble Motals Compared with the Alkali Spectra. ‘The Jron Spectrum, —. 454 § 5. Other Couplings fee 487 § 6. Anomalous Zeeman Effect of the he Mulls soe ee 4TH § 7. Paschen-Back Effect. Se 8B § 8. Theory of the Magnoton a §9. Intensity of Spectral Lines =. eR $10. Resolution of Multiplet Torms. Hyperfine Structure =. 530 CHAPTER IX . Banp Srecrra 1, Historical Prehmmaries. Umform View of the Deslandres and § Balmer Terms. BE § 2. Infra-red Absorption Bands, * Rotation and Rotation-vibration Spoctra . oo. 8D § 3. Visible Bands. Significance of “the Hout ‘of the Band, . . 568 § 4. Law of Band Edges and Band Systems soe BE § 5. Many-linos Spoctra, . Be TB § 6. Gyroscopic Motion of the Molecules»)... BBM § 7. Multiplet Structure of Band Spoctra : : . 7 . 587 ADDENDUM . . . . . . . . . . . 596 MarwemaricaL APPENDIX 2.0. OL 1, Seattermg by Bound Electrons. “601 2, Proof of tho Tivariance of Hamilton’s Equations for Arbitrary Trans- formations of Co-ordinates. Contact Transformations... 604 3. Concerning the Ratio of the Kinotic to the Potential Horny in the Coulomb Field. : . 609 4. Integration with the help of Complex Variables | - 6ll 5. Further Remarks on Hamiltonian Mechanics, Angle Co-ordinates, "Theory of Perturbations, Forcos without a Potential . 615 6. Hamilton's Theory in Relativity Mechanics. =. ss «O23 7. Bohr’s Correspondence Principle ; en) 8, Conservation of Moment of Momentum during mission | | 639 9. Stark Fiffect of the Second Order. ee 849 10, Tho Adiabatic Invariance of Phase-integrals |... 652 11. The Spectra of Atoms Unhke Hydrogen. Effect of the Supple- mentary Atomic Field, in tho case of Non.penotrating Orbita . 654 12. Resolutions of the Multiplet Terms + 656 13, Quantising of the Rotating Anharinonic Oscillator = || 687 . . . 671CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY FACTS §1. Retrospect of the Development of Electrodynamics N the first half of the nineteenth century Electrodynamics consi-.. 1 of a series of disconnected elementary laws. Formed analogously to Newton’s Laws of Gravitation, they asserted the existence of direct action at a distance, which, starting from the seat of an electric charge or of magnetism and leaping over the intervening space was supposed to act at the seat of a second electric or magnetic charge. Opposed to this there arose in the second half of the nineteenth century a view which followed the course of the continuously extended electromagnetic field from point to point and moment to moment ; it was called the “ Field Theory ” in contradistinction to the “ Theory of Action at a Distance.” It was propounded by Faraday, worked out by Maxwell, and completed by Heinrich Hertz. According to this view the electromagnetic field ia represented by the course, in space and time, of the electric and magnetic lines of force. Maxwell’s equations teach us how electric and magnetic lines of force are linked with one another, how magnetic changes at any point of the field call up electrical forces, and how electric currents are surrounded by magnetic forces. The intervening medium, even if non-conducting, is supposed to have a certain transparency (permeability) and receptivity (dielectric capacity) towards magnetic and electric lines of force ; hence at every point of space it influences the distribution of the clectromagnctic field according to its constitution at that point. The greatest triumph of this view occurred when Hertz succeeded in connecting light, the phenomenon of physical nature with which we are most familiar, with electromagnetism, which was at that time the most perplexing phenomenon. After Maxwell had already surmised that light was an alternating electromagnetic field (he succeeded in calculat- ing the velocity of light from purely electrical measurements mado by Kohlrausch), Hertz produced his “ rays of electric force,” which, just like light, are reflected, refracted, and brought to a focus by appropriate mirrors, and which are propagated in space with the velocity of light. The electric waves produced by Hertz had a wave-length of several metres. From them an almost unbroken chain of phenomena, leads by way of heat rays and infra-red rays to the true light rays, whose vou. 1.