Comprehensive Theory with Practice Questions and ESE Sotved QuestionsChapter 1 Engineering Design Process... 14 12 ‘Introducti} Engineering Design Protas ‘Steps in Engineering Design process... Description of Design Process. Sequential and Concurrent Engineeri Objective Brain Tease nen Chapter 2 Problem Definition and information Gathering sess 21. Introduction.. 22. Preliminary Research on Customer Needs ..10 23 Customer Requirement. 24.” Establishing the Engineering Characteristics 13 25. Quality Function Deployment (QF), 26 Product Design Specification. 2.7 Gathering Informatio 28. Information Gathering for a Particular POS... Objective Brain Teasers Chapter 3 Generate Multiple Solutions...... 3.1 Introduction, 3.2 Introduction to Creative Thinking ...... 3.3 Creativity and Problem Solving 34 Concept Generation Method: Objective Brain Teasers... Chapter 4 Analyse and Select a Solution .... 4.1 Introduction, 42 Decision Making. 43. Bialuation Process. 44 Pugh Chart (Datum Method). EVAD (Design EVAluation) Method... ‘Weighted Decision Matrix ‘Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Objective Brain Teasers. Chapter 5 46 47 Embodiment Design & Detail Design ... 36 5.1. Introduction. 5.2 Product Architecture -nconienn 53. Configuration Desig 54 Parametric Design. 53. Industrial Design. 56, Prototyping. 57 Testing, 58 Detail Design. Objective Brain Teasers Chapter 6 Design of Machine Elements. 6.1 Chain Drive.. . 7 62. BeltDrive., 63° Clutches Objective Brain Teasers General Principles of Drawing Chapter 7 Basics of En. 7.1._Whatis Engineering Drawing?.. 7.2. Classification of Engineering Drawing. 73. Drawing Instruments. 7A Engineering Scale 75 Drawing Standard: 7.6 Layout of a Drawing Sheet... 77° Lines a 79 Dimensioning cnn * 7.10 Geometric Constructions and Curves. Objective Brain Teasersthe HP arid the VP... Objective Brain Teasers... ‘Methods of Projection .. Planes of Projection... “Types of Orthographics Chapter 11 gre, Dbjectve ean Tedsers 103 Projections of Planes Chapter 9 11.1 Introduction... 11.2. Traces of Planes... 113 Typesof Planes.. Projections of a Point in the First Quadrant 108 ‘11.4 Projection of Planes Projections of a Point in Second Quadrant . 109 Objective Brain Teasers. Projections of aPointinThird Quadrant..109 Chapter 12 Projections of a Point in Fourth Quadrant. 110 Projections of Points Lying’on Horizontal . tdi inkraducson: Projection Plane... Bh 122 Types of Solids. «| 82 Projections ofPoints tying on Vertical mee 43 projection of Solids Projection of Points Projections of Solids.. nn Projection Plane. eee iii Objective Brain Teasers. ‘Objective Brain Teasers .. 12 Chapter 13 7 chapter 10 Sections, Development and Intersection Projection of Lines. 114 ot Solids 10.1, Introduction, 4 102. Positions of aLine with Respectto HP and VP .u.114 103 Projection ofa Line Parallel to Both HP and VP but Contained in Neither. sees 14, 104 Projection of a Line Contained in HP and 13.1. Section of Sotids.. 13.2._ Intersection of Solids... 133. Development of Surfaces Objective Brain Teasers Be a 105 . Projection of a Line Contained in VP-and. ~ Parallel to HP. a 116» Chapter 14 106 Projection of a Line Perpendicular to the HP Safety and its Importance. 161 and Parallel tO VP on 116 141 Introduction. 161 10.7. Projection of a Straight Line Perpendicular to 142. Need for Safety... 161 the VP and Parallel to the HP. 117 143. OSHA Safety and Health Program 108 Projection ofa Line Contained in the HP and Management Guidelines nm Inclined to the VP 117144. Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) nu 167 10.9 Projection ofa Line Contained in the VP and 145. Fire Safety Engineering... Inclined to the HP.. a 118 146. Safety in Construction. 10.10 Projection of @ Line Contained in both the HP «147. Safetyin Demolition and thevP... 9 (Construction in Reverse)... 10.11 Projection ofa Line Inned tothe HP and 148 Hazardous Waste Management Paratietto the VP... umumnl19 149 Electrical Safety. 10.12 Projection of a Line inclined to the VP and 14.10 Safety in Engi ering Industiy 11 Parallel to the HP anon Senna 120 TALLY Safety in AGriCUIUFE oh nn 2195 10.13 Projection of a Line inclined to both the VP and 14.12. Occupational Health and Safety in india. the Hi 121 Objective Brain Teasers i :Chapter 1 Quality. 1.1 What is Quality? 12 Costof Quality. 1.3. Methods for Generating Solution to prove Quality 1.4 Quality Process 15 Contribution of Quality GUUS occas 211 Objective Bain Teasers sn, 13 Chapter 2 Quality Control To0!s.... 24. ‘Atroduction.. Objective Brain Teasers even nnee 225 Chapter 3 Sampling. 3.1. Sampling . 3.2. Acceptance Sampling.. 33 Sampling Plan... 227 3A Sampling TEAMS neon 35 Operating Characteristic Curve (OC Curve). 231 Objective Brain Teasers. 234 Chapter 4 Total Quality Management.. 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Principles Of TOM nun 43. Taguchi Approaches in TOM .. 2A 44 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) enw 243 45. Other Methods Utilizes along TOM to Increase Efficiency nn 245 46 Benefits ofTOM... 287 Objective Brain Teasers nnn 247 Chapter 5 . SixSigma. ren DAD 5. Historical View. pn 249 52 _ Six Sigma Methodology. 251 53. Différent Levels in Six Sigrna 253 Objective Brain TeASetS wenn sna 255 Chapter 6 150 Standards smn 6. Introduction... 62 63 64 OHSAS 18000.. 65. Emission Norms sum Objective Brain Teasers Chapter 7 Inventory Control 7. Inventory. 72 Typesof Models : 73 _ Selective Inventory Management... 75. Line Balancing, a Objective Brain Teasers Chapter 8 Quality in Construction and Services un 8.1 Introduction... 82 Methodology to Improve Quality in Construction. 83. Service Quali Objective Brain Teasers . Chapter 9 Maintenance 91 Reliability. 9.2 Maintainabilty 93. Different Types of Maintenance... 94 Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM Objective Brain Teasers Chapter 10 Non-Destructive Examination... T0.1 Non-Destructive Testing 10.2. Non-Destructive Examination (NDE) 103 PT Techniques. 104. AT Techniques... 105 UTTechniques... 106 ET Techniques Objective Brain Teasers sau 312 1 316 sn 318 319 321 322 (vii)Energy & its Conservation... Introduction. 12 Renewable Energy RESOURCES. nnnninnn 326 “1.3 Non-tenewable Energy ResoUtCeswamenn337 1A. Chemical Sources of Energy. 339 15. | Energy Conservation. 340 * Objective Bain Teasers. 343 Chapter 2 Environment & its Conservation 211 Introduction. 22° Ecology. Has 9 23° Ecosystem. 2A Biome enn 257 Biodiversity 26. Etwvironmental Degradation. 27 Conservation of EnvironMEMt uninennee372 28. Environmental Events. © Objective Brain Teasers ‘Chapter3 Environmental Pollution and Degradation ....386 3.1 Introduction. . a 3.2, Classifications of Pollution 33. Environmental Laws for Controlling Pollution ... Objective Brain Teasers 4. introduction... 42. - Greenhouse Gases 43. Global Warming weoninenine 44 Causes of Climate Change... 45° Evidences of Climate Change.. 46 Conventions on Climate Change. 47 _ Nationat Action Plan on Climate Chang Objective Brain Teasers Chapter 5 a Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) wrau428. 5.1 Introduction... : 52. ElARegulations.. 53. Steps in Environmental Impact Assessment - Process. 54 Roles of Parties in EIA Process 55 Forms of impact Assessment... 56 Benefits of EIA. o 57 Limitations of EA... 58 _ Environmental Considerations. 59 Ecological Considerations... 5.10. Green Public Procurement (GPP) Chapter 4 Climate Change...ccsesseenn Objective Brain Teasers. viii)_ Section A Genet Principh les of ‘Design, Diawile and Importance of _ Safety1.1 V2 INTRODUCTION Whats Engineering? According to The American Engine Council for Professional Development, engineering is defined as: "The creative application of scientific prisciles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or ‘manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation or safety to life and property.” So basically engineering deals with building something or improving the design of something that already exists. The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, ancl contains a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific focus on particular areas of applied science, technology and application types. What Engineers Do? ‘© Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop econamical solutions to technical problems. Their work isthe tink between scientific discoveries and the commercial applications that meet the needs of consumer as well as society as a whole, a + Many engineers develop new products. During this process, they consider several factors. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional requirements; design and test the robot's components; integrate the components to produce the final design; and evaluate the design's Gverall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to the development of many different products, such as chemicals, computers, power plants, helicopters, and toys. + This process of solving a design problem includes creating a new product or developing an existing product for better functioning. This process is called "The Engineering Process’ or ‘The Engineering Design’. This process includes a methodical series of steps that all kinds of engineess use in creating functional products and processes, ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS The engineering design process can be used to achieve several different outcomes such as: * Designing of produgts, whether they be consumer goods suchas refrigerators, power tools, or DVD. players. * Designing of hight complex products such as a missile system or a jet transport plane. * Designing of a complex engineered system such as an electrical povier generating station or a petrochemical plant. The emphasis of this course is a product design because its an area in which many engineers will apply their design skils[EESTI eneral studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol-1 General Scie & Engineering Ate 124 1.2.2 Importance of the Engineer 1g Design Process Goods or services are basis for an organization's existence. A company’s growth and stirvival depends on the profits eamed by the company through its products and services. In a highly competitive market, engineering design process becomes very important owing to following factors: 100: Cost commited Conceptual + cost committed & Manufacturing (Coet incurred 207 Percentage of produ Product use . ‘Time (nonlineze) Fig. 1.1 Product cost commitment during phases of the design process + Onlyasmall fraction of the cost to produce # product (approximately 5%) is involved with the design process, while the remaining 95% of cost is consumed by the materials, capital and labour to manufacture the product. If the design proves to be faully just before the product goes to marke, i will cost a great deal of money to correct the problem. * One of the aspect of quality is to incorporate within the product, the performance by the customer that are truly derived by the customer who purchases the product. The old concept of product quality was that itis achieved by inspecting the product as it come of the produotion line. Today we realize that true quality is designed into the product. + Another important area where engineering design determines product competitiveness is product cycle time. Cycle time refers to the development time required to bring a new product to market. Not only does the reduced cycle time increase the marketability of a product, but it reduces the cost of product developments. Furthermore, the longer a prodtict is available for sale, the more sales and profits there will be Types of Designs Engineering design can be undertaken for many different reasons, and it may take different forms. ‘* Original design or innovative design: This form of design is at the top of the hierarchy. A truly original design involves invention. Successful original design's occur rarely, but when they occur, they disrupt and overtake existing markets. * Adaptive design: This form of design occurs when a known solution is applied to satisty a different need ankéa completely new application is produced. * Redesign: This type of design is employed much more frequently. In this, engineering design is employed to improve an existing design. Itis obtain accomplished without any change in the working principle or concept of original design * Selection design: Most designs employ standard components such as bearings, small motors or ‘pumps that are supplied by vendors specialization in their manufacture and sale. Therefore. in this . oeMADE EASY ‘General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety 1.3 1.4 case the design task consists of selecting the components with the needed performance, quality, and cost from the catalogs of potential vendors. . * Industrial design: This form of design deals with improving the appeal of a product to the human senses, especially its visual appeal. While this type of design is more artistic than engineering, itis a vital aspect of many kinds of design DESIGN METHOD VERSUS SCIENTIFIC METHOD While scientists study how nature works, engineers create new things, such as products, websites, environments, and experiences. As engineers and scientists have different objectives, they follow different processes in their work. Scientists perform experiments using sciéntific method; whereas, engineers follow the creativity based engineering design process. Define the problem SCIENTIFIC METHOD Scienceis concemed with creating knowledge about naturally occurring phenomena and objects, while design is concerned with creating knowledge about ns Conduct phenomena and objects of artificial. Artificial objects experiments, are those made by humans (or by art) rather than nature. Fig. 1.2 Steps in Scientific method ‘STEPS IN ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS The Steps Used for Solving Design Problems are: a Define the Problem Gather Pertinent Information Generate Multiple Solutions Analyze and Select a Solution 3 Test and Implement the Solution as 1. Define the Problem 2 ge ENGINEERING ee a Design 33 I Process 3 wr 9, a Mo en Fig. 1.3 Steps in Engineering Design Process4 FEGIITIEED General studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vot.