CONCEPT FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

The scientific procedure of arranging organisms into groups and subgroups on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and placing them in a

MAP
hierarchy of categories is called biological classification. The earliest classification systems recognised only two kingdoms of living things: Animalia and
Plantae followed by three and four kingdom classifications introducing Kingdom Monera and Protista. The most accepted and latest five-kingdom
classification was proposed by R.H. Whittaker in 1969 to develop phylogenetic relationships. In this classification, the organisms are classified on the basis
of following criteria : (i) complexity of cell, (ii) complexity of the body organisation, (iii) mode of nutrition, (iv) mode of reproduction, (v) ecological role and
(vi) phylogenetic relationships.

Classification Criteria
Major
Producer Decomposer Consumer
Ecological Role

Mode
Autotrophy (Photosynthesis) Heterotrophy Heterotrophy (Ingestion)
of Nutrition
(Absorption)

KINGDOM FUNGI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
l It contains achlorophyllous,
l It has maximum number and most
KINGDOM PLANTAE spore producing, multicellular or
diverse types of organisms.
multinucleate eukaryotic organisms.
l It contains all photosyn- l Organisms are multicellular eukaryotes. Body
l They have heterotrophic with absorptive
thetic eukaryotic multicellular form is regular. Cellular, tissue and organ system
type of nutrition i.e., either saprobic or parasitic.
plants and their non-photosynthetic levels of organisation occurs in different groups. A
l Cell wall contains chitin and noncellulosic
relatives. cell wall is absent. The organisms have holozoic or
polysaccharides. The cellular organisation is two
l Mode of nutrition is mainly autotrophic, envelope type.
ingestive type of nutrition. A few animals are,
hence called producers. Some of the plants are however, parasitic. They live on or inside the bodies
l Reproduction is both asexual and sexual.
heterotrophic, of which most are parasitic and a of other eukaryotes.
few are saprobes. Basidiomycota l Reproduction is mostly sexual.
l Cell wall is cellulosic. Food reserve is usually starch (Club fungi)
and fat. Chordata
l Reproduction is both asexual and sexual. (Chordates)

Angiospermae Echinodermata
Phaeophyta Ascomycota (Echinoderms)
Tracheophyta

(Brown algae) (Sac fungi) Mollusca

Deuteromycota (Molluscs)
(Fungi imperfecti)
Gymnospermae
Arthropoda
(Arthropods)
Zygomycota Annelida
Pteridophyta (Conjugation fungi) Nemathelminthes (Segmented worms)
(Roundworms)
Bryophyta Platyhelminthes
Oomycota Cnidaria
(Mosses and (Flatworms)
(Water molds) (Coelenterates)
liverworts) Porifera
(Sponges)
Rhodophyta
Chlorophyta (Red algae) Myxomycota
(Slime molds)
Multicellular (Green algae)

Euglenophyta KINGDOM PROTISTA

Unicellular
(Euglenoids) l It includes all unicellular and
colonial eukaryotes. Most of them are
Complexity aquatic organisms forming plankton. Sporozoa
l They have diverse modes of nutrition – (Sporozoans)
of Organism
DIRECTION OF EVOLUTION
photosynthetic, saprobic, parasitic, ingestive or holozoic,
etc. Genetic material is organised in the form of nucleus.
DNA is associated with histone. The aerobic forms possess
mitochondria and other membrane bound organelles.
Flagella, if present are 11-stranded with 9 + 2 organisation
of microtubules.
l These organisms with flexible lifestyles justifies the Ciliophora
erection of the intermediate eukaryotic Kingdom (Ciliates)
Chrysophyta
Complexity (Diatoms and related algae) Protista. It is a connecting link between
prokaryotic Monera and the other Zoomastigina
of Cell Pyrrophyta
eukaryotic kingdoms. (Animal flagellates)
(Dinoflagellates)
Eukaryotes Primitive eukaryotic
flagellate

Prokaryotes
Cyanobacteria
(Blue green algae)

Eubacteria
(True bacteria) Archaebacteria
Viruses (Ancient bacteria)
Ÿ Viruses are intermediate between living and non-
living entities. These act as obligate parasites, i.e., KINGDOM MONERA
inert outside the host cell. l It includes basically unicelluar, microscopic
Ÿ They do not grow, divide or reproduce like typical living prokaryotes and the most primitive of living forms
organisms, rather reproduce using host machinery. with different modes of nutrition i.e., – saprobic, parasitic,
Ÿ Viruses are thus described as a nucleoprotein entity chemoautotrophic, photoautotrophic and symbiotic.
which is able to utilise the synthetic machinery of a l Cell wall comprises of peptidoglycan and polysaccharides other
living cell of another organism for its multiplication than cellulose. Cells have one envelope type of organisation but
and division. internal compartmentalisation is absent.
Ÿ They resemble living organisms in possessing genetic l If present, flagella are single stranded, genetic material
material and organic macromolecules and showing is not organised into a nucleus, DNA is naked i.e.,
mutations. without histone, all membrane bound cell
Ÿ They are responsible for a number of infectious organelles are absent. Sexual
diseases in plants, animals and humans. reproduction is absent as meiosis
does not occur.
 R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
CONCEPT KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi is a large kingdom comprising of about 5100 genera and more than 50,000 species. l

CLASSIFICATION
Many botanists have classified fungi in different ways.
MAP They are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, spore forming, eukaryotic organisms with thalloid
body made up of hyphae (together constituting mycelium). They are cosmopolitan in
distribution. Some fungi occur in fresh or marine water, others are terrestrial and still others
are air borne. The study of fungi is known as mycology.

NUTRITION
l They may be obligate parasites (obtain food from host plants
and die with the death of host) or facultative saprophytes
(usually parasitic but able to absorb food from decaying host
plant as well), obligate saprophytes (obtain food from
decaying organic matter) or facultative parasites (usually
saprophytes but can live parasitically under some conditions).
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l Martin’s (1961) classification of fungi is most prevalent. He classified fungi into Myxomycotina
(Slime molds) and Eumycotina (True fungi).
Martin further divided Eumycotina into the following classes:
STRUCTURE
l
l
The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
Phycomycetes
The sporangia has innumerable sporangiospores (zoospores or
aplanospores) formed endogenously.
l Fungi range from unicellular, uninucleate forms like yeast l Sexual reproduction is oogamous in Oomycetes, and isogamous in
and Synchytrium to thread-like structure called mycelium Zygomycetes.
REPRODUCTION which is made up of a net like mass of tubular filaments l Biflagellate motile cells (zoospores) are produced by many species.
l Fungi may reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual means. called hyphae. The hypha is usually branched, tube like l The zygote is unicellular and simple.
structure, having protoplasm with reserve food and l E.g., Albugo, Phytophthora (Oomycetes), Rhizopus, Mucor (Zygomycetes).
Vegetative bounded by a wall of chitin, a nitrogen containing
polysaccharide (C22H54N4O21)n. Ascomycetes
l The protoplasm of the hypha may be continuous without
Budding Fission Fragmentation l The mycelium consists of septate hyphae, possessing central or septal
Small outgrowths from Splitting of Fragments of cross walls, called aseptate hypha or may have
pores. Motile structures do not occur in the life cycle.
vegetative body, cut off vegetative vegetative hyphae transverse partitions or septa, known as septate hypha.

l In majority of Ascomycetes, the common mode of asexual reproduction is

Asexual and mature to form new cells into two develop into new Septa are seldom complete as they are perforated and
through the formation of conidia.
individuals, e.g., yeast daughter cells. individual. may contain plasmodesmata or central pores. When
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Zoospores l Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of sex cells, somatic cells,
central septal pore possesses a barrel-shaped inflation, as
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Uniflagellate or biflagellate, thin walled, uninu-
cleate structures formed in zoosporangia, e.g.,
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gametangial contact between an antheridium and ascogonium and
in many basidiomycetes, it is known as dolipore septum.
Sexual l A membranous vesicle called lomasome is found
autogamy.

Phytophthora, Albugo. Sexual reproduction takes place by following processes: l Karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy. Hence, a new transitional phase
attached to plasma membrane.
called dikaryophase appears in the life cycle. The cells of dikaryophase are
Sporangium Spores
Fertilisation Gametangial contact Lipid globule called dikaryotic cells as each cell possesses two nuclei (n + n).
Oogonium Empty
Sporangiospores tube Here gametes are never released Vacuole l Some dikaryotic cells function as ascus mother cells. Ascus is a sporangial
(Female antheridium
Nonflagellate spores that develop inside gameta- (Male from gametangia, instead the male Dictyosome (Unicisternal) sac peculiar to Ascomycetes. 4-8 haploid meiospores named ascospores are
sporangia, e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus. ngium) gameta- and female gametangia come in Glycogen particle or oil (Reserve food) produced internally in each ascus.
ngium) Nucleus
close contact with the help of a l The asci may occur freely or get aggregated with dikaryotic mycelium to
Endoplasmic reticulum
fertilisation tube, through which one Ribosome form fructifications called ascocarps.
Chlamydospores l E.g., Yeast, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Claviceps, morels and truffles.
Ooplasm or more male nuclei migrate to the Mitochondrion
Thick-walled perennating spores which develop at Periplasm Cytoplasmic matrix
female gametangium. E.g., Pythium
places along the hyphae by accumulation of
protoplasm, rounding off and secretion of thick wall.
Planogametic copulation Antherozoid
Plasma membrane Basidiomycetes
Anisogametes
This involves fusion of two l Basidiomycetes are the most advanced fungi and considered among the
Oidia Isogametes Ovum Hyphal wall
naked motile gametes best decomposers of wood.
Oidia (multiply (Usually contains chitin)
(planogametes). Based l Motile structures or cells are absent. Mycelia are of two types, primary and
Usually formed under conditions of excess by
budding) upon the nature and Fig.: Ultrastructure of part of fungal hypha secondary.
water, sugar and certain salts, e.g., Rhizopus.
structure of gametes, it is l Karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy. A new transitional phase called
of three types: isogamy, Empty l In some fungi, hyphae may structurally modify in response
Flagella antheridium dikaryophase appears in the life cycle. It produces dikaryotic secondary
Conidia anisogamy and oogamy. to functional needs as:
Conidia Isogamy Anisogamy Oogamy mycelium. Secondary mycelium is long lived, profusely branched septate
(a) Prosenchyma : It is formed when the component
Nonmotile, thin-walled, exogenous spores, hyphae possessing dolipores.
Isogametangia Gametangial copulation hyphae lie more or less parallel to one another and
produced in chains upon the tip of hypha called l Hook-shaped outgrowths called clamp connections are found on the
Conidiophore This process involves fusion of the unite to form a rather loosely interwoven structure
conidiophore, e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium. sides of septa which are meant for proper distribution of dikaryons at the
entire contents of two compatible where their individuality is not lost.
Ascopores (b) Pseudo-parenchyma : It is formed when the hyphae time of cell division.
gametangia, resulting in karyo-
Ascospores Suspensor become closely interwined, forming a tissue which l Karyogamy and meiosis occur in club-shaped structures known as basidia.
gamy. E.g., Mucor.
Nonmotile meiospores which are produced consists of hollow tubes spread in all directions. These A basidium commonly produces four meiospores or basidiospores
Ascus Somatogamy
inside special sacs called asci and are lose their individuality. exogenously at the tip of fine outgrowths called sterigmata.
characteristic of Class Ascomycetes. Here sex organs are not at all formed, but two vegetative hyphae l The fungi may or may not produce fructifications called basidiocarps
or cells take over the sexual function and fuse together. E.g., (c) Rhizomorph : It is a thick strand or root-like
aggregation of somatic hyphae which lose their that vary in size from microscopic to macroscopic forms.
Morchella, Peziza. l E.g., Puccinia, Ustilago, Agaricus, bracket fungi, etc.
Basidiospores individuality. The entire mass behaves as an organised
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Sterigma
Nonmotile meiospores formed exogenously Spermatisation unit and have higher infection capacity.
Deuteromycetes
NEWTON CLASSES