—12 Chapter I. Introductory Facts wave-lengths amount to only fractions of 4. The greatest link in this chain came later as a direct result of Hertz’s experiments, namely, the waves of wireless telegraphy, whose wave-lengths have to be reckoned in kilometres. (Nauen sends out waves having a wave-length of 12 kilometres, or 7} miles) ; the smallest and most delicate link is added at, the other end of the chain, as we shall see, in the form of Réntgen rays,, and the still shorter y-rays which are of a similar nature ; likewise the ultra-y- or cosmic radiation (but see the closing paragraph of § 5). . Hertz died on Ist Jan., 1894, at the age of thirty-seven years. It would be natural to conclude that the later years of his short life and the work of his followers were occupied with the development of his wave experiments and of his theory of electromagnetic fields. But the last experimental paper by Hertz, “‘ Concerning the Passage of Cathode Rays through Thin Metallic Layers ” (1891), already pointed in a new direction, The field theory had diverted attention from the origin of lines of force, and had chiefly served to illuminate their general course in a regular distribution of the field. The next question was to study the singularities of the field, the charges. The best conditions for doing so are offered by cathode ray tubes, which have a very high vacuum ex- ceeding that of the so-called Geissler tubes (which were investigated by Pliicker and Hittorf). Here we have electricity in a pure form, un- adulterated by ordinary matter, and, in addition, moving in a straight line at an extremely high speed ; cathode rays are corpuscular rays of negative electricity. t is true that Hertz as well as his eminent pupil Lenard first clung to the opposite view, namely, that the rays were undulatory in character; but Hertz had recognised the important value of the investigation of cathode rays for the future. Thus he had in this way helped personally in attracting workers from the field of physical knowledge just opened up by him towards pioneer work in a new field. In the sequel, the greatest interest became centred not in. the propagation of the lines of force but in the charges, as the origin of these lines of force. The original theory of Maxwell which had been perfected by Hertz retained its significance for phenomena on a large scale, such as those of electrotechnics and wireless telegraphy, and gave an easy means of determining the mean values of the electrical phase quantities (i.e. quantities that define the state of the field). But to render possible deeper research leading to a knowledge of elementary phenomena a deepened view became necessary. Maxwell’s Electro- dynamics had to give way to Lorentz’s Dynamics of the Electron ; the theory of the continuous field became replaced by the discontinuous theory, that of the atomicity of electricity. So the theory of action at @ distance and the theory of action through fields was succeeded by the atomistic view of electromagnetism, the theory of electrons.§2. The Atomicity of Electricity. Ions and Electrons 3 §2. The Atomicity of Electricity. Ions and Electrons The theory of the atomicity of matter has existed ever since there was a science of chemistry ; it is indispensable if the fundamental chemical law, that of multiple proportions, is to be intelligible. Neverthcless there has been no lack of opponents to atomicity. Goethe was one of them. It was repugnant to him to destroy the beautiful appearance of phenomena by dismembering matter and adding human elements. The eminent scientist and philosopher Ernst Mach regarded the “ Atontic Hypothesis ” as merely transitory. He favoured the description of events in terms of continuously distributed matter and continuously acting laws. The last opponent of atomic théory was the keen-witted author of works on Energetics, Wilhelm Ostwald (who has now been converted to a belief in atoms). Objections to the theory have died into silence in the face of its sweeping successes in all branches of physical knowledge. The perfect explanation of the Brownian molec- ular movements which confirms by ocular demonstration in the case of fluids the branch of atomic hypothesis concerned with the theory of heat has contributed much to this acceptance. No less impressive is the confirmation of the atomic structure of solid bodies which was given by Laue’s discovery and which will be discussed in Chapter [V. A necessary consequence of the atomicity of matter is the atomicity of electricity, This was stated simultaneously by Helmholtz and Stoney. Helmholtz remarked in his Faraday Lecture * of 1881, as @ result of the laws of electrolysis which Faraday discovered and expressed numerically : “ If we assume atoms of chemicul elements, we cannot escape from drawing the further inference that electricity, too, positive as well as negative, is divided into definite elementary quanta that behave like atoms of electricity. Fach ion, as long as it is moving in the liquid, must remain associated with an clectrical equivalent for each of its valency units.” Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis actually states: One and the same quantity of electricity, in discharging through various electrolytes, always sets free chemically equivalent quantities of the dissociated products. In the case of univalent elements quantities are called chemically equiva- Jent when they are in the ratio of their corresponding atomic weights, thus 1 grm. of H. 35:5 grms. of Cl. 107-9 grms. of Ag. * Helmholtz, Vortrdge und Reden, Vol. 2, p. 272. The parallel work of Stoney bears the title: “ Physical Units of Nature,” and appeared in February, 1881, in the Proceedings of the Dublin Phil. Soc., and in Vol. 11 of Phil. Mag. + As ia well known, ions are tho “wandering” constituenta of elétrol during electrolysis, the cation being the positively charged constituent which moves in the direction of the positive current, “ downwards,” so to speak, the anion being the negatively charged constituent which moves “ upwards.”4 Chapter I. Introductory Facts To liberate these quantities, we always require, according to Faraday’s Law, to make the same quantity of electricity pass through the electrolytes, namely, Faraday’s constant : F = 96,494 coulombs * = 9649-4 c.g.s. units. The constant ratios of weight (1 grm. H, 35-5 grms, Cl, and 107-9 grms. Ag) become intelligible to us on the supposition of the atomicity of matter: 1 grm. of H is composed of just as many atoms of H as 36-5 grms. of Cl contains Cl atoms, or 107-9 grms. of Ag contains Ag atoms. The equivalent charge F which is the same for each then becomes clear to us in the same way if we accept the atomicity of electricity ; the equivalént charge F consists of just as many atoms of electricity or “ elementary charges e,” as 1 grm. of H contains H atoms, or 35°5 grms. of Cl contgins Cl atoms, and so forth. There is associated with every univalent atom (or more generally with every univalent ion) an elementary charge e, whilst there are associated with every divalent atom or ion two elementary charges, and so forth for atoms of higher valency. Just as the atomicity of matter is a direct outcome of fundamental chemical facts, so the atomicity of clectricity is, a direct outcome of fundamental electrochemical facts. For the sake of brevity of expression we shall define two further terms. Following Ostwald we shall take a mol to be that number of grammes which is given by the number expressing the molecular weight of the substance in question. Thus 1 mol of H,0 = 18 grms., and 1 mol of H, = 2grms. (In the case of monatomic elements we use the term grammatom instead of mol, e.g. 1 grammatom of H = Igrm.) Further- more, Loschmidt’s number L denotes the number of molecules (or atoms, respectively) contained in one mol (or grammatom) of the sub- stance in question, For example, in the case of water, or dissociated hydrogen, this number will be defined by the equations 18 grms. = Limy,o and 1 grm. = Lmy respectively, whereby my denotes the mass, measured in grammes, of a hydrogen atom, and my,o denotes the mass, similarly measured, of a molecule of water. With regard to this term it must be mentioned that recently, in German physical literature, the expression ‘“‘ Avogadro’s number ” is often used in place of ‘‘ Loschmidt’s number,” for the reason that it also plays a part in Avogadro's law of gases. But as Loschmidt was the first to determine this number successfully (by means of the kinetic theory of gases), it seems more in keeping with the facts to associate his name with it. The fact that he made his calculations for the cubic centimetre, and not for the mol, is a mere matter of form. If necessary the number L as defined above could be called “ Loschmidt’s number per ” * A coulomb = +4 of the so-called absolute unit of charge, that is the unit of charge defined in tho c.g.s. syatem and measured electromagnetically.§2. The Atomicity of Electricity. Ions and Electrons 5 The equivalent charge F contains, as we saw, just as many elemen- tary charges ¢ as 1 grm. of hydrogen contains atoms of mass mx, or, as we may now say, the electrochemical equivalent contains L ele- mentary charges e. We therefore write 9649-4 c.g.s. units = Le l grm. = Lma whence 2 = g6ig-4 28S units Lerm. 7° (1) mE grm. ma 7 . The ratio of the charge to the mass is called the specific charge of the ion in question. In the case of the positive hydrogen ion, this specific charge is thus 9649-4, whereas for the divalent positive copper ion it is Be _ 2. 