-1 1.5 DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN PROCESS ‘CONCEPTUAL DESIGN ‘aor Evaluate & Poti Problem siephor: | | ‘Select Concept | + Proton statment) «inert + Creaviy methods | + Dodson mating Berchmaking | |» Patents > eanstering + soleton otota Product dissection |*) « Technical articles [~]~ Beyond Brainstorming {| « Pugh Chart House Qvaliy' | | Teadejoumats | |> Random input Tech. | | Deeision Mai pos Consutans | |e Syrecics tae + concep evan EMBODIMENT DESIGN Produit [> Contato Paranatie architeture Design Design |+ rangement of + Preliminary selection of + Robust design 5 "+ Moduity physical elements materials and manufacturing “+ DFM, DFA, DEE General Studies & Engineering Aptitude [7 Terarces — “Detail Design + Engineering drawings + Finalize PDS processes + Modeling + Sizing of parts Fig. 1.4 The design activities that make up the first three phi of the engineering design procé The steps mentioned in previous article can be broken down further to what we call as description of design process or morphology of design. Figure given above shows the various activities that make up = the first three phases of design: conceptual design, embodiment design, and detail design. This eight step set of design activities is representation of the basic design process. 1.5.1. Phase-t: Conceptual Design Conceptual Designs an umbrella term given to all forms of non-aesthetic design management disciplines. Itig an early phase of the design process, in which the broad outlines of function and forms are articulated, it includes the design of interactions, experiences, processes and strategies. Itinvolves an understanding of people's needs ~ and how to meet them with products, services, and processes. Common artifacts of conceptual design are concept sketches and models. The fojiowing are the discrete acitvies that we consi¢er under conceptual design * Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely understand the customers needs and to communicate them to the design team. Problem definition: The goal of this activity is #o create a statement that describes whal has to be accomplished to satisty the needs of the custorner. This involves analysis of competitive products, the establishment of target specifications, and the listing of constraints and trade-offs. Quality Function Deployment (QFD)is a valuable tool for linking customer needs with design requirements. A detailed listing of the product requirements is called a product design specification (PDS) Gathering information: Engineering design presents special requirements over engineering research in the need to acquire a broad spectrum of information,MADE ERSY General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety 5 * Conceptualization; Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts that potentially satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods, combined with efficient information gathering are the key activities. * Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving into a single preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually requires several interaction, * Refinement of the PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the concept has been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain critical values of design parameters, usually calles criticaHto-quality (CTQ) parameters and to living with trade-offs between cost and performance, * Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a design review will be held. The design review will assure that the design is physically realizable and that itis economically worthwhile Itwill also look at a dejailed product-development schedule. This is needed to devise a strategy to minimize product cycle time and to identify the resources in people, equipment, and money needed to complete the project. 1.5.2. Phase-lI: Embodiment Design ‘The embodiment process is the bridge between the tonceptual stage of the design process and the detail design stage. A more detailed analysis of the selected concepts is undertaken in the embodiment stage of the design process. Subjects covered include a definitive layout, preliminary form design (component shapes and materials), preliminary production information (design for manufacture and assembly), materials and process selection and industrial design. However, the main aim isto establish concept development to refine concept sketches as a distinct stage in the design process by identifying the steps and rules, ‘employed. The input to the embodiment stage is often litle more than an outline sketch and associated project contrating documentation such as PDS or design requirements. The outputis a definitive scheme drawing accompanied by documentation, such as calculations, required dimension and tolerances and suggested materials and manufacturing processes. It also includes appearance, shape, style and size. Materials and process details are not included in this stage. Embodiment design is not solely the achieving © oftechnical solutions butalso creating useful praducts, which satisfy ard appiealo the users-This désion phase is sometimes called as preliminary design. Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks - product architecture, configuration design, and parametric design Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall design system into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide how the physical components of the design are tobe arranged and combined to carry out te functional duties of the design. * Configuration design of parts and components: Parts are made up of features like holes, ribs, ‘splines, and curves. Configuring a part means to determine what features will be present and how those features are to be arranged in space relative to each other. While modeling and simulation may ‘be performed in this stage to check out function and spatial constraints, only approximate sizes are determined fo assure that the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specificity about materials and manufacturing is given here. The generation of a physical model of the part with rapid prototyping processes may be appropriate. ‘+ Parametric design of parts: Parametric design starts with information on the configuration of the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions on the material and manufacturing processes are also established if this has not been done previously. An important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design robustness. Robustness efers to how consistently a component performs under variable conditions in its serviceEESSETIIIY General stusies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol-1 General tues & Engineering Attude 153 154 environment. Parametric design also deals with determining the aspects of the design that coutd lead to failure. Another important consideration in parametric design is to desigrrin such a way that manufacturability is enhanced. Phase-Iit:Det Detailed design of the system is the last design activity before implementation begins. The hardest design problems must be addressed by the detailed design or the design is not complete. The detalled design is stil an abstraction as compared to source code, but should be detailed enough to ensure that translation to source is a precise mapping instead of a rough interpretation. This is the phase where the design is refined and plans, specifications and estimates are created. Detailed design wil include outputs such as 2D and 3D models, cast build up estimates, procurement plans etc, This phase is where the full cost of the project is identified. In the detail design phase the following activities are completed and documents are prepared ; Design * Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are computer generated drawings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD models. * Verification testing of protolypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted. All critical-o-quaity parameters are confirmed to be under control. Usually the building and testing of several preproduction versions of the product will be accomplished, + Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed, The bill of materials for al assemblies will be completed. + Adetailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the conceptual design phase, will be prepared ‘+ Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy from an external supplier will be made. ‘* With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the prodtict will ba carried out. + Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made to pass the design information on the manufacturing. Phase-1V: Planning for Manufacture A great deal of detail planning must be done to provide for the production of the design. A method of manufacture must be established for each component in the system. As a usual first step, a process sheets created; it contains a sequential lst ofall manufacturing operations that must be performed on the component. The information on the process sheet makes possible the estimation of in material ora basic change in the design Close interaction with manufacturing, iidustial, materials, and mechanical engineers és important at this step. The other important tasks performed in phase !V are the following: + Designing specialized tools and fixtures * Specifying the production piant that will be used (or designing anew plant) and laying out the production tines, . * Planning the work schedules and inventory conto's (production control) * Planning the quality assurance system, ‘+ Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each operation ‘+ Establishing the system of information flow necessary to control the manufacturing operation. Allof these tasks are generally considered to fall within industrial or manufacturing engineeringMADE ESY General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety 155 15.6 187 Phase-V: Planning for Distribution The economic success of the design often depends on the skill exercised in marketiig the product. ifitis a consumer product, the sales effort is concentrated on advertising in print and video media, but highly technical products may require that the marketing step be a technical activity supported by specialized sales brochures, performance test data, and technically trained sales engineers. Phase-VI: Planning for Use The use of the product by the consumers all-important, and considerations of how the consumer will react to the product pervade ail step of the design process. The following specific topics can te damnified as being important user-oriented concerns in the design process: ease of maintenance, durabilty, reliability, product safety, convenience in use (human factors engineering), aesthetic appeal, and economy of operation. Obviously, these consumer oriented issues must be considered in the design process at its very beginning, They are not issues to be treated as aftar afterthoughts. Phase-Vi lanning for Retirement of Product The final step in the design process is the disposal ofthe product when it has reached the end ofits useful life. Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and wearto the point at which the design can no Jonger functian, ar it may be determined by technofogical obsolescence, in which a competing design performs the product's functions either better or cheaper. In consumer products, it may come about through ‘changes in fashion or taste. SEQUENTIAL AND CONCURRENT ENGINEERING Traditional engineering, atso known as Sequential Engineering, is the process of marketing, engineering design, manufacturing, testing and production where each stage Of the development process is carried ‘out separately, and the next stage cannot start until the previous stage is finished. Therbfore, the information ‘lowis oniy in one direction and itis not until the end of the chain that occurs changes and corrections can be relayed to the start of he sequence, causing estimated casts to be under predicted. This can cause many.problems; such-as:tine:consumption due to: marly modifications being made as' each stage does not take irito account the next. This method is hardly used today, as the concept of Concurrent Engineering is more etficiert. Concutrent Engineering brings together mutidisciplinary teams, in which product developers from different functions work together and in parallel with the intention of getting things right as quickly as possible, and as early as possible ‘Sometimes, only design engineers and manufacturing engineers are involved in Concurrent Engineering Inother cases, the cross-functional teams include representatives ftom purchasing, marketing, production, quality assurance, the field and other functional groups. Sometimes customers and suppliers are also included in the team. In the Concurrent Engineering approach to development, inputs obtained from as many functional areas as possible before the specifications are finalized Concurrent Engineering provides benefits such as reduced product development time, reduced design rework, reduced product development cost and improved communications. Concurrent Engineering is greatly facilitated by the use of computer aided engineering. Concurrent engineering is a team based approach in which all aspects of the product development process are represented on a closely communicating team. Team members perform their jobs in an overlapping and ‘concurrent manner so 2s to minimize the time for product development. A computer database in the form of a solid model that can be accessed by all memnbers of the design team, : ae[ESHETIIEN General studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 General Studies & Engineering Aptitude Computer aided engineering became a reality when the power of the PC work station, and later the laptop PC, became great enough at an acceptable cost to free the design engineer from the limitations of the mainframe computer. Bringing the computing power of the mainframe computer to the desktop of the design engineer has created great opportunities for more creative, reliable, and cost-effective designs. Ade ak Qn Ans. Concurrent engineeringis implemented by involving a cross-functional team for design, production, testing and operational work (@) During the project execution (c) Towards the end of the project execution (b) (b) Long before the project execution (d) After completion of the project execution Qt a2 a3 What is the first step in technological design process? (@) Gathering information about an existing product (b) Corning up with ideas for a new product. (©) Recognizing the need for a solution to a problem (d) Noneof these What is the last step in engineering design process? (@) Identify a problem or need (0) Evaluate the solution or the product (©) Design a solution (d) Implement the design When engineers develop a model, which step in the engineering processis taking place (@) Identifying a problem or need (©) Design a solution or product a4 Qs a6 (©), Implementing the design (@) Evaluating the solution or product During which step of the design process do you test the solution or product? (2) Identify a problem or need (0) Design a solution or product (¢) Evaluate the solution or product (d) Implement the design Which sentence describe a way scientific investigation and technological design are similar? (2) Both start with a hypothesis (b) Both produce a produot to make life easier (0) Both involve analyzing results of tests (d) Allof the above If 2 design flaw is discovered, what is the next logical step for the design team? (@) Test the prototype again reemaDE ERSY General Principles of Design, Drawingand importance of Safety 9 az (©) Scrap the project and start again (©) Modify the design to solve the problem (d) Obtain more money to support continued research ___ is the simultaneous design and development of al the processes and information needed to produce a product, to sell it, to distribute it, and to service it (@) Concurrent engineering (b) Simuitaneous engineering (©) Integrated product development (@) None of the above Q.8 Statement I): Concurrent engineering is superior tosequentialengineering. ~ Statement (II): Concuirent engineering decreases product development ime as well as cost. {@) Both Statement (I) and Statement (Il) are individually true and Statement (It) is the correct explanation of Statement (I). (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (il) are individually true but Statement (ll) is NOT the correct explanation of Statement (I). (6) Statement (is tue but Statement Il) is false (a) Statement ())is false but Statement (I) is true. 1. (ce) 24) 3.) 