on short outgrowths of club-shaped structure In some advanced genera, the sexual process is accomplished by (d) Sclerotium : It is a compact globose structure, formed
Basidium
called basidium and are characteristic of Class minute spore-like spermatia (male gametes) and specialised by the aggregation and adhesion of hyphae. l Deuteromycetes is an artificial class of fungi which has been created to
Basidiomycetes. receptive hyphae (female gametes). The spermatia are carried by (e) Appressorium : It is a terminal, simple or lobed,
include all those fungi in which sexual stage is either absent or not known.
air, water or insects to the receptive hyphae. The contents of the swollen structure of germ tubes or infecting hyphae, l Some of the deuteromycetes are unicellular like yeast.
Binucleate spores spermatium enter the receptive hyphae through a pore. found in many parasitic fungi. l The mycelium is usually septate. Coenocytic forms are not known.
Dikaryotic spores meant for multiplying Receptive hyphae (f ) Haustorium : These are intracellular, absorbing l Asexual reproduction often occurs by conidia along with some other
the dikaryotic mycelium, e.g., aecidio- (Oogonium) structures of obligate parasites meant for absorbing types of spores.
spores, uredospores in Puccinia. Another Trichogyne food material from the host. They may be variously l It is believed that most members of deuteromycetes are actually ascomycetes
type of dikaryotic spore is teleutospore
Uredo- Teleut- shaped and secrete specific hydrolysing enzymes. in which sexual reproduction is either absent or yet to be discovered.
or teliospore . Aecidio- spore ospore Spermatium l E.g., Colletotrichum, Helminthosporium, Trichoderma.
spore
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

CONCEPT
MAP
Classification
On the basis of
fungal component
Ascolichens
The fungal component of these
lichens is a member of Class
Ascomycetes. They are called
gymnocarpeae if the fruiting
body is a disc like apothecium
(also known as discolichens, e.g.,
Parmelia). They are called pyreno-
carpeae if the fruiting body is a
flask shaped perithecium (also
known as pyrenolichens, e.g.,
Dermatocarpon).
Basidiolichens
The fungal component of these
lichens is a member of Class
Basidiomycetes. Genera like
Corella and Dictyonema belong to
this group.
Deuterolichens
The fungal component of these
lichens belongs to Class Deutero-
mycetes.
On the basis of
external morphology
Crustose lichen
These are encrusting lichens with an inconspicuous,
thin and flat thallus, firm in texture. The thallus is very
closely adhered to the substratum and provides a
crust-like appearance.
Examples: Graphis, Haematomma, Lecanora.
Crustose lichen
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Reproduction
LICHENS Lichens reproduce both by asexual and sexual means.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Lichens are composite or dual organisms representing an intimate symbiotic relationship
between algae and fungi (De Bary, 1879). The algal component of lichen is known as
phycobiont whereas the fungal component is known as mycobiont. The fungal component
predominates algal component, such an association is known as helotism (Crombic, 1885).
There are about 400 genera and 1600 species of lichens. They usually grow on bark of trees,
Asexual reproduction occurs by following structures:
(i) Cephalodium : These appear as small, hard, dark-
coloured, gall-like swellings on the free surface of some
lichen thalli. They contain the same fungal hyphae as in
the thallus but the algal component is always different.
In lichens, the process of sexual reproduction is performed only by the fungal
component. The female sex organs are known as carpogonia. The male sex organs are
known as spermogonia. A carpogonium is differentiated into a basal coiled
ascogonium and an elongated multicellular trichogyne. Each spermogonium is a
flask- shaped receptacle immersed in a small elevation on the upper surface of thallus.
dry logs (corticolous), bare rocks (saxicolous) or soil (terricolous), etc. The spermogonium usually develops close to carpogonium.
(ii) Soredium : Small bud-like outgrowths over the upper
surface of thalli, containing one or few algal cells Ostiole (small pore)
Upper cortex Trichogyne
closely enveloped by a weft of fungal hyphae. Both
(straight upper portion
fungus and alga are same as in parent thallus. projecting above the
(iii) Isidium : These are small outgrowths on the upper surface of thallus)
Internal Structure surface of the lichen thallus each consisting of an outer
cortical layer made up of fungal cells followed by an Algal cells
algal layer of the same kind as in the thallus. Algal cells
Cephalodium
Spermatia
Parent lichen (non-motile
thallus male cells) Helical
Upper cortex Stroma ascogonium
Composed of compactly interwoven fungal (coiled portion
Algal cell sunken in medulla)
hyphae arranged at right angles to the surface Medulla
of thallus, usually lacking intercellular spaces (if Fertile hypha
Medulla Spermogonium Carpogonium
present, then filled with gelatinous substance).
Fungal hyphae Spermatia adhere to the projected part of sticky trichogyne. On dissolution of the walls
Algal zone Cephalodium between them the nucleus of spermatium migrates into the carpogonium through
trichogyne. The male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus. Several branched
This layer is composed of green or blue green Fungal
hyphae ascogenous hyphae develop from the base of the fertilised ascogonium. The terminal
algae. The algal cells remain embedded in the
tangled network of fungal hyphae. Sometimes binucleate cell of ascogenous hypha develops into an ascus. The two nuclei within the
algal cells and fungal hyphae are uniformly ascus fuse to form a diploid nucleus which forms eight haploid daughter nuclei
Algal cell
meiotically, each metamorphosing into an ascospore. The ascospores are hyaline and
distributed throughout the thallus (homo-
green or brown in colour. They are released gradually from the ascus, and on coming in
isomerous) whereas sometimes algal cells form
Isidia contact with a suitable alga, form a new lichen thallus.
a distinct layer within thallus (heteromerous). Soredium Algal cells
Ascospores (haploid spores which
Medulla come in contact with alga to form new lichen)
Ascus (sac like
Central part of thallus, comprised of loosely Paraphysis structure
Upper cortex
interwoven fungal hyphae with large spaces (Sterile hair containing
between them. like fungal ascospores)
hyphae)
Algal cells Upper cortex
Lower cortex
Composed of compactly arranged fungal Medulla Ascocarp
Algal cells
hyphae running parallel or perpendicular to
Isidium
surface of thallus. Fungal cell
Lower cortex
Rhizines Economic Importance Fruiting body of lichen
Some hyphae of lower cortex descend down
A part of vertical
and help in attachment of thallus to substratum. (i) As food : Species of Lecanora, Parmelia, Umbilicaria and Cetraria islandica are used as food in many parts of the world. Umbilicaria esculenta is a
section of lichen
These are known as rhizines. delicacy in Japan, while the species of Parmelia are used as curry powder in India.
(ii) As medicine : Parmelia perlata is specially useful in dyspepsia and in the treatment of snake and scorpion bites. Cladonia, Cetraria and Pertusaria
are used in intermittent fever. Cladonia pyxidata is useful in whooping cough. Usnea sp. are used to stop bleeding. Erythrin, obtained from
Roccella montagnei, is used in angina. Lobaria pulmonaria and Cetraria islandica are used in tuberculosis and other lung diseases.
(iii) As dyes : Red and purple dyes are obtained from Ochrolechia androgyna and O. tartarea. Orchil, a blue dye is obtained from some lichens (e.g.,
Foliose lichen Fruticose lichen Cetraria islandica). Parmelia omphalodes is the source of a brown dye. Litmus, an important acid-base indicator dye in chemical laboratories, is
These lichens are flat with leaf-like and Shrub-like, cylindrical and branched thallus obtained from Roccella montagnei and Lasallia pustulata.
lobed thallus attached to the substratum that grow erect or hang from the substratum (iv) In tanning industry : Cetraria islandica and Lobaria pulmonaria are used as tanning agents in leather industries.
with the help of rhizoid - like rhizines. with the help of a basal mucilagenous disc. (v) In cosmetics : Evernia and Ramalina are the source of essential oils, used in the manufacture of cosmetic soaps. Ramalina calicaris is used for
Examples: Parmelia, Physcia. Examples: Alectonia, Cladonia. whitening hair in wigs. Pseudevernia furfuracea and Evernia prunastri are widely used in the manufacture of perfumes.
Ecological Significance
Lichens are pioneer plants in ecological succession, which help in colonisation of bare rocky habitats. They secrete some organic acids which
disintegrate rocks and form soil and substratum for subsequent establishment of other vegetation types. Lichens can be used as air pollution
indicators especially of the concentration of sulphur dioxide in atmosphere. Several lichens are also harmful to us. They cause a considerable loss
Foliose lichen Fruticose lichen due to etching of glass surfaces and marble stones. Some lichens, such as Letharia vulpina (wolf moss) are poisonous.
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 R. K. MALIK’S
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CONCEPT MORPHOLOGY
MAP OF LEAF
Opposite
superposed
Whorled Phyllotaxy
Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
leaves on the stem or its branches in such
a way that all the leaves get proper exposure
to sunlight. Phyllotaxy is of three main types –
Alternate
(I) Spiral or alternate : A single leaf is borne at
each node, e.g., Hibiscus, mango.
(ii) Opposite : A pair of leaves are borne at each
node on opposite sides, e.g., Quisqualis (opposite
Opposite decussate superposed) and Calotropis (opposite
decussate).
(iii) Whorled or verticillate : More than
two leaves arise at each node, e.g.,
Alstonia.
es
leav
ple
Sim
Fig.:
Simple and
Compound leaves
A simple leaf is the one in which lamina is undivided or
incised to any depth but not upto the midrib. In a compound leaf,
lamina is completely broken up into distinct segments called leaflets
which are separately articulated at the base. Compound leaves are of 2
types -
(a) Pinnate compound leaves : In these type of leaves, incision of lamina is
directed towards the midrib which is known as rachis. Leaflets are arranged on
both sides on the rachis or on its branches. These are of following types:
(i) Unipinnate : Leaflets are directly attached on the rachis, e.g., Cassia fistula
(paripinnate), rose (imparipinnate).
(ii) Bipinnate : Rachis divides and gives rise to secondary axis on both sides on which
leaflets are arranged, e.g., Acacia.
(iii) Tripinnate : Secondary axis too, divides and gives rise to tertiary axis on which
leaflets are attached, e.g., Moringa.
(iv) Decompound : Rachis divides more than three times and gives rise to small
axis on which leaflets are arranged, e.g., carrot.
(b) Palmate compound leaves : In these type of leaves, incision of leaf is
directed towards the petiole due to which all leaflets seem to be
articulated on the upper end of petiole. It does not have any rachis.
Depending on the number of leaflets present, a palmate
compound leaf is called unifoliate (e.g., Citrus), bifoliate
( e.g., Balanites ), trifoliate ( e.g., Trifolium ),
quadrifoliate ( e.g., Paris quadrifoliata ),
multifoliate (e.g., Bombax).
Pinnate Palmate
Fig.: Compound leaves
Functions of
the leaves
Primary functions: Photosynthesis,
gaseous exchange, transpiration, protection
of buds and conduction through veins.
Secondary functions : Storage e.g., succulent
leaves of Aloe, Agave etc.; protection e.g., spiny
leaves of Barberry, Opuntia etc.; support e.g.,
leaflet hooks in Doxantha; nitrogen nutrition
e.g., leaf pitchers of Nepenthes; reproduction
e.g., leaves of Bryophyllum help in
vegetative propagation; floral
leaves help in sexual
reproduction.
Leaf is an important vegetative organ of plant as it is specialised to
perform photosynthesis. It is a green lateral flattened outgrowth borne
on the node of a stem or stem branch and bears a bud in its axil.
Parts of
a leaf
A typical leaf consists of three parts - leaf base,
petiole and lamina. Leaf base is the basal part of the
leaf by which it is attached to the node of the stem.
Different plants have different types of leaf bases viz.
pulvinus, e.g., pea; sheathing, e.g., Zea mays; decurrent, e.g.,
Crotolaria and amplexicaul, e.g., Polygonum. Leaves of some
plants have lateral appendages on each side of leaf base, known
as stipules which may be caducous, deciduous or persistent.
Petiole is the leaf stalk that joins the lamina to the stem or its
branch. Sometimes the petiole is absent and then the leaf is
said to be sessile.
Lamina is the expanded, green and conspicuous part of
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
leaf which is specialised to perform photosynthesis.
It is supported by veins and veinlets which
contain vascular tissues for conduction
of water, mineral salts and Leaf apex
prepared food.
Leaf margin
Axillary bud
Lateral vein
Mid vein
Lamina
Petiole
Stipule
Stem branch
Leaf
tendril Fig.: A typical
dicotyledonous leaf
Leaf modifications
(i) Leaf tendrils : Leaves are modified into
slender, wiry often closely, coiled structures, known as
tendrils, which help in climbing. These may be whole leaf
tendrils (e.g., Lathyrus aphaca), leaflet tendrils (e.g., Pisum
sativum), petiolar tendrils (e.g., Nepenthes), leaf tip tendrils (e.g.,
Gloriosa), Stipular tendrils (e.g., Smilax), etc.
(ii) Leaf spines : These protect the plants from grazing animals and
excessive transpiration e.g., Solanum surattense.
(iii) Leaflet hooks : The terminal leaflets of compound leaves become
transformed into stiff claw-like and curved hooks. These help the plant in
climbing, e.g., Doxantha unguis-cati.
(iv) Phyllodes : These are the flattened petioles or parts of the rachis which
perform the function of photosynthesis, e.g., Acacia species. These help to
reduce transpiration in xerophytic plants.
(v) Insect catching leaves : Leaves are modified to form pitchers (e.g.,
Nepenthes), bladders (e.g., Utricularia) etc. to trap and digest insects.
(vi) Succulent leaves : These are fleshy leaves that store food material,
e.g., Aloe, Agave etc.
(vii) Scale leaves (or cataphylls) : These are dry, membranous
leaves which do not take part in photosynthesis, e.g.,
Casuarina.
(viii) Floral leaves : These are specialised
leaves i.e., sepals, petals, stamens and
carpels.
Leaf
spine
Leaf
pitcher
Venation
Venation is the arrangement of veins
and veinlets on the lamina of a leaf.
Venation is of 3 main types - reticulate (veins
form a network), parallel (veins run parallel) and
furcate (veins branch dichotomously, e.g., Circeaster).
Reticulate venation is found in most dicots. Pinnate
(or unicostate) reticulate venation occurs in Ficus
religiosa. Palmate (or multicostate) reticulate venation
occurs in Zizyphus (convergent), and Luffa (divergent). Parallel
Parallel venation occurs in most monocots. Pinnate
(or unicostate) parallel venation occurs in banana.
Palmate (or multicostate) parallel venation
occurs in bamboo (convergent) and
Livistonia (divergent).
Reticulate
Fig.: Types of venation
 R. K. MALIK’S
NEWTON CLASSES
Inflorescence is the arrangement and distribution of flowers on the