9649-4, mou —«(O3G and for the univalent negative chlorine ion, it is Soa — SEBS and so forth. Electrolysis shows, as Helmholtz pointed out, that positive as well as negative clectricity is composed of clemontary quanta -|-¢. But there is a great difference between positive and negative clectricity in a certain respect. We know positive electricity only as an ion, that is, associated indissolubly with ordinary matter: as we saw abovo, nega- tive electricity also presents itself in electrolysis in the form of ions. But we also know the latter in its free state, dissociated from all ofdinary matter, as detached electricity, so to speak. This is an all-important result of the researches on cathode rays, to which we havo already referred in the preceding paragraph, and to which we shall again refer in the next. The special position occupied by negative electricity, its occurrence as pure atoms of electricity, calls for a special name. Following the example of Stoney,* we shall call tho negative atom of electricity the electron. On the other hand, we shall follow Rutherford in calling the smallest positive ion, namely the hydrogen ion, the proton ; in spite of its being burdened with the mass of the hydrogen atom it plays the part of the atom of positive electricity. In saying that the electron is not encumbered by ordinary matter, we do not imply that it is devoid of inertia. On the contrary, the mere presence of electric charges, or, generally, of enorgy of every kind, entails a certain mass effect. The mass which is associated with the electron. in this way used to be called “electromagnetic ” mass. This term is, however, as the newer developments of fundamental physical concep- tions in the theory of relativity compel us to recognise, too narrow : not * Cf. Trang, Dublin Phil. Soc., Vol. 4, 1891. In the mathematical development of the theory $f electrons by H. A. Lorontz (An Attempt at a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies, Leiden, 1895), the word electron does not occur: Lorentz retains the word ion in this essay.6 Chapter I. Introductory Facts only do electric charges produce a mass effect, but so does the cohesive energy that keeps the charge together and prevents it, in a way as yet unknown to us, from exploding. Therefore we nowadays prefer to speak outright of the electronic mass m, and to regard it as a fact pre- sented by our experiments with cathode rays. A great gap divides the electronic mass, as regards its magnitude, from the ordinary masses of atoms and ions. The electronic mass m is about 1800 times as small as the mass my of the lightest atom. Accord- ingly, the specific charge of the electron, the ratio of the elementary charge @ to the electronic mass m, is in the same proportion greater than the specific charge of the hydrogen atom. From optical observations— measurements of spectral lines, to which we shall refer in Chapter IT, and measurements of resolved spectral lines, to which we shall refer in Chapter VI—we have as the best value of this ratio according to our knowledge of the present time : e@ wall... » (2) Direct measurements, however, carried out with cathode rays, which are deflected by magnetic and clectric fields (cf. § 3), give a somewhat greater value,* namely, 2 21769.107 . 5. (2) m There are good reasons for assuming that (2) representa the correct value.t The general course of the refraction of light in passing through transparent bodies (solids and gases), as calculated on Drude’s Theory of Dispersion, gives us values of < of the same order of magnitude. Now, we see electrons at work in the conduction of currents through metals, as also in radioactive processes, in the production of Réntgen rays (X-rays), in the photo-electric effect, and so forth. From this we conclude : the electron is a universal element of structure of all matter. Whether it is flowing along slowly in an electric current, or hastening through space at an extremely high rate as a cathode ray ; whether it is emitted in radioactive disruption or in a photo-electric process; whether it is vibrating in our lamps (or, as we should nowadays prefer to express it, “jumping ” in our-lamps) ; or whether it effects the course of light in * Cf. for this and the subsoquent numerical data the meticulous discussion of all fundamental physical constants by R. . Birge, Phys. Rev. Supplemept, 1, 1, 929. . + Evidence in support of this viow is given by the results of experiments which have boon very carefully carried out by F. Kirchner in the physics depart- ment of Munich University. “They aro based on the direct measurement of the velocity of the cathode rays along tho lines of a somewhat old method due to E. Wiechert ; these results have not yet boon published, but they are known to give precisely the spectroscopic value of =