4.(0) 6. (c) 7.(a) 8. (a)2.1 2.2 Problem Definition and TCeUE Lm @r Lvsla ltt INTRODUCTION This chapter emphasizes the customer satisfaction aspect of problem definition, an approach not always taken in engineering design. This view tums te design problem definition process into the identification of what outcome the customer or end user of the product wants to achieve. Therefore, in product development, the problem definition process is mainly the need identification step. The need identification methods in this chapter draw heavily on processes introduced and proven effective by the total quality management (TOM) movement. TOM emphasizes customer satisfaction. The chapter ends by proposing an outline of the product design specification (PDS), which serves as the governing documents for the product design. A design team must generate a starting PDS at this point in the design process to guide its design generation, However, the PDS is an evolving document that will not be finalized unti the detail design phase of the POP process. PRELIMINARY RESEARCH ON CUSTOMER NEEDS Aproblem can be regarded as a difference between the actual situation and the desired situation, ‘This means that in order to identify @ problem the team rust know where itis meant to be and have a clear understanding of where it currently isin relation to the perceived problem. The Team Purpose, the Team, Performance Plan and the Operational Plan can be used to identify where the team should be. If an organized and structured planning process has been followed then the desired position and performance of the team should be clear. However, when a problem arises itis aiways worthwhile to involve the team. members in identifying and understanding the gap between the actual situation and the desired situation. This helps to ensure that all team members understand that a problem exists and that they are an integra! part in rectifying the situation. Inthis step itis important to clearly desoribe and document what you and the team consider the problem tobe. This helps to ensure that agreement is reached a to the problem and pravides a starting point for resolving the problem. Describing the problem also ensures that any confusion about the problem is identiied and resolved. Gathering Information from Customers: itis the customer's desires that ordinarily drive the development ‘of the product, not the engineers vision of what the customer should want. Information on the customer's needs's obtained through a variety of channels. Interviews with customers: Active marketing and sales forces should be continuously meeting with current and potential customers. Some corporation have account teams whose responsibilty isto visit key customer accounts to probe for problem areas and to cultivate and maintain friendly contact. They report information to current product strengths and weaknesses that will be helpful in product upgrades. An even better approach is for the design team to interview single customersin the service environment where the product will be used Focus groups: A focus group is a moderated discussion with 6 to 12 customers or targeted customers of a product. The moderator is a facilitator who use prepared questions to guide the discussion about the : .mADE ERSY General Principlesof Design, Drawing and Importance ofSafety rr 2.3 merits and disadvantages of the product. Often the focus group occurs in a room with a one way window that provides for videotaping of the discussion. In both the interviews and the focus grdups itis important to record the customers response in his or her own words. All interpretation is withheld until the analyses of results. Customer complaints: A sure way to learn about needs for product improvement is from customer complaints. These may be recorded by communications (by telephone, letter or email) to a customer information department, service centre or warranty department, or a return centre at a larger retail outlet. Third party Internet websites can be another source of customer input on customer satisfaction with a product. Purchase sites often include customer rating information. Savvy marketing department monitor these sites for information on their products and competing product. Warranty data: Product service centres and warranty departments are a rich and important source of data ‘on the quality of an existing product. Statistics on warranty claims can pinpoint design defects. Customer survey: A written questionnaire is best used for gaining opinions about the redesign of existing products or new products that are well understood by the public. (Innovative new products are better explored with interviews or focus groups.) Other common reasons for conducting a survey are to identify or prioritize problems and to assess whether an implemented solution to a problem was successful. A ‘survey can be done by main, e-mail, telephone or in person, CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT {Information gathered from customers and research on products from markel iterature and experimentation contributes to creating a ranked listing of customer needs and wants. These are the needs that form the ends users opinion about the quality of a product. As odd as it may seem, customers may not express all their equirements of a product when they ave interviewed. Ifa feature has become standard on a product (e.g.,aremote control on a TV) its still a need but no fonger excites the end user, and they may forget to ‘mention§t. founderstand how that can happen and how the omissions can be mitigated, tisnecessary to reflect on how customers perceive “needs.” From a global viewpoint, we should recognize that there is @ hierarchy of human needs that motivate individualsin generale ‘* Physiological needs such as thirst, hunger, sleep, shelter and exercise, These constitute the basic needs of the body, and unti they are satisfied, they remain the prime influence on the individual's behavior * Safety and security needs, which include protection against danger, deprivation, and threat. When the bodily needs are satisfied, the safety and security needs become dominant * Social needs for love and esteem by others. These needs include belonging to groups, group identity, and social acceptance. * Psychological needs for self-esteem and self-respect and for accomplishment and recognition. + Solf-fulfilment needs for a realization of one's full potential through self-development, creativity and self-expression. ‘As each need in this hierarchy is satisfied, the emphasis shifts to the next higher need. Our design problem should be related to the basic human needs, some of which may be so obvious that in our modern technological society they are taken for granted. However, within each basic needs there is a hierarchy of problem situation. As the type | problem situations are solved, we move to the solution of higher-level problems within each category of basic need. Itis characteristics of our advanced affluent society that, as we move toward the solution of type Il and lif problem situations, the perception of the need by society as ‘whole becomes less universal12 General Studies and Engineer tude : Vol? General Studies & L ESE Pretims J gineering Apti omen 23.1 23.2 Classifying Customer Req Differentiating Views of Customer Requirements Froma design team point of view, the customer requirements fitinto a broader picture of the POP requirements, which include product performance, time to market, cost, and quality. * Performance deals with what the design should do when it is completed and in operation. Design teams do not blindly adopt the customer requirements set determined thus far. However, that set is the foundation used by the design team. Other factors may include requirements by intemal customers (e.g.. manufacturing) or large seta distributors, * The time dimension includes all time aspects of the design. Currently, much effortis being given to reducing the POP cycle time, also knownas the time to market, for new products. For many consumer produets, the first to market with a great product captures the market * Cost pertains to all monetary aspects of the design. Itis a parariount consideration of the design team. When all other customer requirements are roughly equal, cost determines most customers’ buying decisions. From the design team’s point of view, cost is a result of many design decisions and most often be used fo make trade-offs among features and deadiines. + Qualityisa complex characteristic wth many aspects and definitions. A good definition of quality for the design team is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its abilty of satisly stated or implied needs. ‘Amore inclusive customer requirement than the four listed above is value. Value is the worth of a product of service. It can be expressed by the function provided divided by the cost, or the quality provided divided by the cost. Studies of large, successful companies have shown that the returri on investment correlated with high market share and high quality, Axcording to Joseph Juran, the term quality ofa part (or product or component) should refer to the product features that meet customers’ needs and satisfaction, and to avoidance from daficienicies that would minimize the chance of failure of the part. Table 2.1 Quatity Characteristics Performance | Does the product perform to its standards? Does the product provide the intended service? Features ‘What additional benefits may be added to the product? Wit there bbe any tangible or non-tangible benefit? Reliability |s the product consistent? Wit it perform well over its lifetime and perform consistently? How durableis the product? Willitiast with daily use? Does your product meet with any agreed internal and national Specifications? Isthe product easyto service? 'sthe product appealing othe eye? Perceived Quality | What sort of quality perception does the marketing team want to convey in the marketing message? Wil price charged reflect the quality ofthe product? ments Not all customer requirements are equal. This essentially means that customer requirements (or their baseline level of Joseph Juran’s dimensions for a quality product) have different vaiuc for diferent people,mabe EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety 13 The design team must identify those requirements that are most important to the success of the product in its target market and must ensure that those requirements and the needs they meet for the customers are satisfied by the product. ‘A Kano diagram is a good too! to visually partition customer requirements into categories that wil allow for their prioritization, Kano recognized that there are four levels of customer requirements: High satisfaction Deighied Performandefinear Exciters and doti Fully implemented igh quality performance ——_——> Absent ually fr peromance ae et achieved resholdfbasic (must haves) Low satisfaction Disgusted Fig. 2.1 Kano diagram 1. Expecters: These are the basic attributes that the one would expect to seg in the product, i, standard feature. Expecters are frequently easy to measure and are used often in benchmarking, 2. Spokens: These are the specific features that customers say they wantin the product. Because the ‘customer defines the product in terms of these attributes, the designer must be willing to Provide them to satisfy the customer. 8. _Unspokens: These are product attributes the customer does not generally talk about, but they remain important to him or her. They cannot be ignored. They may be attributes the customer simply forgot to mention or was unwilling to talk about or simply does not realize he or she wants. It takes great skill on the part of the design team to identify the unspoken requirements. 4. Exciters: Often called delighters, these are product features, that make the product unique and distinguish it from the competition. Note that the absence of an exciter will not make customers unhappy, since they do not know that is missing. 