CONCEPT INFLORESCENCE
shoot system of a plant. The axis of the inflorescence is called
peduncle, whereas the stalk of individual flower is called pedicel. A
flattened peduncle is known as receptacle. Inflorescence is of five

MAP types- solitary, racemose, cymose, mixed and special.

Solitary
terminal
Single flower occurs on
the terminal part of a
branch, e.g., poppy.
Solitary
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
Compound
racemose
Compound racemose inflorescence is an
indefinite or indeterminate inflorescence in
which the peduncle is branched repeatedly once
or twice in a racemose fashion. It is of following
types–
Solitary (a) Compound raceme or panicle, e.g., goldmohur,
Flowers occur singly or are Cassia fistula, Yucca.
separated from other flowers (b) Compound spike or spike of spikelets, e.g., wheat.
of the same plant by (c) Compound spadix, e.g., coconut, date, banana.
vegetative regions. (d) Compound corymb, e.g., Pyrus, cauliflower.
(e) Compound umbel, e.g., Daucus carota,
fennel, Coriandrum sativum.
(f ) Compound capitulum, e.g.,

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

axillary Echinops.
Single flower occurs in
the axil of a leaf, e.g.,
Petunia, China rose.
Solitary
axillary

Racemose
It is an indeterminate inflorescence
which shows indefinite growth. The Catkin
arrangement of flowers is either
Dichasial
acropetal (vertical orientation of
cyme Polychasial cyme axis) or centripetal
(horizontal orientation
Cymose of axis).
A determinate inflore - Spike
scence in which the tip of main Raceme
axis terminates in a flower and further Umbel
Helicoid growth continues by one or more lateral
cyme Cymose branches. The arrange-ment of flowers is
head
either basipetal (vertical orientation Simple
of axis) or centrifugal Raceme
(horizontal orientation of
racemose Peduncle is elongated having
Simple racemose inflore- pedicellate flowers in an acropetal
axis).
Cymose scence is an indefinite fashion, e.g., Lupinus, Raphanus,
inflorescence in which Linaria.
head the peduncle is
Sessile or subsessile flowers unbranched.
are borne centrifugally Spike
around a receptacle, e.g., An elongated peduncle bears sessile
Albizzia, Anthocephalus Scapigerous flowers in an acropetal fashion, e.g.,
Umbel
cadamba, Acacia. Head All the pedicellate flowers arise from a single Achyranthes, Callistemon, Adhatoda
The leafless flowering axis point in a centripetal fashion. The peduncle is vasica.
known as scape bears clusters very much reduced, e.g., Hydrocotyle, Prunus.
of flowers that form a head
which is covered by spaths, Spikelet

With long peduncle

With short peduncle

Biparous or e.g., Allium cepa. Corymb Spikelets are small and few flowered
Dichasial cyme The main axis is comparatively short, and the spikes which are surrounded at the
A terminal flower is subtended lower flowers have much longer pedicels than base by two scales or glumes, e.g.,
by two lateral branches which the upper ones so that all the flowers are brought rice, bamboo, oat, etc.
also end in flowers. The process is more or less to the same level, e.g., Iberis amara .
repeated. Inflorescence axis is Catkin
multipodial, e.g., Spergula, Multiparous Corymbose raceme Pendulous spike which bears naked
Stellaria media, The young flowers appear to be arranged like a
Clerodendrum.
or Polychasial cyme pistillate or staminate flowers, (but
More than two lateral branches corymb but in mature state the longer pedicels not both) e.g., mulberry, poplar, Salix,
continue the growth of of the lower flowers do not bring them to the Quercus.
inflorescence when the parent level of upper ones, e.g., mustard.
axis ends in a flower, e.g.,
Spadix
With flattened

Uniparous or Hamelia, Calotropis, Capitulum

peduncle

Asclepias. The flattened receptacle bears numerous sessile Spike with fleshy peduncle and
Monochasial cyme and small florets (ray florets and disc florets) in a having both male and female flowers.
A single lateral branch arises from the centripetal manner, e.g., Zinnia, Sunflower, Cosmos. It is surrounded by a large green or
peduncle of old flower which terminates coloured bract called spathe, e.g.,
in a flower. The lateral branch also palm, Colocasia, Musa.
terminates in a flower. It is of two types:
(a) Helicoid cyme – All the flowers are borne Cyathium
on the same side forming a sort of helix, e.g., The inflorescence looks like a
Drosera, Begonia, Myosotis. flower. The bracts or the involucre
(b) Scorpioid cyme - Flowers are become fused to form a cup shaped
Hypanthodium
alternately borne on both the sides, structure. The inflorescence contains It has a flask-shaped fleshy
e.g., Tecoma, Ranunculus, pedicellate, achlamydeous, unisexual receptacle which possesses a
Heliotropium. flowers of both the types, male and narrow apical opening guarded by
female. The cup encloses a single hairy structure. The receptacle bears
female flower surrounded by a male flowers towards the pore and
large number of male flowers. female flowers towards the
E.g., Euphorbia Hypanthodium base. E.g., Ficus religiosa,
Mixed pulcherrima. Ficus carica.
Two or more t ypes of
inflorescences get mixed up to
form a mixed inflorescences. It is of
following types:
(a) Panicle of spikelets, e.g., oat, rice. Cyathium Verticillaster
(b) Corymb of capitula, e.g., Ageratum Verticillaster
conyzoides. Two dichasial cyme inflore-
(c) U m b e l o f c a p i t u l a , scences develop from axil of
raceme of capitula. opposite leaves. They together
(d) Thyrsus, e.g., Special form a false whorl around the
grapevine. node, e.g., Ocimum, Leucus.
 A true fruit (or eucarp) is a ripened ovary. It consists of a thin or thick pericarp
MORPHOLOGY formed from the wall of ovary and seeds formed from the ovules. A fruit in which
other floral parts (e.g., thalamus, base of sepals, petals, etc.), participate in its

CONCEPT OF FRUITS
formation is called false fruit (or pseudocarp) e.g., apple and pear. The seeds
within the fruits have reserve food for nourishing the young seedlings till they

MAP
become nutritionally independent.
· Some fruits are formed without fertilisation i.e., seedless fruits. They are called as

AND SEEDS parthenocarps (e.g., banana). Fruits are classified into three main categories –
simple fruits, aggregate fruits and composite fruits.

Composite fruits Aggregate fruits

A composite or multiple fruit develops from the whole Aggregate fruits are the groups of fruitlets which
inflorescence. It is of two main types: sorosis and syconus. develop from the multicarpellary, apocarpous
Simple
Sorosis : These fruits develop from spike, spadix or catkin ovaries. The individual carpel or pistil develops
fruits inflorescence. Sorosis of pineapple develops from an into a fruitlet and these fruitlets occur as a
Simple fruits develop from intercalary spike of sterile flowers with persistent bracts. clustered unit on a single receptacle, which is
monocarpellary ovary or Sorosis of mulberry develops from a female catkin. referred to as an aggregate fruit or etaerio, e.g.,
multicarpellary syncarpous ovary. etaerio of achenes (Ranunculus, lotus), etaerio of
Syconus : It develops from hypanthodium inflorescence.
Simple fruits may be dry (pericarp is Receptacle becomes fleshy and edible, many achenes follicles (Calotropis), etaerio of berries (Custard
undifferentiated) or succulent develop from pistillate flowers, e.g., Ficus carica. apple), etaerio of drupes (e.g., Rubus idaeus), etc.
(pericarp is differentiated into
epicarp, mesocarp and
endocarp).
Dry fruits
Dry fruits are of
three types – Achenial
(single seeded, indehiscent),
capsular (many seeded, dehiscent) Etaerio Etaerio of berries
and schizocarpic (many seeded, Sorosis of Syconus of of achenes in Custard
after ripening divide into Morus Fig in Lotus Apple
Seed
single seeded Seed is a
segments). ripened ovule
which contains an
embryo, adequate reserve food
and a covering for protection against
mechanical injury. A seed may have 1 or 2
coverings called seed coats. Outer is
Succulent fruits testa and inner is called tegmen.
Succulent fruits can be divided into three main types: berry, drupe and pome. Seeds can be endospermic
(i) Berry : In superior or true berry (derived from superior ovary) usually all the three and non-
layers of fleshy pericarp are edible, e.g., grape, tomato. In inferior or false berry endospermic.
(derived from inferior ovary) epicarp is fused with thalamus to form exocarp, e.g.,
banana (parthenocarpic), guava. There are some special berries also such as
balausta (e.g., pomegranate), pepo (e.g., cucumber), and hesperidium (e.g.,
orange). (i) Endospermic or albuminous (ii) Non-endospermic or exalbuminous
(ii) Drupe (or stone fruit) : In this fruit, epicarp forms the rind, mesocarp is fleshy seeds: Endosperm is present and seeds : The endosperm is consumed during
and endocarp is hard and stony, e.g., almond, mango, Zizyphus, etc. food reserve remains in endosperm, seed development and the food is stored in
(iii) Pome : It is a false fruit that develops from the fleshy thalamus of multicarpellary, e.g., most monocots and some dicots cotyledons, e.g., majority of dicot seeds (Cicer
syncarpous, inferior ovary, e.g., apple, pear, etc. (Ricinus communis). arietinum) and in some monocot seeds.

Testa Tegmen
Perisperm Cotyledon
Endosperm

Testa
Caruncle
Inferior Berry Embryo
Pome of Apple Berry of Tomato Drupe of Mango Radicle Cotyledon Axis
of Banana
Castor seed (L.S.) Gram seed (split open)

Achenial fruits (Indehiscent fruit)
Achenial fruits are of five types :
(i) Achene : It develops from monocarpellary, superior,
unilocular and uniovuled ovary, pericarp is free from seed
except at one point, e.g., Mirabilis jalapa. (ii) Caryopsis (or
Grain) : It develops from monocarpellary, superior, unilocular
ovary. Pericarp is completely fused with the testa, e.g., members
of family Poaceae. (iii) Cypsela : It develops from bicarpellary,
syncarpous, inferior and unilocular ovary. Pappus may be
present for dispersal, e.g., Taraxacum. (iv) Nut: Pericarp becomes
h a r d , w o o d y o r l e a t h e r y. Fr u i t m a y d e v e l o p f r o m
monocarpellary, superior ovary (e.g., cashew nut); tricarpellary,
syncarpous, trilocular ovary (e.g., litchi), etc. (v) Samara :
Pericarp becomes flat like wings and thus help in wind dispersal
e.g., Holoptelea.
Capsular fruits (Dehiscent fruit)
Capsular fruits are of five types:
(i) Legume (or pod) : The fruit develops from superior,
monocarpellary, unilocular ovary with marginal placentation. It
dehisces by both dorsal and ventral sutures, e.g., members of family
Leguminosae. (ii) Follicle : The fruit dehisces by only one suture,
e.g., Delphinium. (iii) Siliqua : It develops from a bicarpellary,
superior ovary with parietal placentation and a false septum called
replum. It dehisces by two valves, e.g., members of family
Brassicaceae. (iv) Silicula : It is a shortened and flattened siliqua,
e.g., Capsella bursa-pastoris. (v) Capsule: According to the mode of
dehiscence, capsule may be porocidal capsule (e.g., Papaver),
denticidal capsule (e.g., Pink), pyxidium (e.g., Portulaca),
loculicidal capsule (e.g., Gossypium), septicidal capsule
(e.g., Viola), septifragal capsule (e.g., Datura), etc.
Schizocarpic fruits (Splitting fruits)
Schizocarpic fruits are of five types :
(i) Cremocarp : It develops from a bicarpellary,
syncarpous, bilocular, inferior ovary. On maturity, the
fruit splits into two mericarps, each with one seed,
e.g., members of family Apiaceae. (ii) Lomentum : The
fruit is a modification of legume, which is constricted
in between the seeds, e.g., Mimosa, Acacia, etc.
(iii) Carcerulus : At maturity, the fruit breaks up into
single seeded indehiscent mericarps, e.g., Althaea.
(iv) Compound samara : At maturity, the fruit splits
up into single seeded winged mericarps, e.g., Acer.
(v) Regma : It develops from multicarpellary pistil and
on maturity, splits into as many cocci as the number of
carpels, e.g., Geranium.

Cremocarp of Coriandrum

Samara of Cypsela of Taraxacum Legume of pea

Holoptelea

Follicle of
Capsule of Delphinium Carcerulus of Lomentaceous pod Regma of
Datura Althaea of Touch-me-not Castor

Caryopsis of
Maize
Nut of Litchi
Siliqua of Silicula of
Achene of Mirabilis Mustard Capsella Double samara of Acer
jalapa
 CONCEPT
A flower is a highly condensed and modified shoot. It contains reproductive organs of the flowering plants, which develop fruits and seeds. There are four types
of floral organs viz. sepals, petals, stamens and carpel or pistil. A flower having all the four types of floral organs is known as complete flower e.g., cotton. If
one or more of the floral organs are absent it is called incomplete flower e.g., cucurbits. A flower having both the essential organs i.e., stamens and carpels is
FLORAL called hermaphrodite or bisexual flower, e.g., China rose, whereas a flower having only one of the two essential organs is known as unisexual flower e.g., mulberry.
Flowers having only stamens are called staminate flowers and those having only carpels are called pistillate flowers. On the basis of symmetry flower can be
MAP MORPHOLOGY
actinomorphic (two equal halves in any plane), zygomorphic (two equal halves in one plane), or asymmetrical.
ANDROECIUM
l Third and male whorl of the flower made up of

COROLLA
l Second whorl inner to calyx made up of petals
which protects the inner whorls and attracts insects
stamens (microsporophylls) which consist of for pollination. Corolla may be polypetalous (petals free)
filament (lower stalk-like part which may be absent in or gamopetalous (petals fused).
some), anther (upper swollen part usually having two lobes or l Polypetalous corolla may be cruciform (four clawed or
theca i.e., bithecous or in some monothecous, e.g., Althaea) and unguiculate petals arranged cross wise e.g., mustard), caryophy-
GYNOECIUM connective (sterile band which connects two anther lobes). In Salvia,
l Central, female reproductive part l The stamens may be equal llaceous (five unguiculate or clawed petals with limbs placed at right
or unequal in length. When there is connective forms a long curved structure, its one end has a fertile anther angles, e.g., Dianthus), rosaceous (five or more sessile or shortly clawed
which develops from thalamus and lobe and other has a sterile anther lobe. Stamens may be shorter than other
consists of carpels (megasporophylls). two long and two short stamens, the petals with limbs spread regularly outwards, e.g., rose), campanulate or bell-
condition is called didynamous, e.g., whorls (inserted) or may protrude out of the flower (exserted). shaped (e.g., Physalis), papilionaceous (five unequal or irregular petals viz.
l Each carpel consist of– stigma (the tip which
Ocimum. When out of six stamens, four are longer l On the basis of attachment to the filament, anthers can be adnate (filament runs 1 standard or vexillum – posterior largest–, 2 wings or alae –lateral, smaller– and
receives pollen), style (elongated structure along the back of the anther or becomes continuous with the connective, e.g., 2 anterior petals fused together to form keel or carina).
connecting stigma and ovary), ovary (lower swollen in inner whorls and two in outer whorl are shorter,
the condition is called tetradynamous, e.g., mustard. Ranunculus), basifixed (filament fixed at anther its base, e.g., Datura), dorsifixed l Gamopetalous corolla may be campanulate (bell-shaped or inverted cup
part containing ovules). (filament attached to back and anther immobile, e.g., Passiflora), versatile (filament
l Dehiscence of anthers to expose the pollen grains shaped e.g., Campanula), urceolate (urn-shaped e.g., Bryophyllum), tubular
l On the basis of number of carpels present, it can be attached to back and the anther can swing freely, e.g., grasses).
can be longitudinal (long slits appear lengthwise e.g., (tube-like or cyclindrical e.g., disc floret of sunflower), infundibuliform (funnel
moncarpellary (one carpel only) or multicarpellary l The cohesion between the stamens may be monadelphous (all the filaments
mustard), transverse (breadthwise slits, e.g., Malva), shaped e.g., Petunia), rotate (corolla with short tube having limbs placed
(many carpels) which can be apocarpous (carpels free e.g., united into a single bundle, anthers free, e.g., China rose), diadelphous (filaments
porous (pores appear at the tip e.g., Solanum or base transversely like a saucer or the spokes of a wheel, e.g., Solanum nigrum),
Ranunculus) or syncarpous (carpels fused e.g., Petunia). united in two bundles, anthers free, e.g., pea), polyadelphous (filaments united
e.g., Cassia), valvular (split at several places by lifting of salver shaped or hypocrateriform (tubular corolla with spreading lobes,
l On the basis of number of locules (chamber) present in into more than two bundles, anthers free, e.g., castor), syngenesious (anthers
surface layers, e.g., Barberry), irregular (e.g., Najas). e.g., Clerodendrum), bilabiate (bilipped corolla with gaping, wide open
the ovary, it can be unilocular (pea), bilocular united into a bundle, filaments free, e.g., sunflower), synandrous (anthers as mouth, e.g., Ocimum), personate (bilipped corolla with closed lips,
(mustard), trilocular (Asparagus), tetralocular l Longitudinal dehiscence may be laterorse (slits
well as filaments united throughout the length, e.g., Colocasia). The free e.g., Antirrhinum), ligulate or strap-shaped (short and narrow
(Ocimum), pentalocular (China rose) or on sides), introrse (slits towards the inner side
stamens are called polyandrous. tube-like corolla with upper part flattened like a strap, e.g.,
multilocular (Althaea). or centre of the flower), extrorse (slits lie
towards the outer side of flower). l On the basis of adhesion of stamens to flower, it can be ray floret of sunflower), spurred (one or more petals
epiphyllous (attached to perianth, e.g., Asphodelus), drawn out like a beak or spur, e.g., Larkspur).
epipetalous (attached to petals, e.g., Datura),
gynandrous (attached to gynoecium, e.g.,
Calotropis).
PLACENTATION
l Arrangement of placenta (which bear
R. K. MALIK’S

ovules) on the ovary wall which can be :