2.4 ESTABLISHING THE ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS Establishing the engineering characteristics isa critical step toward writing the product design specification. The process of identifying the needs that a product must filis a complicated undertaking. Earlier sections of this chapter focused on gathering and understanding the total picture of what the customer wants from a product. A major challenge of this step is to hear and record the fullness of customer ideas without applying assumptions, : Just knowing what a customer or end user wants from a product is not sufficient for generating designs. The design process only proceeds into concept generation once the product is so well described that it meets with the approval of groups of technical and business discipline specialists and managers. The description fashioned for the approval to siart design generation must be @ set of all known design e14 EEGIXEIITE eneral studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol-1 Genera Stuiess Engineering Aptitude 241 2A 243 2.5 parameters, constraints and variables. This set is comprised of solution neutral specifications, meaning that the specification at this time should not be so complete as to suggest a single concept or class of concepts. ‘Customers cannot describe the product they want in engineering characteristics because they lack the knowledge base and expertise. Engineering and design professionals are able (o describe products in solution neutral form because they can imagine the physical parts and components that create specific behaviors. Benchmarking Benchmarking s a process for measuring a company’s operations against the best practices of companies both inside and outside of their industry. Benchmarking operates most effectively.on a quid pro quo basis as an exchange of information between Companies that are not alrect competitors but can learn from each other's business operations. Other sources for discovering best practices include business partners (e.g., a major supplier to your company), business in the same supply chain (¢.g., automobile manufacturing suppliers), companies in collaborative and cooperative groups, or industry consultants. Sometimes trade or professional associations can facilitate benchmarking exchanges. More often, itrequires good contracts and offering information from your own company that may seem useful fo the companies yots benchmark. Competitive Performance Benchmarking Competitive performance benchmarking involves testing @ company's product against the best in class that can be found in the current marketplace. itis an important step for making comparisons in the design and manufacturing of products. Benchmarking is used to develop performance data needed to set functional ‘expectations for new products and to classify competition in the marketplace. Competitive performance benchmarking compares the performance of company’s prodtict to the market’ ieading products. Benchmarking s a logical starting point in determining engineering characteristics for a product. Reverse Engineering A process similar to but more narrow than benchmarking is reverse engineering. Reverse engineeting is another naméor product dissection. n its most unsavory embodiment, reverse engineering is done for the sole purpose of copying a product. Reverse engineering gives a snapshot of how other designers have combined parts to meet customer needs. Product dissection entails the dismantling of a product to determine the selection and arrangement of component patis and gain insight about how the products made, The “teardown” ofa product is often a part of product benchmarking, but without the intent of copying the design. However, the collection of this type of benchmark information provides a better understanding of the solutions selected by the competition. Engineers do reverse engineering to discover information that they cannot access any other way. The best information about a product is the complete product development file, This would include the product design specification and al other detail design document. Reverse engineering can show a design team what the competition has done, butitwilinot explain why the choices were made. Designers doing reverse engineering should be careful not to assume that they are seeing the best design of their competition. Factors other than creating the best performance influence all design processes and are not captured in the physica! description ofthe product. QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD) Quality Function Deployment (QFD), aften referred to as listening to the voice of the customer, isa structured method for translating customer requirements into appropriate engineering characteristics for each stage :mabe EASY General Principlesof Design, Drawing and importance of Safety 15 of product development and production. Itis a way to develop a design aimed at satisfying the consumer and translate the consumer's demands into design targets and major quality assurance’points to be used throughout the production stage. Traditional quality systems focus on reducing negative quality. (Are there any defects? Is our service poor?) QFD is different because it looks for customer requirements and maximizes positive quality that creates value. (Is the product fun and easy to use?) GFD can be used in product development, business, site and test planning, and problem solving. Itis used in the aerospace, manufacturing, software and IT, defense, government, healthcare and service industries. ‘The QFD Matrix: The QFD matrix has typically wo parts 4. The horizontal part, which contains customer information. It lists the customer's needs and wants and determines their relative importancé. It also lists customer feedback and complaints. 2, Thevertical par, which contains technical information that responds to customer input! It translates customer needs and wants into language that can be measured, examines the relationship between customer and technical requirements, and contains competitive technical data, the targets or goals set by a company to achieve competitiveness. Fig. 2.2 A Basic Quality Function Deployment Matrix The target value - the level of performance that needs to be achieved to meet the perceived outcome of ‘an organization’s QFD project is determined by comparing the customers’ evaluations to the competitive technical assessments. The co-relationships of the technical requirements are then examined. The objective isto locate any requirements that conflict with each other. Other sections can be added to the matrix depending on a company's needs and the services it provides, Benefits of QFD: There are several benefits to using QFD. Besides requiring fewer resources than other quality tools, it can: : ‘+ Improve a company's processes, products or services * Produce a aster outcome than other methods can. * Give definition to the design process.ies a ftude : Vol General Studies & 16 General studies and Enginering Aptitude : Volt esate + Help a team stay focused. ‘+ Allow for easy management and peer review of design activities. a + Help present the information graphically + Leave the team well positioned in case it needs to improve upon its results for future processes, praduets or services, 2.6 PRODUCT DESIGN SPECIFICATION The product design specification (PDS) is a document created during the problem definition activity very early in the design process. It details the requirements that must be met in order for he product or process tobe successful. The document fays the groundwork forall engineering design activities and ensures that all relevant factors are accounted for and all stakehiolders are heard from Guidlines for writing a PDS: fl ‘+ Stantwriting your PDS early in the design process, typically as soon as you have established engineering requirements and done sufficient research. + The PDSisa living document, thats, it will get larger as more about the design is known. That being said, you should not change existing specifications unless a major design change is encountered ‘+ Remember, the PDS represents what you are tfying to achieve, you should NEVER change it to what has already been achieved ‘+ White @ POF in fst format, not as an essay. ‘+ Quantify your parameters. Use target goals. So not “Light Weight” but rather “weight to be less than 3 kilagrams'. If you are unsure of a specific parameter, estimate a value and adjust your POF at a later date, 2.7 GATHERING INFORMATION ‘The need forinformation permeates the entire engineering design or process design process. By placing the Gathering Information step between the Problem Definition and Concept Generation steps, we are emphasizing the critical need for information ta achieve a creative concept solution. The gathering of design information is not a trivial task. ittéquires knowledge of a wide spectrum of information sources. ‘These sources are, in increasing order of specificity: + The World Wide Web, and its access to digital databases + Business catalogs and other trade literature + Government technical reports and business data + Published technical iterature, including trade magazines + Network of professional friends, aided by e-mail ‘+ Network of professional colleagues at work * Corporate consuittants When starting to define a problem and develop a specification the first flood of information will occur in a random manner. tis essential, therefore, that everything is recorded, irrespective of whether or not the relevance of the information is immediately recognized. The list of questions and answers should subsequentiy be examined, organized under broad headings and expanded as thought appropriate. In effect, initial thoughts and information should be recorded in an organized manner. 2.7.1. Continuous Information Gathering The average designer devotes 10% oftheir time to searching for information, Searching for information is a necessary évil although regarded as the major nonproductive part of a designer's working hours: The aim therefore must be to carry out the information seeking task as efficiently as is possible. ’mmOE EASY General Principles of Design, Drawingand importance of Safety 7 ‘There must be a clear identification of the purpose of the search and the type of information which is required. Then the search is carried out, information located and obtained. The next stage is extremely important, A search will often identify many potential sources of information and an inevitable consequence is that at least some of this information will not prove relevant to the problem at hand. This information should be discarded. Itis essential that all information is filed for easy retrieval and highlighting potentially interesting areas will greatly assist this retrieval process. Any professional person should ensure that they keep up to date with developments in their sphere of interest. This is particularly true for scientific and technical disciplines since these subject areas develop rapidly. However, the problems faced by a design engineer can be so diverse that itis impossible to read all the relevant literature. Therefore, the designer must optimize reading time and be as efficient as possible. The sources of information most usefulin tackling @ particular problem are impossible to predict. They will vary with the depth of knowledge and experience of the engineering designer concerned, with the timescale of the project and the amount of data provided in the design brief or PDS. The list of sources following should not be considered as comprehensive since there are an almost infinite number of such sources Anote should be made ofall sources of information searched even ifthe resultis that no relevant information is found, This will prevent a future repeat of the exercise. Often a zero result is as valuable as a positive result since the major problem with any search is confidence that all avenues of investigation have been followed. . 2.8 INFORMATION GATHERING FOR A PARTICULAR PDS The information required cannot easily be categorized but falis mainty under the following broad headings. ~ eerie Specifications | Confidentiality’ 5 ‘Copyright Financial Seaurty - ee Documentation History ‘Procedures Tectnology base Resources Faults tvestment Development plan Fig. 2.3. Writing for a particular PDS ‘The Design Brief ‘Within this document itis necessary to outline the four broad categories of requirements: ‘+ Performance requirements such as loads, speeds and strength ‘+ Market requirements such as whether the product is targeted at mass markets, a group of specific people, individuals or a single customer. / * Company requirements such as the use of in-house or external resources and the use of specific processes. Its inevitable that some overlap occurs in the categories of information search. Company requirements are usually contained in the brief butoften require more detailed attention for @ PDS. * Environmental requirements such as noise levels, emissions and recyclabilty.jing Aptitude : Vol.-1 General Studies & Engineering Aptitude Context In examining the context of the praduct answers are sought to questions such as: + Donational or international specifications already exist? ‘+ Ave the customers external or intemal and who are they? + Willanyone else read the PDS and do they requite different information? * Are you fully aware of the customers needs? + Doyou have up to date knowledge of competitors’ products? + Arethere any patents restricting product development? Confidentiality The nature of the information to be included in the PDS may dictate certain levels of confidentiality. Again, answers to a series of questions such as those listed should be sought ‘+ Isthe information required available or confidential? + Aro there copyright issues? + Are there matters of financial confidentiality? + Are there matters of national or organizational securty that may be relevant? ‘+ Arethere company procedures with respect to the documentation of such information? Product Development itis an advantage to have knowledge of the product history, such as previous failures or particularly successful features. Questions which should be considered include: * Inthe history of the product or similar product is there knowledge of: + faults which have occurred? + the causes of faults? ’ © manufacturing or assembly difficulties? + Isknowledge of current technological capabilities of the required level? Isthe product development programme clearly explained and understood? Company Requirements 2841 ‘Again, the definition of any specific company requirements is best accomplished by alternating to answer a series of questions such as * Are there any company procedures for writing specifications? Are there adequate company resources in terms of: © land? + buildings? + plantand equipment? + Isthe manpower available adequate in terms of levels of expertise and training? + Isthe level of financial itvestment and revenue linked to the project adequate? © Whatis the expected financial or added value on this investment? + [8 list of materials curently stocked ard traditionally used available? ‘* “Isit fkely that external suppliers will be used? Sources of Design Information Just as design requires a variely of types of information, so there is a variety of sources in which to find this information. The different types of design information required are given in Table 2.2. Various sources of information are given in Table 2.3.