NEWTON CLASSES

(i)Marginal : One or two longitudinal alternate

AESTIVATION
Stigma
l Arrangement of petals (or sepals) in a
rows of ovules along the ventral suture in unilocular
ovary, e.g., pea, Cassia etc. Pollens flower bud with respect to members of the
(ii)Parietal : Ovules on walls of bi–multicarpellary but Style same whorls which can be open (margins of
unilocular ovary e.g., Argemone. adjacent petals sufficiently apart from each other),
valvate (margins of the adjacent petals lie close,
(iii) Axile : In multicarpellary, syncarpous, multilocular Ovary Anther
gynoecium; margins fuse at the centre of the ovary to form without overlapping, e.g., mustard), twisted or contorted
an axis which bears ovule e.g., Solanum. (one margin of a petal overlaps the margin of an adjacent
Filament petal (external) and the other margin is overlapped (internal)
(iv)Free central : Unilocular ovary with ovules borne on
central axis e.g., Dianthus. by the margin of adjacent petal, e.g., China rose), imbricate
(one petal external, one internal; and of the remaining three
(v)Basal : Ovary unilocular with a single ovule at its petals one margin is overlapped, other overlapping, e.g.,
base, e.g., sunflower.
Cassia), quincuncial (special type of imbricate aestivation
(vi)Superficial : Multicarpellary, syncarpous Ovule
in which two petals external, two internal and in one
gynoecium bears a large number of petal one margin is overlapped, one is overlapping,
ovules that are borne on the walls of
loculi without specific order, e.g., calyx of Cucurbita maxima), vexillary
e.g., Nymphaea. (posterior petal overlapping the two lateral
petals, the latter overlapping the two
anterior petals, e.g., pea).
THALAMUS
(Torus/Receptacle)
l Broadened or swollen part of the flower which CALYX
lies at the tip of the pedicel and bears floral organs. l Outermost whorl made up of sepals
l In most flowers the thalamus is condensed but in some, which are usually green but sometimes
one or more internodes elongate viz. anthophore BRACTS coloured (i.e., petalloid). They protect the inner
(internode between calyx and corolla e.g., Dianthus), l Specialised leaves from the axil of whorls and carry out photosynthesis when green.
androphore or gonophore (internode between corolla and which flower arise. They can be foliaceous l The sepals may be free (polysepalous) or
androecium, e.g., Passiflora), gynophore (internode between (leaf-like e.g., Adhatoda), petaloid (like petals,
androecium and gynoecium, e.g., Capparis), gynandrophore or fused(gamosepalous). They can be caducous (fall just at
e.g., Bougainvillea), scaly (membranous, small the time of opening of bud, e.g., poppy), deciduous
androgynophore (both androphore and gynophore present, e.g., e.g., sunflower), spathy (large, boat-shaped bract
Gynandropsis pentaphylla), carpophore (the thalamus in (attached till the flower withers, e.g., mustard), persistent
enclosing an inflorescence, e.g., banana, maize), (remain attached to the fruit, e.g., tomato).
between the two carpels elongates and after bifurcation glumes (small, dry, scaly as in spikelet of Poaceae ).
protrudes out of the two carpels, e.g., Coriandrum). PEDICEL OR l Sepals can be modified to form pappus (hairy structure
l There are one or more whorls of bracts found at
l On the basis of relative position of floral organs on which helps in dispersal e.g., sunflower), leafy petalloid
thalamus flower may be epigynous (ovary inferior,
STALK the base of calyx which form epicalyx in most (large leaf like coloured structure, e.g., Mussaenda),
l Lower internode of flower. members of Malvaceae, e.g., China rose.
p l a ce d b e l ow o t h e r w h o r l s, e. g. , g u ava ) , spinous (persistent and modified into spines, e.g.,
A flower with pedicel is called Sometimes, bracts are in one or more whorls
hypogynous (ovary superior, e.g., China rose), or Trapa), spurred (drawn out into beak or spur, e.g.,
pedicellate and one without around and below the entire inflore-
perigynous (ovary half superior or half Larkspur), hooded (modified into a hood,
it, is sessile. It may bear scence, e.g., coriander and are called
inferior and thalamus may be disc e.g., cover ing the whole flower, e.g.,
bracteoles along with involucre.
pea, cup e.g., Prunus or flask Aconitum) or bilabiate (two-
the bracts. lipped, e.g., Salvia).
e.g., rose shaped).
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

 JEE (MAIN & ADV.), MEDICAL
R. K. MALIK’S + BOARD, NDA, FOUNDATION
NEWTON CLASSES
 JEE (MAIN & ADV.), MEDICAL
R. K. MALIK’S + BOARD, NDA, FOUNDATION
NEWTON CLASSES

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 Hyoid apparatus Respiratory System
Glottis Laryngotracheal Adult frog respires by three different types of respiration:
chamber
l Cutaneous respiration : It occurs through the highly vascular skin of frog
Wall of lung
CONCEPT FROG Cavity of lung
Septa
Intact lung
in water or land.
l Buccopharyngeal respiration : It occurs on land or during partial
immersion in water via mucous epithelial lining of buccopharyngeal
MAP
Alveoli
Frog belongs to the Class Amphibia of Phylum Chordata. Frogs are found around ditches, cavity.
ponds, marshes, lakes and streams. They can live in water as well as on land hence called Blood
capillaries l Pulmonary respiration : It is less frequent and takes place through lungs
amphibians. The common Indian frog is Rana tigrina. Fig.: Lungs of frog in adult frog when the frog is outside the water.
Nervous System Olfactory nerve
Morphology Anatomy
l It is highly developed and comprises of:
Olfactory lobe
– Central nervous system (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord. Brain is

Forebrain
covered by two meninges; duramater (outer) and pia-arachnoid (inner).
Anterior Cerebral
Brain is divisible into three parts: Forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. choroid hemisphere
Circulatory System
l Body of a frog is pointed anteriorly and rounded Spinal cord is located in the vertebral column and joins the medulla plexus
posteriorly. It is slightly flattened dorsoventrally, oblongata via foramen magnum of the cranium (brain case). Pineal body Diencephalon
l Circulatory system of frog is closed and includes heart, arterial – Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes 10 pairs of cranial nerves Pineal stalk
streamlined to swim through water and divisible into

Midbrain
Optic lobe
system, venous system, blood and lymphatic system. and 9 pairs of spinal nerves . Rarely 10th (paired or unpaired) spinal
head and trunk without neck and tail.
l Heart is three chambered made up of two anterior atria or auricles nerve is found.
l Skin of frog is thin, moist, smooth, slimy and green Posterior
and a single posterior ventricle. Two additional chambers are sinus

Hindbrain
Cerebellum
coloured with black or brown spots dorsally and – Autonomic nervous system is made up of sympathetic and choroid
venosus and truncus arteriosus. plexus Medulla
lighter pale yellow ventrally. There are no scales or parasympathetic nerves which controls and coordinates the
l The two auricles, right (larger) and left, are completely separated oblongata
any other hard exoskeleton parts. involuntary activities of the visceral organs.
from each other by inter-auricular septum. Both auricles open into Spinal cord
l Skin of back has dorsolateral folds or thickenings
single ventricle by a common large auriculo-ventricular aperture l Five types of sense organs are skin (tangoreceptor), taste buds
called dermal plicae. (gustatoreceptor), nasal chambers (olfactoreceptor), eyes (photoreceptor) Central canal
guarded by two pairs of auriculo-ventricular valves.
l Head is roughly triangular with a short blunt anterior l The inner surface of ventricle has irregular ridges called columnae and ears (stato-acoustic organs). Fig.: Dorsal view of brain of frog
snout terminating in a large transverse mouth. It carneae or trabeculae, with depressions called fissures.
bears external nares or nostrils, eyes, brow spot and
Urinogenital System
ear drums on the upper side. Aortic trunks Carotid arch
l Frogs have two large and protruding eyes, having an Systemic arch l In frogs, the excretory and reproductive systems are closely associated, hence they are together called urinogenital system.
Synangium Pulmocutaneous arch l Excretory system comprises of kidneys, ureters in females, urinogenital ducts in males, cloaca and urinary bladder. Kidneys
almost immovable upper eyelid and a thin semi-
Right auricle Opening leading to
transparent and freely movable lower eyelid. From pulmocutaneous arch are the chief excretory organs which are made up of large number of uriniferous tubules or nephrons.
Wall of truncus l From the kidneys, arise ureter in females and urinogenital duct in males.
lower eyelid arises nictitating membrane that arteriosus Left auricle
protects eyes during swimming. Anterior row of Opening of l Cloaca receives faecal matter, genital products and urine (from kidney). Ventrally it is attached to urinary bladder.
semilunar valves pulmonary veins
l Vocal sacs act as resonators to intensify sound of Sinu-auricular
l In males, near each kidney there is a cylindrical testis from which several thin vasa efferentia, connecting the testes to
Cavum aorticum
Pylangium

croaking during breeding season. aperture kidneys on each side. The vasa efferentia run transversely through mesorchium and open into the Bidder’s canal which in
Spiral valve Inter-auricular
l Trunk consists of thorax, abdomen and a pair of turn opens into the ureter. Histologically, each testis is a compact mass of seminiferous tubules, the epithelial lining of
Cavum septum
forelimb and hindlimb. pulmocutaneum Auriculo which produces sperms. The sperms when mature are dropped into the lumen to pass into the ureter through vasa
l Frog shows sexual dimorphism as male frog Posterior row of ventricular valve efferentia and Bidder’s canal.
possesses developed vocal sacs and nuptial pad semilunar valves Chordae tendineae
l Females have two ovaries where ova are produced by ovarian follicles. On each side of an ovary is an oviduct which starts
during breeding season and their body is somewhat posteriorly and forms uterus, which opens into the cloaca. During breeding season ova are released into the coelom and
slender and darker in colour than female frog. Fissures then they reach the ovarian funnels from where they pass to the ovisacs, cloaca and then outside.
l Egg of frog is telolecithal.
External nares Nictitating membrane Columnae carneae Part of oesophagus
(for respiration) (protects the eye during Cystic duct Oesophagus Ostium
Eye swimming and keeps Wall of ventricle
Right lobe Ovarian funnel
it moist in air) Left lobe of liver Fat body
Head Tympanum (receives Fig.: Internal structure of heart of frog (ventral view) of liver
Bile duct
sound waves) Gall bladder Testis
Digits Pancreatic ducts Mesorchium
Forelimb
Manus
Antebrachium
Digestive System Pancreas Fat body
Stomach Adrenal gland
Brachium l The digestive system mainly consists of alimentary canal and its Mesentery Ovary
Trunk Hepatopancreatic Left kidney
Dorsolateral associated glands. Ovarian tube
dermal plicae
duct
l Mouth leads into a buccopharyngeal cavity which opens into Urinogenital duct
Pyloric constriction Kidney
Thigh oesophagus through gullet. Duodenum (carries urine
and sperm) Adrenal gland
Anus l Stomach is situated behind the oesophagus and divisible into Ileum
cardiac stomach and pyloric stomach. Spleen Part of
Hindlimb rectum Seminal vesicle
l The small intestine is divisible into an anterior duodenum and a Ureter
Crus (shank ) Rectum (carries urine)
posterior ileum. Digestion of food and absorption of digested food Urinary bladder
Urinary Ovisac
Pes (foot) Toes occur in the small intestine. Cloaca bladder Cloacal chamber
l Ileum leads to rectum or large intestine. The rectum opens into the Cloacal chamber
Cloacal aperture Urinary
cloaca through the anus. bladder
l Digestive glands of frog include liver, pancreas, gastric glands and Cloacal aperture Cloacal aperture
Web Fig.: Alimentary canal (except
Fig.: Dorsal view of frog intestinal glands.
buccopharyngeal cavity) of frog Fig.: Urinogenital system of male frog Fig.: Urinogenital system of female frog
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

 CONCEPT PHYTOHORMONES
MAP Phytohormones refer to a chemical substances other than nutrient molecules produced naturally in
plants. They may be translocated to another region and are capable of regulating one or more
physiological reactions, when present in low concentrations.

PHYTOHORMONES
Plant growth regulators or hormones are broadly classified into two categories.

Auxin Ethylene
Nature: Weakly acidic growth hormone having an unsaturated ring structure. Auxins refer to natural (IAA, PAA, IAN) and Nature: It is the only gaseous phytohormone which
synthetic (Indole 3-butyric acid, NAA, 2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T) compounds having similar structure and properties. stimulates transverse or isodiametric growth but
Discovery: Darwin (1880) was first to find sensation of unilateral illumination in the coleoptile tip of canary grass. Later retards the longitudinal one.
Kogl and Smith (1931) isolated three chemicals from human urine which they named as auxin a , auxin b and hetero Discovery: R. Gane (1934) found that H H
auxin. IAA is the universal natural auxin. substance causing ripening was C C
Location: It is found in shoot apices, leaf primordia and developing seeds and is synthesised from amino acid tryptophan, ethylene. But it was recognised as a H H
a precursor of IAA or auxins. plant hormone by Crocker et al (1935).
Bioassay: Avena curvature test and root growth inhibition test are done for examining auxin effect. Location: It is found in almost all parts of plants in
minimal amount but maximum production occurs
Physiological functions:
during ripening of fruits and in tissues undergoing

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

l Promotes cell enlargement and division and initiates root formation on stem
CH2COOH senescence. It is synthesised from amino acid
cuttings.
methionine in plants.
l Cambial activity and xylem differentiation is also regulated by auxins.
Bioassay: The 'triple response' of etiolated pea plant
l Shows apical dominance i.e., inhibits the growth of lateral buds. N and gas chromatographic assay are used as bioassays.
l Prevents or delays abscission as well as induces synthesis of ethylene.
H
Physiological functions:
INDOLE-ACETIC ACID
l Produces tropic plant responses like phototropism and geotropism. l Promotes apical dominance and prolongs dormancy
(IAA)
l Shows feminising effect on some plants.
of lateral buds but breaks the dormancy of buds,
seeds and storage organs.
Commercial uses: l Induces abscission and senescence of various parts
l In tissue and organ culture to form callus and initiate rooting. i.e., leaves, flowers and fruits etc.
l To produce parthenocarpic fruits. l Induces epinasty, a phenomenon which decreases

l Auxins like 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T acts as weedicides by being selectively harmful to broad leaved dicot weeds.
the sensitivity to gravity.
l Helps in root initiation, growth of lateral roots and
l Induces flowering in litchi and pineapple.
root hairs.
l NAA increases the number of dwarf shoots and fruits on them.
l Stimulates flowering in pineapple and other related
l Prevents pre-harvest fruit drop of orange and apple (by low concentration of 2, 4-D) and tomato (by NAA)
plants and helps in synchronising fruit set.
l Induces ripening of fleshy climacteric fruits and

Gibberellin dehiscence of dry fruits.

Nature: Weakly acidic growth hormone having gibbane ring structure. Commercial uses:
Growth Promoting Hormones

Growth Inhibiting Hormones

Discovery: Hori and Kurosawa discovered the active substance from filtrate l Ethylene lamps are used for ripening of fleshy fruits

of fungus, Gibberella fujikuroi (causing bakane disease in rice plants) and e.g., banana, mango, apple, tomato.
named it gibberellin. GA3 was first gibberellin to be isolated in its pure form CO l Ethylene is used to induce feminising effect e.g.,

and remains the most extensively studied. number of female flowers and thus fruits in
OH
cucumber.
Location: The major sites of gibberellin production in plants are embryos, HO
CH COOH l Ethylene also permits thinning of excess flowers
roots and young leaves near the shoot tip. Mevalonic acid (derived from 3 CH2
and young fruits so as to allow better growth of
acetyl Co-A) acts as precursor for synthesis of gibberellins. It is transported remaining fruits.
through simple diffusion as well as via conducting channels.
Bioassay: Barley endosperm test and germination of dwarf pea seeds are used as bioassays.
Abscisic Acid
Physiological functions:
Nature: It is a mildly acidic growth hormone which acts
l Stimulates stem elongation and leaf expansion.
as a general growth inhibitor. It is also called as stress
l Overcome natural dormancy of buds, tubers, seeds etc. hormone since its production is stimulated under
l Induces elongation of reduced stem or bolting in rosette plants e.g., henbane, cabbage. conditions of drought, water logging and adverse
environmental conditions.
l Promotes seed germination by inducing production of hydrolytic enzymes for solubilising reserve food.
l Promotes flowering in long day plants during non-inductive period.
H trans CH3 cis
l Controls fruit growth and development as well as induces parthenocarpy.
l Promotes formation of male flowers on female plants e.g., Cannabis. They can also replace female flowers with male H3C CH3 C
C C
ones on monoecious plants of cucurbits. 6 5 C 3 H
4 2
5 1 OH
Commercial uses: H 1COOH
l Exogenous application of GA4 and GA7 mixture to increase the number and size of fruits e.g., apple, grapes, tomato. 4 2
O 3 CH3
l Production of seedless pomaceous fruits by parthenocarpy.
l GA7 delays senescence of fruits and delays its ripening thus, extending its shelf life and storage period.
l Induces offseason flowering in many long day plants as well as those requiring vernalisation.
Discovery: The hormone was first isolated by Addicott
et al (1963) from cotton bolls.
l Application of gibberellins increases length of stem and yield of sugarcane.
Location: It is found in many parts of the plant but is
l Promotes early maturity resulting in seed production in juvenile conifers. more abundant in chloroplast of green cells. It is
synthesised from mevalonic acid or xanthophyll.
Bioassay: Rice seedling growth inhibition test and
Cytokinin inhibition of a-amylase synthesis in barley endosperm
are used as bioassay.
Nature: These are basic hormones, being derivatives of either aminopurine or phenyl urea that promote cytokinesis.
Physiological functions:
Discovery: The first cytokinin was discovered from autoclaved herring sperm DNA which stimulated cell division in l Induces dormancy of buds, seeds and underground
tobacco pith cells. It is called kinetin and does not occur naturally in plants. stems, hence also called as dormin.
CH2OH
The first natural cytokinin was obtained from unripe maize grains, called zeatin CH2 C l Promotes abscission of flowers and fruits.
(6-hydroxy 3-methyl trans 2-butenyl amino purine). NH CH CH3 l Induces senescence of leaves by promoting
It is found in coconut milk. degradation of chlorophyll and proteins.
Location: It is mainly found in roots, however it is also synthesised in endosperm regions N N l Stops cambium activity (in vascular cambium)
of seeds, growing embryos, young fruits and developing shoot buds. towards the approach of winter.
N
Bioassay: Tobacco pith culture, retardation of leaf senescence and excised radish N H l Inhibits seed germination by inhibiting gibberellin
cotyledon expansion are used as bioassays for cytokinins. Zeatin mediated amylase formation.
Physiological functions: l It is antagonist to gibberellin and counteracts the

l Promotes cell division.

effect of growth promoting hormones-auxins and
cytokinins.
l Essential for morphogenesis and differentiation of tissues and organs.
Commercial uses:
l Delays senescence by mobilisation of nutrients.
l Used as antitranspirant (as application of even
l Overcome apical dominance caused by auxins and promote lateral bud development.
minute quantities of ABA on leaves causes partial
l Induces accumulation of salts inside cells and help in phloem transport. closure of stomata), thus, preventing transpiration
l Promotes femaleness in flowers. as well as reducing photosynthesis.
l Induces flowering in some short day plants, even
Commercial uses:
under unfavourable photoperiods.
l Forms essential component of tissue culture as required for morphogenesis.
l External application on stem cuttings initiate
l Application of cytokinin increases the shelf life of flowers and vegetables, keeping them fresh for longer periods. rooting.
l Helps in developing resistance to pathogens and extremes of temperature, in plants. l Induces parthenocarpic development in rose.
l Delays senescence of intact plant parts. l Used in prolonging dormancy of buds, storage
organs and seeds.
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R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
 Human skeleton constitutes the rigid framework of connected

CONCEPT HUMAN SKELETON

bones that gives shape to the body, protects and supports its
soft organs and tissues and provides attachments for muscles.

MAP
Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones (300 bones in
newborns) which are distributed into axial and appendicular
skeleton.

AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON

· It lies along the longitudinal axis of the body; supports and protects the organs of the · It is situated at the lateral sides which actually extend outwards from the principal axis.
head, neck and trunk. · It consists of two girdles, the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the bones of arms and
· It includes skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs . legs.

SKULL PECTORAL GIRDLE

Parietal Manubrium of sternum Coracoid
Frontal bone bone · Skull is the bony framework of the head. · Each pectoral girdle consists of two bones : 1 Clavicle process
· It consists of 29 bones, separated by sutures. These bones clavicle and 1 scapula. The scapula (shoulder
Nasal bone are cranial bones (8 flattened bones forming the brain blade) consists of a sharp ridge, the spine and a Pectoral Girdle
triangular body. The end of the spine projects as a (Shoulder Girdle)
Zygomatic box or cranium), facial bones (14 bones forming the front
bone part of the skull), hyoid bone (single bone forming floor of flattened and expanded process called acromion.
Maxilla the buccal cavity) and bones of middle ear (3 small bones This process articulates with the clavicle. Acromion
Scapula
in each ear, namely malleus, incus and stapes). · At the lateral end of the superior of the scapula is a process
Occipital
bone · The bones of cranium are : 1 frontal bone, 2 parietal bones, projection of the anterior surface called the coracoid
Mandible Temporal
Mastoid 2 temporal bones, 1 occipital bone, 1 sphenoid bone and process, to which the tendons of the muscles
bone
process attach. At the point where the superior and
1 ethmoid bone.
· Temporal bone has a projection called mastoid lateral borders of the scapula meet there is the lateral angle which
process. Cranium presents a shallow articular surface termed as glenoid cavity into
which the head of the humerus is articulated.
· The cranium has two small protuberances at the Skull
· The primary function of the pectoral girdle is to provide an
posterior end called occipital condyles, that articulate with the first vertebra (atlas
Facial bones attachment point for the numerous muscles that allow the shoulder
vertebra), thus, human skull is dicondylic.
and elbow joints to move.
· 14 bones form the skeleton of face viz. 2 zygomatic, 2 maxilla, 2 nasal, 2 Clavicle
lacrimal, 1 vomer, 2 palatine, 2 inferior nasal conchae and 1 mandible.
Ribs
· Hyoid is a u-shaped bone which attaches tongue with the floor of buccal Cervical
cavity. It does not articulate with any other bone. vertebra
· A large hole called foramen magnum at the base of skull allows the
FORELIMBS
brain to continue into the spinal cord located in the backbone. Scapula
· Each arm has 30 bones, which constitute 1 humerus (upper arm), 1
· Skull protects our brain; it bears jaws which help in mastication of food, Sternum radius and 1 ulna (lower arm), 8 carpals (wrist),
etc. 5 metacarpals (palm) and 14 phalanges (digits).
Humerus · The humerus is the longest bone in the upper extremity.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN Xiphoid · At the bottom of the humerus, are two depressions where it
process of connects to the ulna and radius of the forearm.
7 Cervical vertebrae · It is also called backbone or spine. It sternum · Together, the humerus and the ulna make up the elbow, ulna is
(neck backbones) is curved, vertical rod, about 70 cm
longer than the radius. Radius, however, contributes more to the
long, in the mid-dorsal line of the Radius movement of the wrist and hand than the ulna.
neck and trunk. It consists of 33
12 Thoracic vertebrae Ulna · Each wrist is composed of eight carpals which are
(chest backbones) vertebrae. However it consists of 26
Coccyx arranged in two rows : scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum and
bones, because five sacral vertebrae
Pubis pisiform in proximal row and trapezium, trapezoid,
are fused to form one sacrum and
four coccygeal vertebrae are fused to capitate and hamate in distal row.
Intervertebral disc
form one coccyx. Carpals · The forelimbs give support to the shoulders by articulating
Ischium Metacarpals the head of the humerus with the glenoid cavity of the
5 Lumbar vertebrae · A typical vertebra has a large, disc-like
(lower backbones) anterior, flattened portion, the Phalanges pectoral girdle.