— MADE EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety Table 2.2 Types of Design Inforrnation Customer ‘Surveys and feedback Marketing data Related designs ‘Specs and drawings for previous versions of to product Simitar designs of competios (reverse exginooring) Analysis methods: Technical ports ‘Specialized computer programs, for example, Fite lament analysie Materials Performance in past designs (ure analysis) Propetios Manufacturing Cost : sae compng Capability of processes Capacity analysis, Manufacturing sources ‘Asséimbly methods 5 cost tistay ‘Current mato and manufacturing costs ‘Aaliatity and qually of vendors ‘Sizeand technical ata Technical standards 150 astm Company specie Governmental rogultio Performance based Safety ns Life cycle issues aintenancelservioe feedback Warranty data Table 2.3 Sources of Design information Dictionaries and encyclopedias Engineering handbooks. Texts and monagraphs 5 Periodicals (technical joumals and magazines, and newspapers) ‘Armassive depostory of infomation Technical reports Databases Search engines Laws and Regulations Engineering professional societies and trade ‘associations Technical journals and news magazines Technical conference proceedings Codes and standards. in some cases ‘ntllectual property Patents, bat naonal and intemational Copyrights Trademarks Personal activities Customers ‘uilup of lnowledge trough work experiance and Study Contacts with colleagues Personal network of professionals Contacts with supplies and vendors Attendance at conferences, trade shows, exiitions isto ater companies Diet involvement Surveys Feedback from warranty payments and retuned products Note that these lists are not exhaustive as there can be infinite number of sources.Genecal Studies & Engineering Aptitude a4 a2 as ‘The process of taking something (a device, an electrical component, a software program, etc.) apart and analyzing its working in detail is (@) Software engineering (6) Concurrent engineering (©) Sequential engineering (@) Reverse engineering Which best describes the process of benchmarking? (@) Comparison. of actual performance with budget (b) Comparison of thé costs of one product with anather () Comparison of direct competitors’ performance (a) Comparison of the performance of one operation or business with another Which of the following statements about benchmarking is not correct? (@) Benchmarking can be used by a retailer to set standards. (b) Benchmarking applies only to sales, not operating efficiency, (©) -Aretailer can benchmark itself against high performance retailers. (d) None of the above a4 as as Quality Function Depioyment (QFO) is largely focussed on: (2) Testing the robustness of a design (6) Reducing castsand preventing unnecessary costs prior to production. (©) Toreduce number of parts in a product. {d) Ensuring that the eventuat design of a product or service meets customer needs, The Quality Function Deployment (QFD)is related to (@) Technical design parameters. (©) Customer wants and needs. (©) Quality contro and needs. (d) Target component characteristics Body of PDS consists of (@) Performance requirements (©) Manufacture requirements (0) Acceptance standards (d) allof these (d) 2 (a) 3. (b) 4. (Gd) 5. (b) ()3.1 3.2 3.2.1 Generate Multiple Solutions INTRODUCTION Innovation in design depends on successful concept generation. The ideation stage of design is intended {0 produce multiple, varied concepls from which to develop and choose. Otten, instruction onidea generation methods is not offered in engineering classes; however, when taught, itis commonly through techniques like brainstorming, which lacks specific ways to generate designs. Further, existing ideation strategies are not based on evidence from designers or rigorous testing through empirical studies. This is a creative phase of the design process, where several ideas or concepts are generated. tis the divergent phase where many possibilities are considered without too much judgement. For a typical design project, at least three conceptual design alternatives should be generated. These concepts should be well documented, using sketches and desoriptions. There isno formula or set of rules, to generate ideas out of thin air! Rather, a set of practical strategies to help designers to enhance their inherent creativity, and to facilitate the generation of new ideas. INTRODUCTION TO CREATIVE THINKING Society's view of creativity has changed over time. During the 19th century oreativity was seen as a ‘romantic and mysterious characteristic, Scholars believed creativity to.be an unexplaigable personal talent present at the birth of an artist. It was thought that creativity was unable to be taught, copied, or mimicked individual creativity was a kind of genius that was nurtured and developed in those with the natural git. The rising popularity of the scientific approach in the 20th century changed the perception of creativity Creativity was measurable andtherefore; controllable That perspective grew into the progressive notion that creativity is a teachable skill for individuals and groups. Today's managers recognize that the same kind of psychological and physiologically based cognitive processes that produce artistic creativity are Used in the deliberate reasoning about and development of solutions. Models of the Brain and Creativity Unfortunately, it is not possible to observe and examine the steps that a creative persons’ brain follows while solving a problem or imagining a potential design. One can only study the results of the process and any commentary on how they developed. While technology is helping scientists to investigate the physical workings of the brain, cognitive scientists ate still at work on investigating the workings of human mind so that the best thinking skills and methods of thought can be learned and taught for the benefit of all. Cognitive psychology is the more specialized study of the acquisition and use of knowledge by humans in their activities. The psychological aspects of human behavior must be considered in helping us to understand a person's thinking because cognitive processes are naturally iniuenced by an individual's perceptions and representations of knowledge. Skills for developing creative thinking come from sciences that study human thinking, actions, and behavior.22 SATE General Studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 General Studies & Engineering Aptitude Freud's Model of Levels: of the Mind Psychologists have developed several models of how the brain processes information and creates thoughts. ‘Sigmund Freud developed a topographical model of the mind consisting of three levels: * Conscious mind: The part of the mind where our current thinking and objects of attention take place. You can verbalize about your conscious experience and you can think about it in a logical fashion. The conscious mindhas relatively small capacity for storage of information in its memory. This memory can be categorized as immediate memory, jasting only milliseconds, and working memory lasting about a minute. * Preconscious mind: The long-term memory, lasting anywhere from about an hour to several years. This is a vast storehouse of information, ideas, and relationships based on past experience and education. While things stored here are notin the conscious, they can be readily brought into the conscious mind. . ‘* Subconscious mind: The content ofthis mind level is out of reach of the conscious mind. Thus, the subconscious acts independently of the conscious mind. It may distort the relation of the conscious ‘and preconscious through its control of symbois and the generation of bias, Freud developed his model to explain personality types and their behaviors based on his own training, experience, and beliefs about cognition. Freud’s work led to the important conclusion that much behavior is driven directly from the subconscious mind, and these actions cannot be Controlled by the conscious mind. One needs to be clear that Freud's levels of the mind are not necessarily physical locations in the brain. They are a model ofthe brain that helps to explain the ways that the brain appears to work when judged only by observing the actions ofits owner. Brain Dominance Theory Nobel Prize winner Roger Sperry studied the relationships between the brain’ right and lefthemispheres. He found that the lett side ofthe brain tends to function by processing information in an analytical, rational, logical, sequential way. The right half of the brain fends to function by recognizing relationships, integrating and synthesizing information, and arriving at intuitive insights. Thinking that utilizes the left hemisphere of the brain is called critical or convergent thinking. Other terms for left-brained thinking are analytic or vertical thinking. tt is generally associated with persons educated in the technical disciplines. Thinking that utlizes the right hemisphere of the brain is called creative or divergent thinking. Other terms for tight-brained thinking are associative or lateral thinking, itis found most often with persons educated in tte arts or social sciences. Right Brain if Let Bain Responds well1o verbal instuction | Responds well to demonstrated instructions Likes to lear in step-by- Likes to Jearn general concept step format ‘and then specifies Prefers wring Prefers opeended questions Is planned and pee eerste etn Responds to tone of vos Does well an mutile or choice tests : Analytic. Recalls people's faces, Recalls people's names Hokstic or global Fig. 3.1 Brain Dominance Model— maoe ERSY General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety = 23 ‘The brain-dominance model of thinking seems ofall short of giving concrete steps that one can follow.to think up a creative idea when itis needed. However with study and practice, there is no reason that you cannot become facile with using both sides of your brain. This model also provides support for having a team of members with diverse thinking styles working on problems requiring creativity and invention. Information Processing and Computational Modeling ‘Another model for understanding how the brain works is a computational model. In today’s world, it is natural to compare the workings of the brain to those of a computer. This comparison is valid in some respects. For example, like the computer, the brain has different types of memory storage (short term and long term). Like the computer, the brain stores information according to a scheme of categories or classes. and uses those memory structures to retrieve information when queried. It is known that the mind is inferior to moder computers in its information-processing capacity in tasks such as logical operations like mathematics. The human brain can picture or grasp only about seven or eight things at any instant, Thus, the mind can be characterized as a device with extremely low information-processing capacity combined with a vast subliminal store of information. This comparison of the brain to. computer explains how our attempts at problem solving are often stymied A by the mind's low data-processing rate. It is impossible to connect with the information stored in the preconscious mind. Thus, an important step in problefn solving is to sfudy the problem from all angles and in.as many ways as possible to understand it completely. Most problems studied in that way contain more than the seven or eight elements that the mind can visualize at one time. ‘The human brain is much superior to the computer in other aspects of cognition. After all, the human brain created the computer and all the superhuman procedures it performs. The human brain has more input devices and is constantly processing more types of information than a computer. Humans process visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and emotional input, at nearly the same time, and can also perform output activities like speaking or writing while processing input. . Human can make more associations between thoughts, experiences, and memories that are effective in problem solving but are not purely logic based. There is an approach to creativity enhancement called associationism. Associationism suggest a = vhen you ‘associations, You will bé ifieréase your level of general creativity. This idea- generating activity uses the model of creativity as the application of learned behaviors, most importantly ‘associating unlike or unconventional things. 3.3. CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING Creative thinkers are distinguished by their ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas and concepts into meaningful and useful forms. A creative engineer is one who produces a jot of ideas. These can be completely original ideas inspired by a discovery. More often, creative ideas result from putting existing ideas together in novel ways. A creative person is adept at breaking an idea down to take a fresh look at its parts, orn making connections between the current problem and seemingly urrelated observations or facts, - 3.3.1. Aidsto Creative Thinking Creative cognition is the use of regular cognitive operations to solve problems in novel ways. One way to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes is to apply methods found to be useful for others. Following : are some positive steps you can take to enhance your creative thinking, 1. Develop a creative attitude: To be creative itis essential to develop confidence that you can provide a creative solution to a problem. Although you may not visualize the complete path through24 EXSZTIE General Studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 Genewl Studies & Engineering Aptitude 332 to the final solution atthe time you first tackle a problem, you must have self-confidence; you must, believe that a solution will develop before you are finished. Of course, confidence comes with success, so start smali and build your confidence up with small successes. 2. Unlock your imagination: You must rekindle the vivid imagination you had as a chil, One way to do so is to begin to question again. Ask "why" and “what if,” even at the risk of displaying a bit of naivete. Scholars of the creative process have developed thought games that are designed to provide practice in uniocking your imagination and sharpening creative ability. 3. Be persistent: We already have dispelled the myth that creativity occurs with a lightning strike. On. the contrary, it often requires hard work. Most problems will not succumb to the first attack. They must be pursued with persistence. After all, Edison tested over 6000 materials before he discovered the species of bamboo that acted as a successful filament for the incandescent light bulb. It was also Eidison who made the famous comment, “Invention is 95 percent perspiration and § percent inspiration." 