Sacrum (5 fused
centrum or body and a posterior Femur
pelvis backbones) portion, the neural arch.. The latter
Coccyx encloses the spinal cord. The hole formed Ilium PELVIC GIRDLE
by the neural arch is the vertebral
foramen. The vertebral foramina of all Lumbar · The pelvic girdle
girdle, also
twenty four vertebrae form the vertebral canal or neural canal. vertebra Patella called the hip girdle, is
Sacrum
· Vertebrae are categorised into five groups: cervical (7), thoracic (12), composed of two coxal
lumbar (5), sacral (5) and coccygeal (4). (hip) bones. Ilium

· Vertebral column displays four curves to enhance balancing powers and firmness for · The coxal bones are also
called the ossa coxae or Coccyx
upright posture of the body. These curvatures are cervical, thoracic, lumbar and pelvic Fibula Pubis Acetabulum
(=sacral). innominate bones. Ischium
· Each coxal bone consists Pubic
· Between the centre of adjacent vertebrae there are elastic pads of fibrocartilage, the Tibia Pubic arch symphysis
intervertebral discs which provide mobility to the vertebrae, check undue frictions and of three separate parts :
take up shocks. the ilium (short and
Tarsals
· Vertebral column carries the weight of the body in motion and when the organism is standing. straight bone), the ischium (lower elongated bone, running parallel to
Metatarsals vertebral column) and the pubis (inner, smaller bone).
STERNUM Phalanges · On its outer surface it has a deep depression called the acetabulum which,
Clavicular
with almost spherical head of the femur, forms the hip joint.
notch
· This is a flat bone which is present just under the
· It supports the weight of the body from the vertebral column. It also protects
Manubrium skin in the middle of the front of the chest. It is about
and supports the lower organs, including the urinary bladder, the
Sternal 15 cm long.
angle reproductive organs, and the developing foetus in case of a pregnant
Facets for · Its shape is like a dagger and consists of three parts—the woman.
attachment
Body of ribs 1-7 manubrium is the uppermost part, the body is the middle portion
and the xiphoid process is the tip of the bone.
· The true ribs (7 pairs) are attached to the sternum. HINDLIMBS
Xiphoid
process · It protects the internal organs in the thoracic region and helps in the · Each leg has 30 bones which constitute 1 femur, 1 patella, 1 tibia, 1 fibula, 7 tarsals, 5
respiratory mechanism. metatarsals and 14 phalanges.
· Femur, tibia and fibula bones together support the shank of the leg. The tarsals form the
RIBS ankle, metatarsals form the sole and phalanges form the digits of the foot.
· The ribs are thin, flat, curved bones that form a protective cage around the organs in the upper body. · The femur is the longest, largest, and strongest bone in the body whose head fits into the
· Ribs comprise of 24 bones arranged in 12 pairs. Each rib remains attached to the respective thoracic acetabulum of hip girdle.
vertebra. · The tibia connects to the femur to form the knee joint and with the talus, a foot bone, to
· The first seven pairs of ribs are attached directly with the sternum and are called true ribs. The 8th, 9th and allow the ankle to flex and extend.
10th pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with sternum, but join the seventh rib by hyaline cartilage. These · The tibia is larger than the fibula because it bears most of the weight, while the fibula
are called vertebrochondral ribs or false ribs. The last two (11th and 12th) pairs of ribs remain free serves as an area for muscle attachment.
anteriorly and are not attached either to sternum or cartilage of another rib, and are called floating ribs. · Fibula is shorter, thinner and slender.
· A typical rib consists of 2 parts : vertebral and sternal. The vertebral part is long and bony. It articulates with · Each ankle is composed of seven tarsals which are calcaneum, talus, cuboid, navicular
the thoracic vertebrae. and first, second, third cuneiforms.
· The sternal part is short and cartilaginous. It articulates with the sternum or sternal part of its upper rib. · The leg bones carry the weight of the body and are involved in propulsion and support.
 JEE (MAIN & ADV.), MEDICAL
R. K. MALIK’S + BOARD, NDA, FOUNDATION

CONCEPT SYNAPSE NEWTON CLASSES

Synapse is an anatomically specialised junction between two neurons, where the axon (or some

MAP
other portion) of one cell (neuron) terminates on the dendrites or some other portion of another
cell. The term 'synapse' was first introduced by Charles Sherrington (1924). Transmission of nerve
impulse takes place across a synapse between neurons or neurons and an effector. The neuron
which sends messages is called presynaptic cell whereas the neuron which receives messages is
postsynaptic neuron.
Sending neuron
Receiving
neuron
STRUCTURE OF SYNAPSE
Most of the synapses comprise the following structures:
(i) Synaptic knob – Terminal bulbous ending of presynaptic axon which is devoid of neurofilaments but its
Sending
cytoplasm contains: neuron
(a) Synaptic vesicles – Small vesicles present in presynaptic cytoplasm that contain neurotransmitters
(for excitation or inhibition), like acetylcholine, GABA, etc. Action
(b) Mitochondria, ER and microtubules. potential
(c) Presynaptic membrane – Nerve membrane which is in close approximation with membrane of
Vesicle containing
postsynaptic cell. neurotransmitters
(ii) Sub-synaptic and postsynaptic membrane – The surface of the cell membrane involved in the
synapse is called the sub-synaptic membrane and the remaining of the motor neuron cell membrane is
Synaptic gap Axon terminal
called the postsynaptic membrane. Receptor sites for neurotransmitters are usually located on the sub-
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

synaptic membrane. Presynaptic membrane

Postsynaptic
TYPES OF SYNAPSE
Receptor sites on
membrane
receiving neuron
Neurotransmitter
On
On th ion wi

the
locat

b asi
so
Chemical Synapse
e b thin

fp
hy
asi

s l Signals are transmitted across synaptic cleft in form

s o ne

io
of chemical messenger – a neurotransmitter,
fp r

lo
ox

g
r

vo imi Axo-dendritic Synapse released from presynaptic axon terminal.

y
us t y a l Chemical synapse operates only in one direction, as
sys nd Synapse between fine terminal
tem neurotransmitter is stored on the presynaptic side
branches of axon of one neuron and
dendrites or cell body of another of synaptic cleft, whereas receptors for neuro-
Axo-dendritic
synapse neuron. It is located in motor neurons transmitters are on postsynaptic side.
in spinal cord, excitatory synapse in
Axo-axonal the cerebral cortex, etc. Electrical Synapse Chemical Synapse
Presynaptic
synapse
neuron Microtubule
Axo-axonal Synapse Dendrite Presynaptic
Synapse between axons of Cytoplasm Synaptic vesicle
neuron
two neurons. It is present in
Mitochondrion
spinal cord.

Myelin
Axon
Postsynaptic Postsynaptic
Gap
neuron neuron
junction
Ions flow through gap Synaptic Neurotransmitter released
Presynaptic junction channels
Dendro-dendritic membrane vesicle fusing Presynaptic membrane
synapse Axo-somatic
synapse
Synaptic
cleft

Dendro-dendritic Synapse Axo-somatic Synapse

l Synapse between dendrites of
two neurons, but is rare. It is
present between mitral and
granule cell in the bulb.
MECHANISM OF IMPULSE CONDUCTION
Synapse between axon of one Postsynaptic
Postsynaptic Gap junction channels neurotransmitter Ions flow through Postsynaptic
neuron and soma of another membrane receptor postsynaptic channels membrane
neuron. It is present in motor
neurons in spinal cord and
autonomic ganglia. Electrical Synapse
l Here pre-and postsynaptic membrane are joined by gap
junctions, through which ions can pass easily.
l Impulse transmission across electrical synapse is faster than
chemical synapse because of the direct flow of electrical
current from one neuron to another through gap junction,

At Electrical
PROPERTIES OF SYNAPSE Synapse
l Gap junctions in electrical
synapse allow the local currents
l Convergence and Divergence : Many presynaptic resulting from arriving action potentials
neurons converge on any single postsynaptic neuron, At Chemical to flow directly across the junction from
e.g., in spinal motor neurons, some inputs come from Synapse one neuron to the other.
dorsal root, some from long descending spinal tracts l This depolarises the membrane of
Mechanism of chemical transmission across a
and many from interconnecting neurons. The axons of the second neuron to threshold,
synapse is as follows:
most presynaptic neurons divide into many branches continuing the propagation of
that diverge to end on many postsynaptic neurons. Action potential arrives at axon terminal the action potential.
l Fatigue : Repeated stimulation of presynaptic neuron  
leads to gradual decrease and finally disappearance of Voltage gated Ca2+ ion channels open and electrochemical
the postsynaptic response. This is due to exhaustion of gradient favours influx of Ca2+ and Ca2+ flows into axon terminal
chemical transmitter, as its synthesis is not as rapid as  
the release. Ca2+ ions cause synaptic vesicles to move to the
l Synaptic Delay : When an impulse reaches the surface of the knob and fuse with synaptic membrane terminal
presynaptic terminal, there is a gap of about 0.5 msec.,  
before a response is obtained in postsynaptic neuron. Vesicles release neurotransmitters by exocytosis
This is due to the time taken by synaptic mediator to be
released and to act on postsynaptic membrane.
 
Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft and bind to
l Synaptic Plasticity : Plasticity implies the capability of
receptors on postsynaptic membrane
being easily moulded or changed. Synaptic conduction
thus can be increased or decreased on the basis of past  
experience. These changes can be presynaptic or This causes depolarisation and generation of
postsynaptic in location and play an important role in action potential in the postsynaptic
learning and memory. membrane.
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

 CONCEPT ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Life cannot be created de novo rather it arises from pre-existing life. Reproduction is the only method by which continuity of life

MAP is maintained. It is of two types: asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction is the formation of new individual without involving
fusion of gametes. It is uniparental as offspring are produced by a single parent.

Fission
l It is a type of asexual reproduction in which
the parent organism divides into two or
more daughter cells.
l In this type of reproduction, whole parent
body acts as the reproductive unit.
l It is of three types:
(a) Binary fission : In this, parent organism
divides into two halves, each half forming
an independent daughter organism. It can
be simple (occurs through any plane, e.g.,
Amoeba), longitudinal (plane of division is
longitudinal axis of body, e.g., Euglena),
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
CHARACTERISTICS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
l It is more primitive than sexual reproduction as it involves only mitotic divisions.
l New organisms are produced from the somatic part of parental organism, so it is also called as
(a) somatogenic reproduction.
l New individuals produced are genetically similar to the parent as well as to each other and are called
clones. Hence, it plays no role in evolution.
l Unit of reproduction may be either whole parent body, or a bud, or a body fragment, or a single
somatic cell.
(b) l It is usually found in lower organisms like protistan protozoans (Amoeba, Paramecium), sponges
(Scypha), coelenterates, (Hydra, Tubularia, etc.), certain flatworms (Planaria), some worms and

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

transverse (plane of division runs along tunicates (Salpa, Ascidia, etc.). It is absent in higher invertebrates and all vertebrates.
transverse axis of body, e.g., Paramecium)
and oblique (plane of division is oblique, Regeneration
e.g., Ceratium).
(c)
(b) Multiple fission : In this process, parent l It refers to the growth of new tissues
body divides into many similar daughter Fig.: Binary fission in (a) Amoeba
(b) Euglena (c) Paramecium or organs to replace lost or
organisms. It occurs during unfavourable
damaged part.
conditions. Nucleus of the parent divides
by repeated amitosis into many nuclei which eventually form several daughter l Regeneration is of two types:
cells. E.g., Amoeba, Plasmodium (malarial parasite). morphallaxis (formation of whole
(c) Plasmotomy-Division of multinucleate parent into many multinucleate body from a fragment) and
daughter individuals without division of nuclei. Nuclear division occurs later to
epimorphosis (replacement of lost
maintain number of nuclei. E.g., Opalina, Pelomyxa.
parts). It can be reparative
Cyst wall Daughter Pseudopodiospores Young Amoeba (regeneration of damaged tissue (i) (ii) (iii)
nuclei
only) or restorative (redevelopment (a)
of severed body part). In epimor-
phosis, a mass of undifferentiated
cell referred to as blastema is formed
Daughter nuclei (a) Daughter cells released
after wound healing and then the 1 2 3 4 5
blastema cells actively proliferate to
Intact Amputation Wound Blastema Blastema cell Patterning new Newly
restore the lost part of the limb healing formation proliferation limb tissue regenerated
limb
amputated organ. (b)
Schizont Crypto Merozoites
(b) merozoite l Regeneration is found in Hydra, Fig.: (a) Regeneration in (i) Planaria (ii) Hydra (iii) Starfish
Fig.: Multiple fission (a) Amoeba (b) Malarial parasite starfish, Planaria, etc. (b) Epimorphosis