4. Develop an open mind: Having 2n open mind means being receptive to ideas from any and all sources. The soiutions to problems are not the property ofa particular discipline, noris there any rule that solutions can come only from persons with college degrees. Ideally, problem solutions should not be concerned with company polis. Because ofthe NIH factor (notinvented here), many creative ideas are not picked up and followed through + 5. Suspend your judgment: We have seen that creative ideas develop slowly, but nothing inhibits the creative process more than critical judgment of an emerging idea. Engineers, by nature, tend toward critical attitudes, so special forbearance is required to avoid judgment at an early stage of conceptual design. 6. Set problem boundaries: We place great emphasis on proper problem definition as a step toward Problem solution, Establishing the boundaries of the problem is an essential part of problem definition. Experience shows that setting problem boundaries appropriately, not too tight or nat too open, is critical to achieving a creative solution. 2 Some psychologists describe the creative thinking process and problem solving in terms of a simple four- stage model ‘Preparation (stage 1): The elements of the problem are examined and their inter-relations are studied. * Incubation (stage 2): You “sleep on the problem.” Sleep disengages your conscious mind, allowing the unconscious mind to work on a problem freely. ‘+ Inspiration (stage 3): A solution or a path toward the solution emerges. * Verification (stage 4): The inspired solution is checked against the desired result Barriers to Creative Thinking Before we look at formal methods of enhancing creativity, itis important to understand how mentat blocks: interfere with creative thinking. A mental block is a mental wall that prevents the problem solver from correctly perceiving. problem or conceiving its solution. There are many diferent types of mental blocks. Perceptual Blocks Perceptual blocks have to do with not properly defining the problem and not recognizing the information needed to solve it. * Stereotyping: Thinking conventionally or in a formulaic Way abput an event person, or way of doing something. Not thinking “out o the box.” Its dificult to combine apparently unrelated images into an entirely new creative solution for the design. * Information overload: You become so overloaded with minute details that you are unable to sort out the eritical aspects of the problem. This scenario is termed “not being able to see the forest for the trees."MADE EASY ‘General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety 25 '* Limiting the problem unnecessarily: Broad statements of the problem help oy the mind open to a wider range of ideas. * Fixation: People’s thinking can be influenced so greatly by their previous experience or some other bias that they are not able to sufficiently recognize alternative ideas. Since divergent thinking is critical to generating broad sets of ideas, fixation must be recognized and dealt with. A kind of fixation called memory blocking is discussed in the section on intellectual blocks. * Priming or provision of cues: Ithe thinking process is started by giving examples or solution cues, itis possible for thinking to stay within the realm of solutions suggested by those initial starting points. Ths is known as the conformity effect. Emotional Blocks These are obstacles that are concerned with the psychological safety of the individual. They reduce the freedom with which you can explore and manipulate ideas, They also interfere with your ability to conceptualize readily. They also interfere'with your ability to conceptualize readily. * Fear of risk taking: This isthe fear of proposing an idea that is ultimately found to be faulty. This is inbred in us by the educational process. Truly creative people must be comfortable with taking risks. * Unease with chaos: People in general, and many engineers in particular, are uncomfortable with highiy unstructured situations, e 5 * Unable or unwilling to incubate new ideas: in our busy fives, we often don't take the time to let ideas lie dormant so they can incubate properly. It is important to allow enough time for ideas to . incubate before evaluation of the ideas takes place. ‘* Motivation: Peopie differ considerably in their motivation to seck creative solutions to challenging Problems. Highly creative individuals do this more for personal satisfaction than personal reward. ‘However, studies show that people are more creative when told to generate many ideas, so it shows that the motivation is not all self-generated. Cultural Blocks * People acquire a set of thought pattems from living in a culture. Most of us have experienced an educational system that has valued knowledge and suppressed! our childhood procivtyo ask "why" and how = ‘+ Certain industries are tradition bound and are reluctant to change, even in the face of decreasing profitability, * Countries even differ in their attitudes toward creative problem solutions. This can be traced to differences in poliical and educational systems, and business cutture. Intellectual Blocks Intellectual blocks arise from a poor choice ofthe problem-solving strategy or having adequate background and knowledge. ‘+ Poor choice of problem-solving language or problem representation: itis important to make a conscious decision concerning the “language" for your creative problem solving. Problems can be solved in either a mathematical, vétbal, ora visual mode. Often a problem thats not yielding readily to solution using, for example, a yerbal mode can be readily solved by switching to another mode such as the visual mode. 2 ‘+ Memory block: Memory holds strategies and tactics for finding solutions as well as solutions themselves, Therefore, blocking in memory searches is doubly problematic to creative thinking, * Insufficient knowledge base: Generally, ideas are generated from a person’s education and experience. Thus, an electrical engineer is more likely to suggest an electronics-based idea, when a26 [EGGEIXEIIEED General studies and Engineering Aptitude : V é Seimne cheaper and simpler mechanical design would be better. This is one reason why persons with broad backgrounds tend to be more creative, and it is-a stréng reason for working-in interdisciplinary design teams, * Incorrect information: Itis obvious that using incorrect information can lead to poor result. One for of the creative process is the combining of previously unrelated elements or ideas (information); i part of the information is wrong then the result of creative combination will be flawed. Environmental Blocks These are, blocks that are imposed by the immediate physical or social environment. ‘+ Physical environment: This is a very personal factor in its effects on creativity. Some people can ‘work creatively with all kinds of distractions; others require strict quiet and isolation. Itis important for each person to determine their optimum conditions for creative work, and to try ta achieve this in the workplace * Criticism: Non-supportive remarks about your ideas can be personaily hurtful and harmful to your creativity. 3.4 CONCEPT GENERATION METHODS 3.4.1. Brainstorming Brainstorming is a team creativity activity that helps generate a large number of potential solutions to a problem. In this activity, designers participate in a group brainstorming activity to generate possible ‘solutions to their engineering design problem. Brainstorming is meant to encourage creative thinking; however, some basic ground rules make it more successful. Brainstorming is @ group creativity technique used to generate a large number of ideas for the solution to a problem. The process itself can boost morale, enhance work enjoyment, and improve team dynamics. Suggested brainstorming guidelines include: ‘ + Foous on quantity: The first ground rule is to focus on quantity. You want to capture as many ideas as you can — even if they seem silly + Withhold criticism: Not only should you refrain ffom criticizing the ideas of others, you should make sure not to criticize your own ideas as they emerge during the brainstorming process. Encourage wild ideas: We know from experience that (with a bit of eeworking and refinement) wild ideas usually lead to the most innovative designs. ‘+ Record all ideas: During a brainstorming session itis helpful designate a person on your team to write down each idea ass thrown out. Sentence structure, spelling and grammar do not matter for this list, $0 wait until later to review or edit anything you write down. Just make sure to capture all the ideas. ‘+ Combine and improve ideas: In the midst of brainstorming, try to build upon the ideas of others. The best ideas in engineering are generally a team effort. ‘+ Stay focused on topic: Although brainstorming is meant to be creative and free flowing, make sure you focus your ideas on the topic at hand. This helps you later when you are organizing all the ideas generated in he brainstorming session, a 34.2 Beyond Brainstorming 5 Some methods are developed to aid brainstorming and to break up the normal thought pattern. Theses methods aid in brainstorming, (a) SCAMPER Checklist: This is used as a stimulant when the flow of ideas begins to fall off during the brainstorming activity. The questions in the SCAMPER checklist are applied to the problem in the following way._ mADE EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing and importance of Safety 27 . Fig. 3.2 SCAMPER Technique to Aid in Brainstorming Table 3.1 SCAMPER Checklist to Aid in Brainstorming Proposed Change Deseription ~ ‘Substitute ~~ What ifused ina different material, process, person, power source, place, or approach? : Combine Could-| combine units, purposes or ideas? Adapt What else is lke this? What other idea doss it suggest? Doss the past offer Modity, magnify, sinity Putto other uses: Eliminate Rearrange, reverse (b) Six key questions: a parallet? What can | copy? “Could add a new twist? Coulds change the meaning; color, motion, form, oF shape? Could | add something? Make stronger, higher, longer, thicker? Could | subtract something? ‘Are there new ways to use this as is? If| modify it, does it have other uses? Can | remove a part, function, person without affecting outcome? Could interchange components? Could | use a different layout or sequence? ‘What fi transpose cause and effect? Could | lranspose positive and negative? What if | turn it backward, upside down or inside out? Journalism students are taught to ask six simple questions to ensure that they have covered the entre story. These same questions can be used! to help you approach the problem from different angle ‘+ Who? Who uses it, wants it, will benefit by it? * What? What happens if X occurs? What resulted én success? What resulted in failure? ‘+ When? Can itbe speeded up or slowed down? is sooner better than later? ‘+ Where? Where will X occur? Where else is possible? S.y - [EGSIXEIIED General studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 Gegeral Studies & Z Engineering Aptitude + Why? Why is this done? Why is that particular rule, action, solution, problem, failure involved? a + How? How could it be done, should it be done, prevented, improved, changed, made? (c) Five Whys: The Five Whys technique is used to get to the root of a problem. It is based on the premise that it is not enough to just ask why one time. For example: ‘© Whyhas the machine stopped? A fuse blew because of fan overload. ‘+ Whywas there an overload? There was inadequate lubrication for the bearings. + Why wasn't there enough lubrication? The lube pump wasn't working * Whywasn'tthe pump working? The pump shaft was vibrating because ithad worn due to abrasion. ‘+ Why was there abrasion? There was no filter on the lube pump, allowing debris into the pump, (d)_ Checklists: Checilists of various types often are used to help stimulate creative thoughts. Checklists are used often in design ‘What happens ifwe push the in a completely: different way. They are used in a way to. | conditions to the limit? remember important functions or tasks in a complex operation."| + Temperature, up or down? Table given below indicates a representative checklistthatcan | * Pressure, up or down? be used to aid in brainstorming session. ee conceit Ue oo * 9 E + Impurities up or down? (e) Fantasy or Wishful Thinking: A strong block to creativity is the mind's tenacious grip on reality. One way to stimulate creativity is to entice the mind to think ina . flight of fancy, in the hope of bringing out really creative ideas. This can be done by posing questions in an “invitational way" so as to encourage an upbeat, positive climate for idea generation, 3.4.3 Random Input Technique Edward de Bono is a longtime developer of creativity methods. He stresses the importance of thought pattems, and he coined the term lateral thinking the act of cutting across thought patterns. One of the key tenets of lateral thinking is the concept that an act of provocation is needed to make the brain switch from one pattern of thought to another. The provocative eventinterrupts the current thinking process by introducing anew problem representation, providing a new probe for a memory search, of leading to a restructuring of te solution pian. Inorder to force the brain to introduce a new thought, all youhave to do is to introduce a new random word, ‘The word can be found by turning at random toa page in a dictionary, arbitrarily deciding to take the ninth word on the page, or turning randomly to a page in any book and at random selecting a word. Now, the provocation is to find how the chosen wordis related to the problem under consideration This forced relationship from a random word works because the brain is a self-organizing patterning system that is very good at making connections even when the random word is very remote from the problem subject. 3.44 Synectics Snectics (from the Greek word synektiktein, meaning joining together of different things into unified connection) is a methodology for creativity based on reasoning by analogy. It assumes that the psychological components of the creative processes are more important in generating new and inventive ideas than the intellectual processes. * Direct analogy: The designer searches for the closest physical analogy to the situation at hand. This . is a. common approach that we have all used at one time or another. In describing the motion of electrons about the nucleus of an atom itis common to use the analogy af the moon's rotation about Earth or Earth's rotation about sun.mape EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing andimportance of Safety + 29 BAS ‘* Fantasy analogy: The, designer disregards all problem limitations and laws of nature, physics, or reason. Instead, the designer imagines.or wishes for the perfect solution to a prablem * Personal analogy: The designer imagines that he or sheis the device being designed, associating his or her body with the device or the process under consideration. ‘© Symbolic analogy: This is perhaps the least intuitive of the approaches, Using symbolic analogy the designer replaces the specifics of the problem with symbols and then uses manipulation of the symbols to discover solutions to the original problem A particularly intriguing source of direct analogies is those that are inspired by biological systems. This subject is called biomimetics. The mimicking of bioiogical systems, Concept Map ‘Avery useful too! for the generation of ideas by association, and for organizing information in preparation for writing a report, is the concept map. A concept map is good for generating and recording ideas during brainstorming. Because tis a visual method instead of a verbalane, itencourages right-brained thinking, Bocause it requires the mapping of associations between idéas it stimulates creative thought. Thus, italso can be very useful in generating solution concepts. A concept map is made on a large sheet of paper. A concise label for the problem or issue is placed at the center of the sheet. Then the team is asked to think about what concepts, ideas, of factors are related to the problem ‘+ Write down team-generated thoughts surrounding the central problem label. + Underline or circle them and connect them to the central focus. + Use an arrow to show whiol issue drives what. ‘+ Create new major branches of concepts to represent major subtopics. ‘+ Ifthe process develops a secondary or separate map, label it and connect it to the rest of the map. Fig. 3.3 An example of a Typical Concept Map30 ESEXTITY + Itgives extremely smooth start and absorbs shock. 63.3 Principle of Friction Clutches Friction clutch pfBte is placed between disc A and disc B. Driven shaft shauld come into motion axial force is applied to driven shaft due (0 this force disc "B’ make contact with frigion plate as shown in Fig. (b). Frictional forces are developed responsible for transmitted Power from shaft A to B value of NV, depends on magnetic (depends bn the value of W) of frictional forces. ‘Ata particular value of WN = N,MADE ERSY General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety 61 riven shaft (splined shaft) to obtain relative axial mation * Fig. 6.10 (a) ‘Some friction of time takes place, for N, = Al, driven shaft angular acceleration or retardation clutch is said tobe engaged CURT oper Ber iTARETINTY General studies and Engineering Aptitude : Volt Generalstudles& ==} 62 eee Engineering Spttude Torque Transmitting Capacity of Friction Clutches 1 Torque Based on Uniform Pressure Theory In case of new clutch, the pressure remain constant over entire surface area ofthe triction disk thus assume ‘p'is constant. From equation (6.1) oz og P= 2x | prdr=2np [ rdr die die P Pore) Fig. 6.11 Pressure Distribution From equation (6.2) . ore re amp f prPdr= amp | Pdr = onal -| ale a2 3 Joyo ‘ THR (3 _ 99) = M, = 4P(0°-o°) . . nP| D> -a® me IRE in case of multi-disk clutch, uNP[ D3 —a? 2 xed Here, N = Number of pairs of contacting surface . = Friction radius, i[p?-a = 3lpe a. Ml. Torque Based on Uniform Wear Theory * tease of worn-out clutches, it is assumed that the wear is uniformly distributed over the entire surface of the disk, ‘* Axial wear of the friction disk is proportional to the frictional work. * Work done by the friction force at radius ‘r is proportional tothe frictional force (I1p) and rubbing velocity (2nm) [n= rotational speed]. Assume speed and coefficient of friction is constant. wear apr when wear is uniform pr=constant thus pressure will be maximym (p,..,) at inner radius = Prat fs Pre Prac ope oe 2 From equation (6.1) p= 2x J prar=24{ Dau 4 Ot Pawel _ oy . die dizmADE EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing andImportance of Safety 63 oR ay? Fremequsion(62) = 2m | pr?dr=2nu( Pps 2) fear : a 2p M2 EB tet) « EProa) + Friction radius (R) = (0+ a) * Friction radius of new clutches is more thus torque transmitting capacity is more. xPX2nR, (Fy -R (yer = 928 x wot A?) (Tyr = 9x PR, (RE R2) > $ 5 (n= 10: of pair of contact surface) (han =u [225 ‘Singfe Plate and ‘Multi Plate Clutches Single plate clutches: . 1, Number of paits of contacting surface is one or maximurn two, 2. Torque transmitting capacity is less. 3. Single plate clutches are dry clutches due to less generation of heat (less no. of contacting surface) e64 NOTE [EEGEZEIIGY General studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 General Studies & Engineering Aptitude 4, Coefficient of friction is high in dry clutch. (1 = 0.3) 5, Itrequire large radial space. a 6. Engagements not smoother. 7. Closed in four wheeler vehicles - buses, lorries, trucks, etc. + If Space is not. constraint, Single plate clutches are best in comparison to MPC. Multiple plate clutches: 1. There are more number of pairs of contacting surface. 2. Torque transmitting capacity is more 3. Multi-plate clutches are wet clutches due (0 more generation of heat (more number of contacting surface), Coefficient of friction is less due to cocting oil in wet clutch. (it = 0.1) Itrequire less radial space (Scooter, Motorcycle) Engagement is much more smoother due to wet in nature. Used where space is constraint or machine which require compact constraint. Two and three vehicles bikes, scooters, autos ete. Number of clutch plate, a Noose (single plate clutch) = 2 (single plate clutch effective on both sides) 1+ Ny 1 (multiple plate clutch) where, 1m, = no. of plates attached driver shaft 1, = no. of plates attached driven shaft = criver shaft = no of plates | attached toarver Shatin =4 = no, of plates attached to aven shalt ng= 3 Fig. 6.12 Effective number of clutch, n =n, +ny~1 Friction Material Desirable Properties of a Good Friction Material: - * Itshould have high friction of coefficient and remain constant over the enlire range of temperature. ‘© Itshould have good thermal conductivity. : ‘+ It should have high resistance to abrasive and adhesive wear. ‘+ It'should have good resilience to provide good distribution of pressure at contacting surface, For light load and lower speed wood, cork and leather are used as friction materials, Modem friction lining consist of four basic ingredients - Fibre, Filler, Binder, Friction modifiers. .MADE EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety 63.4 Cone Clutches {consist of inner and outer conical surface outer cane is keyedtto the driving shaft, while the inner cone is free to slide axially on the drive shatt due to splines. Axial force required to engage the cltch is provided by means of helical compression spring. The recommended semi cone angle (a)is 12.5°. Theres stict requirement for the co-axiality of two shafts a (hur = 2nR(Ro—F,) we x 2nR(R,— Ri) 1 yw) RB (ea = Gna! 2 (a=semi angle) Fig. 6.13 Cone Clutch aaa al- 7 Te sin To provent self engagement of clutch, > clutch is said tobe engaged Fig, 6.14 Cone Clutch a= 125 to15° fie. 20. = 25° 0 30°] b= width of friction fining sino = ‘Bin a=0°-+CC plate clutch RoR, ercuen = Shane =and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 GenerabStudios & TAA General st 66 is Engineering Aptitude Friction lining materials and their properties Properties: 1, High coefficient of friction, High wear resistance (u?- 7,4) Good strength Not get damaged by moisture and oi! Materials : Asbestos, ferodo, sintered metals ESE 2017 Prelims Questions Q.1 Consider the following statements regarding V-belt drive: 1. The groove angle of the sleove is less than the belt section angle. 2. The efficiency of a V-belt drive is higher than that of flat belt drive. 3. The groove angle is so made that the belt gels wedged in the groove. ‘Which of the above statements are correct? 2. 3, High thermal conductivity 4 5 (a) 1,2and3 (b) 1’and 2 onty (c) 1.and3 only (d) 2and3only ‘Ans. (a) Q.2 clutch has to transmit 200 Nm of torque. Assuming uniform pressure theory and the ratio of outer to inner radii fs 2.8, what are the radil for a uniform pressure of 2 MPa with the coefficient of friction of the f material being 0.42 (2) 35mm and 50 mm (0) 20mmand §0 mm . {c) 35mm and 80 mm. {d) 20mm and &0 mm. ‘Ans. (b) Q.1 Chain drive is not suitable for Q.3 Ina flat belt drive the belt can be subjected to (@) Parallel shaft maximum tension T and centrifugal tension T.. (b) Non-paraliel shaft Whats the condition for transmission of maximum (c) Perpendicular shaft power? (d) Both (b) (d) Both (b) and (c) @ T=To ) T= (ar Q.2_ Incase of belt drives, the effect of the centrifugal (@ T=2T, (@ T=3T, tension is to 2 (@) cause the belt to leave the pulley and Q4 What diameter should thé driving pulley have on increases the power to be transmitted which a rubber belt rung so that bending stress (0) cause the belt to stay on the pulley and in bettis limited to 5 Nim? (the belt cross-section increase the power to be transmitted isa rectangle 15 mm thick x 110 mm wide, Efor (c) reduce the driving power of the belt belt material is 100 Nimm?) (d) stretch the belt in longitudinal direction (a) 30mm (b) 150mm () 300mm (d) 15mmMADE ERSY General Principles of Design, DrawingandImportanceof Safety 67 Q.5_ Abelt having dimension 20cm x temhas the See ratio of tension 2 and maximum permissible 1@ 20 3@ 40 5 tensions 140 Nem? Weight density ofteather gy 7 @) 8 @) 8 @) 10. is 1000 Nim2, The maximum power that can be transmitted is (@ 2828KW (¢) 2228kW (b) 1.828.KW (o) 3.228KW Q.6 Mute plate clutch is used in two wheelers as (@) itcan transmit more torque. (0) its size is small for that torque capacity (€) frequent disengagementis required. (@) itcan dissipate heat effectively Q.7_ In the multiple plate clutch there are 6 plates/ discs on the driving shaft and 5 plates/discs on the driven shaft, the no. of pair of contact surfaces are equalto @n @) 12 © 0 @ 2 Q.8 Incone clutch {@) Outer cone skeyed to driving shaft and inner Cone is free to slide on driven shaft (b) Inner cone is keyed to driven shaft & outer ‘cane is free to slide on driving shaft (©) Outer cone is free to slide on driving shaft & inner cone is keyed to driving shaft (d) Outer cone is keyed to driven shaft & inner cone is free to slide on driving shaft Q.9 Ina plate clutch axial force is 4 kN, The inside radius of contact surface is 50 mmand the outside: radius ig 190mm. For uniform pressure the mean radius of friction surface will be (@) 78mm (6) 60mm (©) 75mm (@) 80mm Q.10 Which one of the following is the correct expression forthe torque transmitted by a conical clutch of outer radius A inner radius rand semi- cone angle assuming uniform pressure? (where W= total axial load and y= coefficient of friction) = nW(R-1) ») Ewen 3sina. ©) “sina 7 . au (A -8) : 3sina(R?-?) 2 4sina(h? — 7) Hints and Explanations: 2. (0) Note that centrifugal tension reduces the power transmission capacity but itis provided to keep the belt on pulley. 3. (dj Power transmitted TV 1 where, K= A-y : = (Trax TobAV 7 TrahV— TokV (Tocentritugal tension) P= Ta kV~ mV2KY P= Iggy — Konv For maximum power to be transmitted 30 w a 3 ulin — kev }=0 KTyiag~ Krk 3V2) = 0 Tag = MV? Tra = ST Also, To= 4. (c) ponmeee! 2° R 5 noo) (5/2) O«#R 10 _ 100 nS geen = r= 8x10 10 160mm 300 mm,General tudes Engineering Aottude |-r:27 0m [ESET General studies and Engineering Aptitude : Volt 5. (a) 9. (a) hep ig , i m= 31 eae T, = 140x20 = 2800N PeOBIol 5 {es 5 7 =3.03 * 3h 100? — v Fucig0o ~ = 3.02 Mise 100? - 50? 10. (c) 2800 y= f= =9033N Conical clutch, uniform pressure 1 2uw[R-? Power transmitted = (T,—T,) (1-2) Beina| AP ene where, a. semi angle of cone = (2800-983.3) | 5 {3-03) te} Foruniforn wear T= “WR=0 = 2.82 kW ‘or unifor = ine 7. (©) ny +n, 6+5-Ee Melm aarti salir Tea 7.1 WHAT IS ENGINEERING DRAWING? * Engineering drawing is the graphical representation of an object containing all necessary information like actual shape, size, etc., required for the manufacturing of an engineering component. ‘+ tis the language used to convey engineer's thoughts to a worker in a manufacturing firm. Hence, Engineering Drawing is also known as the Universal Language of Engineers or Engineer's Language. 7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING DRAWING (a) Geometrical Engineering Drawing: The ar of representing geometrical object such as rectangle, square, triangle, cube, cylinder, sphere, etc.,.on a paper is called Geometrical Engineering Drawing Itis further sub-grouped as: i) Plain Geometrical Drawing: The art of representing geometrical abjects (two dimensional) such as hexagon, pentagon, rectangle, square, triangle, etc.,.on paper is called Plain Geometrical Drawing (ji) Solid Geometrical Drawing: The art of representing geometrical objects (three dimensional) such as, cubes, cylinders, spheres, pentagonal prism, hexagonal prism, pentagonal pyramid, hexagonal pyramid, cone, etc.,.on paper is called Solid Geometrical Drawing. (b) Mechanical Engineering Drawing: The art of representing mechanical Engineering objects, such as, machines, machine tool parts, IC engine parts, automobile parts, etc., on paper is called Mechanical Engirieering Drawing or Machine Drawing, (c) Civil Engineering Drawing: The art of representing Civil Engineering objects, such as, buildings, roads, bridges, etc.,.on paperis called Civil Engineering Drawing. (qd) Electrical Engineering Drawing: The ar of representing Electrical Engineering object, such as, electrical machines, motors, generators, transformers, etc., on a paper is called Electrical Engineering Drawing (e) Electronics Engineering Drawing: The art of representing Electronics Engineering objects, such as electronic circuit, calculators, TV circuits, computers, etc., on a paper is called Electronics Engineering Drawing 7.3 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS (a) Drawing board (IS 1444 : 1989) ~ ‘* Drawing boards are used to provide support to the drawing sheets or papers. «Top working surface of the board should be smoot in ordBr to prepare quality drawings. * Drawing boards are made in various sizes. ts selection depends tipon the size of the drawing sheet to be used.70 [EGEITIENTS enerat studies and Engineering aptitude : Volt Genel Stes @ Engineering Aptitude Table 7.1. Standard sizes of drawing boards sees | SE | nine es - ee a | : a «ls oe | wom (b) Drawing sheets (IS 10711 : 2001) Atom 420 mm 240 mm 594 mm——+] 287 mm—+! 1189 mm AA (297 « 210) A3 (420x297) (1189 841) Al (ett = 504) A2 (694 » 420) (ay : LI NWWY Fig. 7.1 Standard sizes of drawing sheet ‘* Standard sizes of trimmed drawing sheets recommended by IS 10771 ; 2001 are shown in figure * The length to width ratio of these sheets is V2 -1 © The surface area of basic AO size drawing sheet is nearly 1 m? (1189 mm x 841 mm) ‘* The successive sheet sizes are obtained in the same ratio by halving the length dimension such that its area is half of area of previous sheet.= MADE ERSY General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety 71 (c) Tsquare: * Itis used for drawing horizontal parallet ines.” + Itcan also be used asa base for drawing the various angles with the help of set squares Drawing board Sot square : STR ra AS Working edge Fig. 7.2 Arrangement of Fsquare, set squares and protractor (d) Set squares: ‘+ Theyare usedto draw parallel, inclined and perpendicular lines, often in conjunction with T-sdjuare. ‘There are two types of set squares: (i) Thirty-sixty degree (30°-60°) (il) Forty five degree (45°) (e) Protractor «They are used for measuring or constructing angles which cannotbe obtained with set squares, + They are graduated in degrees, measurable with a least count of upto 0.5°. (f) Compass and divider «Compass is used to draw circles and arch. Large ‘compassis used for diameter greater than 50 mm and small compass is used for diameter less than 50 mm. ‘+ Dividers usedto divide the lines or curves into equal parts and to transfer the lengths from one place to another. Fig. 7.3 Compass and dividerGeneral Studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 eens) 72 Gato gineering Apt Sone em (9) Mini drafter * Lis used for different drafting operations, viz., to draw horizontal, verticaf and inclined lines,” parallel and perpendicular lines and also for measuring lines and angles. ‘* Itis a modern equipment that combines the advantages of T-square, set squares, protractors, and scales which becomes a convenient drafting equipment. Clamping font Pronto r | Parallel king 0 ae (working edges) Scale fing kewb om Fig. 7.4 Fixing the mini drafter on the board ue (h) French curves Gr |B EY oy CP Fig. 7.5 French curves + French curves are used for drawing curves that have different radii and curvatures which cannot be drawn with a compass. + Acontinuous smooth curve requited through a set of points that do not ie on astraight line or on circle can be drawn with the help of french curves. (i) Pencils ‘* These are the primary tools in engineering drawing, used by engineers to communicate their ideas through text or drawing. : ‘+ They are amenable for erasing and making alternations, without causing permanentimpressions, + The grade of a pencil lead is usually shown by alphabets and letters marked at one of its ends.mADE ERsY General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety 73 * Grade HB denotes modium soft. Grade H is harder than HB and H, 2H, ete. denote hardness in increasing order. Grade B is used to denote softer than HB and B, 2B, el. denotes softness in increasing order. Various grades of pencils available taday are as follows: 9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, SH, 4H, 3H, 2H, H, F, HB, 8, 2B, 38, 48, 5B, 6B, 7B, 88 and 98 +. Thelead may be sharpened to two different forms: () Conical point and (i) Chisel edge * The conical point is used in sketch work and for lettering etc * With the chisel edge, jong thin lines of uniform thickness can be easily drawn and henee, itis suitable for drawing work. * The chisel edge is prepared byrrubbing the lead on a : Hina sandpaper block, making i lat, first on one side and then on the other by turing the pencil through a half circle. * For making the conical end the pencil should be rotated ‘between the thumb and fingers, while rubbing thefead. Other drawing instruments frequently used are Sheet holding devices (drawing clips, cello tapes, pins, etc.) erasers, (ni. (Corio sharpeners, sandpaper biock, roll-n-draw, ete. Cena amen Fig. 7.6 ENGINEERING SCALES 111s not always possible or convenient to draw drawings of an object to its actual size, For instance, drawings of very big objects like buildings, machines, etc., cannot be prepared in full size because they: would be to0 big to accommodate on the drawing sheet. Drawings of very small qbjects like precision instruments, namely, watches, electronic devices, micro processors etc., also cannot be prepared in full size because they would be too small to draw and to read. The different types of scales used so that object can be accommodated on drawing sheet and can comfortably be drawn and read are as follows: (i) Full size scale fwe show the actual length of an object on a drawing, then the scale usedis fullsize scale. Designation of fullsize scale: Seale 1:1 (i) Reducing scale {f we reduce the actual length of an object'so as to accommodate that object on drawing, then the scale used is called Reducing scale, Such scales are used for the preparation of drawings of large machine paris, buildings, arctitectural drawings, etc. Designation of reducing scale : Scale 1 ; x. (Example : Scale 1: 20 represents size on drawing is reduced 20 times of actual size) (ii) Entarging or increasing scale Drawing of instruments, watches, etc., are made larger than their real size. These are said to be drawn on an enlarging or increasing scale. Designation of enlarging scale: Scale x : 1 . (Example: Scale 20: 1) (iv) Representative Factor : Itis the ratio ofthe length of the element on the drawing to the actual length of the element ar = Length ofthe object in drawing ~~“ Actual length of the object (in same units) ’Generatstudies & Engineering Aptitude 74 EEGEXEIINE coneral studies and Engineering Aptitud: For full size scale, representative factor = 1 For reduce scale, representative factor < 1 . For enlarged scale, representative factor > 1 CONVERSION FACTORS Length conversion factors Area conversion factors 40 mill meters (mm) = 1 centimeter (om) 100 mm? = 1 om? 40 centimeter (om) = 1 decimeter (dm) 100 om? = 1 dm? 10 decimeter (dm) = 1 meter (m) 100 dm? = 1m? 410 meters (m) = 1 decameter (dam) 100m? = 1 are 10 decameter (dam) = 1 hectometer (hm) 100 are = 1 ha (hectare) 10 hectometer (hm) = 1 kilometer (krri) 100 ha = 1 km? 2.54.0m = 1 inch 12inch = 1 foot ‘ 3 feet = 1 yard 7 * 220 yard = 1 furlong 8 furlong = 1 mile ~ {mile = 1.61 km 1 Nautical mile = 1.85 km Scales on Drawings When an unusual scale is used, itis constructed on the drawing sheet. To construct a scale the following information is required 1, The RF of the scale 2. The units which is must represent, for example, millimeters and centimeters or feet and inches etc. 3. The maximum length which it must show. The length of the scale is determined by the formula: Length of the scale = RF x Maximum length required to be measured. Types of Scales The scales used in practice are classified as under: () Plain scale (i) Diagonal scale (ii) Comparative scale (iv) Vernier scale ()_ Scale of chords (3) Plain scale: A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of equal parts or units, the | first of which is subdivided into smaller parts. Plain scales represent either two units or a unit and its subdivision.MADE EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety 15 Construct a plain scale to show meters when 1 centimeter represents 4 meters and long enough to measure up to 50 meters. Find the RF and mark on your scale a distance of 36 meters. Solution: jom 4 ‘Actualsize 4x1000m 400 1. p= Drawing si 2. Length of scale = L = RF x Maximum length to be measured (50 m) 1 1 = 50 m= 50x 100 om= 1 ap 59. 7p 50% 100 m= 12.5.0m 3. Draw a horizontal line of length L = 12.5 em, Draw a rectangle of size 12.5 cm x 0.5 cm on the horizontal ine drawn ‘above. 4. Main unit: Total length to be measured is 50 m. Therefore aivide the rectangle into 5 (= n) equal 5 divisions, each division representing 10 m, 5. Mark 0 (zero) at the end of the first main division. From 0, number 10, 20, 30 and 40 at the end of subsequent main divisions towards right as shown. I 7 a0 RF. = 11400 6. Subdivision of main unit: Then subdivide the first main division into 10 subdivisions to represent meters. Number the subdivision i., meters to the left of 0 7. Write the names of the main units and subunits in capitals (METERS) below the scale. Also indicate the RF value as shown 8. Indicate on the scale a distance of 36 meters = 3main divisions to the right side of 0 (zero) + 6 subdivisions {o left of O (zero) (ji) Diagonal scale: A diagonal scale is used when very minute distances such as 0.1 mmete. are to be accurately measured or when measurement are required in three units; for example, dm, cn and mm. or yard, foot and inch,General Studies and Engineering Aptitude : Vol.-1 Generdl Studies & 76 «= EARNS General ingineering Aptitude : Vol lore (ii) Comparative or corresponding scales: Scales having same representative fraction but graduated to read different units are called comparative scales. These are used when it iS required to make measurements in one unit system from a drawing in another unit systarn of measurement, (iv) Vernier scale: The Vernier scale isa linear measuring instrument for mneasuring the fractional parts of the smallest division of the main scale. It consist of two parts, a fixed scale called main scale and movable scale called Vernier scale, (v) Scale of chords: The scale of chords is used to set out or measure angles when a protractor is not available. Construct a diagonal scale of RF = 1 : $2,00,000 to show kilometers and long enough to measure unto 400 km. Show distances of 257 km and 333 km on your scale. Solution: : 1. Length of the scale.= L = RF x Maximum distance to be measured =~ x 200000 2. Drawaline PQ of 18.5 cm long (L). Maximum lehigth to be measured is 400 km. Minimum distance to be measured = 1 km (which is obtained from data 257/333 km). 400 km x 400x 1000 x 100 em = 12.5 cm 1 3200000, ‘Max. _ 400 km Min. 1km 400, This can be obtained in 3 steps as 4 x 10 x 10. kilometers L=125en Diagonal Scale 3. _ Divide PQ into 4 main divisions, each representing 100 km. Mark 0 (zero) at the end of the first main division. Also mark 100, 200 and 300 towards the right of zero 4, Subdivide the main division into 10 equal subdivisiors, each representing 10km. To avoid crowding of numibers mark only 50, 100 towards the lett of zero. 5. Drawalline PS of § om long perpendicular to PQ. Complete the rectangle PORS. 6. Draw vertical lines from each main division on PQ. Divide PS into 10 equal divisions. Name the divisions as 8, 1, .... 10 from P to S. Draw horizontal lines from each division on PS, 7. To construct the diagonal: Join S to the first subdivision from P on the main scale PQ, Thus first diagonal line is drawn. Similarly draw remaining 9 diagonals paralle! to the first dagonal. Thus each 10 kmis divided into 10 equal parts.mace EASY General Principles of Design, Drawing and Importance of Safety 77 75 DRAWING STANDARDS international standards: International Organization for Standardization (IS0)is the leading world's largest voluntary developer for intemationat Standards and is responsible to specify the standards for product, service, and good practice, to ensure quality, safety, and efficiency. ‘These standards are referred and followed throughout the world for international trading of any product and its service The ISO is a document that provides requirements, specifications, guidelines, or characteristics that can be used consistently to ensure that materials, products, processes, and services are fit for their purpose. Bureau of Indian standard: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the national standards body of India. working under the support of Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food, and Public Distribution, Government of India. The Indian standards are referred by tha letter IS, followed by the standard number. LAYOUT OF A DRAWING SHEET Layout of a drawing sheet is defined by choosing euitable scale, providing proper margins, atong tite block, parts list, etc, on the drawing sheet. Borders: Border is the drawing space left all around and in between the Trimmed Edges of the drawing sheet and the Frame. Border has a minimum width of 20 mm for AO and A1 sheets and 10 mm for A2, A3, Ad drawing sheets. Filing margin: It is provided for taking perforations for the purpose of filing the drawing sheets. tt shal have aminimum width of 40am for AG and AT sheets and 20mm for A2, A3 and Ad sheets with the border included therein, Title block: The position ofthe tile block should be within the drawing space suctthat the portion of the tile block containing the identification of the drawing {registration number, tile, origin, etc. is situated in the bottom right hand corner of the drawing space. Grid-refererioss:"The provision of girdxeference system is recommended for all sizes, in order to permit easy location on the drawing of details, additions, modifications, etc, The number of divisions should be divisible by two and be chosen in relation to the complexity of the drawing, sot [orang set ecge | Borderline DRAWING SPACE $70 max. tf mmesLock wot Tile black sh contain name, date, projection symbol, scale, file and drawing number Fig. 7.7 Layout of a drawing sheet78 RAITT seneral studies and engineering Aptitude : Vol-1 7.7 LINES Genendt Studies & Engineering Aptitude + Inengineering graphics, the details of various objects are drawn by different types of lines. + Eachline has @ definite meaning and sense to convey as given below: Table 7.2 Types of lines and their uses [ tines Description Applications: Visible outlines, | Orn cs ; paper —_—_— Cl be Leader lines: tee ot | oii Lange : Ven ces vata Hace oe Comet chant etme rece pitch circle of holes and gears Chain thi, thick at ends ‘and change in direction Cutting planes Line widths: © Thewidth of the line means the thickness of line and it remains constant throughout the whole line. 7 +The general line widths adopted are 0.13, 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.4and 2.0mm Conventions for Materials * The conventions for materials are used to represent various materials in section which saves time, labor and makes drawing simple. Table 7.3 Diagrammatic Representation of various materials ‘SNe Materials 1 ‘Seal, Cas itn, Aluminium and is alloys ‘Conventions Lead, Zinc, Tin, White Meta, et. Brass, Bronze, Gun Metal, tc Glass