Budding Sporulation
l Budding refers to the process of formation of daughter l Spores are minute, single celled, thin or thick walled
individuals from a small projection or bud arising on the propagules which are dispersive structures released from
parent body. the parent body and form new individuals. Spore formation
l Each bud enlarges, develops parental characters and TYPES OF is common in members of monera, protista, algae and fungi.
separates to lead an independent life. Some of the commonly produced spores are:
l Budding can be either exogenous (formed on the outer surface) ASEXUAL (a) Zoospores : Motile and flagellated spores produced inside
e.g., Hydra, yeast or endogenous (formed inside
parent body) e.g., Spongilla. In Spongilla, bud is called a gemmule. REPRODUCTION zoosporangia. Flagella help in proper dispersal in aquatic
habitat. E.g., algae and lower fungi like Phycomycetes.
(b) Conidia : Non-motile spores produced singly or in chains by
Tentacles constriction at the tip or lateral side of special hyphal
branches called conidiophores. These are dispersed by wind
and germinate to form new individuals. E.g., Penicillium.
(c) Chlamydospores : Thick walled spores produced directly
from hyphal cells. May be terminal or intercalary in position
and capable of withstanding unfavourable conditions. E.g.,
Rhizopus.
A projection grows on Bud grows Splits away from parent Fragmentation (d) Oidia : Small fragments of hyphae that are thin walled and
outer surface of body. externally. and grows independently. do not store reserve food material. Oidia give rise to new
l In this type of reproduction, parent body breaks into
hyphae. These are formed under conditions of excess water,
two or more pieces called fragments.
(a) Nuclear division Bud sugar and certain salts. E.g., Agaricus.
l Each fragment develops into a new organism.
(e) Sporangiospores : Non-motile spores produced inside
Developing l In fragmentation, rate of reproduction is high.
sporangia. Usually get dispersed by wind and germinate to
bud l It occurs in flatworms, sea anemones, coelenterates,
form new mycelium. E.g., Rhizopus, Mucor.
echinoderms, algae like Spirogyra, etc.

Zoospores Chains of conidia

Flagella Conidia
(b) Chloroplast
Mother cell
Nucleus
Micropyle
(Pore through which
Monaxon archaeocytes come out and Zoosporangium Germinating
spicules form new colony) (Parent cell) Conidio- conidium
Septa
Outer membrane phore (b)
(a)
Archaeocytes Sporangium Sporangio-
spores
(Small group of
cells enclosed by Oidia
protective coat) Columella
Spiral
Chlamydospores Dehisced
chloroplast Sporangio- sporangium
Hyphae phore
Inner membrane
Stolon
(e) Rhizoidal
(c) (c) (d) hyphae
Fig.: (a) Exogenous budding in Hydra (b) Exogenous budding Fig.: Various types of spores (a) Zoospores (b) Conidia
in yeast (c) Endogenous budding (gemmule) in Spongilla Fig.: Fragmentation in Spirogyra (c) Chlamydospores (d) Oidia (e) Sporangiospores
 R. K. MALIK’S
NEWTON CLASSES

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

 JEE (MAIN & ADV.), MEDICAL
R. K. MALIK’S + BOARD, NDA, FOUNDATION
NEWTON CLASSES

R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

 To MAKE YOUR CONCEPTS CRYSTAL CLEAR
R. K. MALIK’S VISIT OUR YOU TUBE CHANNEL : MATHEMATICS MADE INTERESTING JEE (MAIN & ADV.), MEDICAL
Office.: 606 , 6th Floor, Hariom Tower, Circular Road, Ranchi-1,
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2>=24?C
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@bY]QbicUh_bWQ^c
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R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

$FSWJY

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MVUFVN

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 R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
Type of Germ Type of
Chromosomes
cells Division
No.
Oogonium Mitosis
Multiplication 46
Chromosomes Type of Germ cells Type of Division (2n)
Phase
No.
Spermatogonium Mitosis
Multiplication 46 Additional
(2n)
Phase oogonia (2n)
Growth Phase
Primary 46 Primary
Growth Phase 46 Additional oocyte (2n)
spermatocyte (2n) spermatogonia (2n)
Meiosis I Meiosis I
23 Secondary
spermatocytes (n) Secondary
Maturation Phase 23 First polar
Meiosis II body (n) oocyte (n)
Spermatids Sperm (n)
23 (n) Maturation Phase
Meiosis II
Second polar Male pronucleus
Spermatozoa 23 Mature
bodies (n)
Spermiogenesis (sperms) (n) ovum (n)
23 (All degenerate)
Female pronucleus
Fig.: Stages in spermatogenesis (diagrammatic) Fig.: Stages in oogenesis (diagrammatic)

Inhibits Hypothalamus
GnRH Hypothalamus
and LH GnRH
production Anterior pituitary GnRH
LH Testis FSH Positive Anterior pituitary Negative
Leydig’s cells Sertoli cells feedback feedback
LH/FSH
Testosterone Ovary
Stimulates
Spermato- Estrogen and
Positive Testosterone genesis
Progesterone
feedback
Negative Reproductive tract Inhibin Uterus
feedback and other organs
 To MAKE YOUR CONCEPTS CRYSTAL CLEAR
R. K. MALIK’S VISIT OUR YOU TUBE CHANNEL : MATHEMATICS MADE INTERESTING JEE (MAIN & ADV.), MEDICAL
Office.: 606 , 6th Floor, Hariom Tower, Circular Road, Ranchi-1,
Ph.: 0651-2562523, 9835508812, 8507613968 www.newtonclasses.net
+ BOARD, NDA, FOUNDATION
NEWTON CLASSES
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R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

 To MAKE YOUR CONCEPTS CRYSTAL CLEAR
R. K. MALIK’S VISIT OUR YOU TUBE CHANNEL : MATHEMATICS MADE INTERESTING JEE (MAIN & ADV.), MEDICAL
Office.: 606 , 6th Floor, Hariom Tower, Circular Road, Ranchi-1,
Ph.: 0651-2562523, 9835508812, 8507613968 www.newtonclasses.net
+ BOARD, NDA, FOUNDATION
NEWTON CLASSES
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R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

 NEWTON CLASSES

CONCEPT TRANSLATION
Translation is the process by which a protein or polypeptide is
Ÿ
Translational Machinery
Basic translational machinery is same in eukaryotes and
prokaryotes, however few differences occur. It is composed of

MAP synthesised inside the living cell using mRNA as a template. This
biochemical process is called translation because the information
present in the form of four letter alphabet of nucleic acid is
translated into twenty letter alphabets of proteins.
five components, i.e., mRNA, tRNA, amino acid, enzymes
(aminoacyl tRNA synthetase, peptidyl transferase) and ribosome.
Ÿ In eukaryotes, each mRNA is monocistronic (encodes for only
one polypeptide) whereas in prokaryotes, many mRNAs are
polycistronic (encodes for two or more different polypeptides).
Ÿ Ribosome is the site of protein synthesis. 70S (30S + 50S)
MECHANISM OF TRANSLATION ribosomes are involved in prokaryotic translation while 80S
Ÿ The steps of translation are common in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Three main steps involved in (40S + 60S) ribosomes are involved in eukaryotic translation. The
translation are initiation, elongation and termination. Before initiation amino acids are activated and attached two subunits of ribosomes associate at the time of protein
to tRNAs in two steps called activation of amino acids and charging or aminoacylation of tRNA respectively. synthesis and then separate after the completion of process.
Ÿ In eukaryotes, the initiating amino acid is methionine, not N-formylmethionine (fMet) as in prokaryotes. Ribosomes have three sites; the peptidyl (P) site, aminoacyl (A)
Ÿ The main difference between initiation of translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that in bacteria, a Shine- site and exit (E) site. Eukaryotic ribosomes do not have E-site.
Dalgarno sequence (4 to 9 purine residues, 8 to 13 base pairs to the 5’ side of initiation codon) guides correct Ÿ tRNAs pick up particular amino acids (at CCA or 3’ end) and take
initiation codon (5’ AUG) and is the binding site for the 30S ribosomal subunit. the same to mRNA over particular codons corresponding to their
Ÿ In contrast, most eukaryotic mRNAs do not contain Shine-Dalgarno sequences. Instead, a 40S ribosomal anticodons. Each tRNA contact with ribosome at T y C loop and
subunit attaches at the 5’ end of the mRNA and moves downstream (i.e., in a 5’ to 3’ direction) until it finds the the enzyme aminoacyl tRNA synthetase at DHU loop. Eukaryotic
AUG initiation codon. This process is called scanning. mRNAs have 5’ - cap and poly A tail at 3’ end.

1
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R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI

Activation of amino acid and Charging of tRNA Eukaryotes
Ÿ Amino acids are activated by activating enzymes, aminoacyl tRNA synthetases in presence of ATP to produce 2
aminoacyl-adenylate-enzyme complex. Initiation
Mg2+ Ÿ Eukaryotic cells have atleast nine initiation factors, i.e., eIF2, eIF2B,
AA + ATP + Enzyme AA ~ AMP – E + PPi eIF3, eIF4A, eIF4B, eIF4E, eIF4G, eIF5 and eIF6.
Amino Aminoacyl-adenylate
acid enzyme-complex Ÿ The first step is the formation of a pre-initiation complex
Ÿ This complex reacts with tRNA specific for the amino acid. Amino acid links to 3’ - OH end of tRNA through consisting of the 40S small ribosomal subunit, Met-tRNAiMet , eIF2
and GTP;
its - COOH group to form aminoacyl tRNA complex.
Ÿ The pre-initiation complex now binds to the 5’ end of the eukaryotic
AA ~ AMP – E + tRNA ® AA – tRNA + AMP + E
Charged mRNA, a step that requires eIF4F complex (eIF4A, eIF4E, eIF4G, also
Aminoacyl adenylate
enzyme tRNA called cap binding complex) and eIF3. Thus, this complex intact
both the 5’ and 3’ ends of the mRNA.
Ÿ The eIF4A is a RNA helicase that unwinds any secondary structure of
mRNA, preparing it for translation.
2
Prokaryotes Ÿ The complex now moves along the mRNA in a 5’ to 3’ direction until it
Approaching 50S locates the AUG initiation codon (i.e., scanning of mRNA).
Initiation subunit to form 70S Ÿ Once the complex is positioned over the initiation codon, the 60S
50S
Ÿ 3 initiation factors are required i.e., IF1, large ribosomal subunit binds to form an 80S initiation complex, a
initiation complex
IF2 and IF3. step that requires the hydrolysis of GTP and leads to the release of
Ÿ Initiation begins with the binding of IF1 fMet several initiation factors.
and IF3 to the small (30S) ribosomal

eIF3, 1, 1A
subunit.
Ÿ The small subunit then binds to the GTP
eIF4B eIF5
mRNA via complementary pyrimidine IF2 eIF4E
5’ UA C 3’ Met
rich sequences close to 3’ end of 16S rRNA mRNA AUGUUUGGC CUUGCUA C C GCUU 4G, 4A eIF2
guided by Shine-Dalgarno sequence and 30S Cap
moves 3’ along the mRNA until it locates AUG
IF1 IF3
the AUG initiation codon. 40S
Ÿ The initiator tRNA charged with N-
formlymethionine and a complex of IF2 eIF4E
4G, 4A
and GTP (fMet-tRNAfMet/IF2/GTP) now binds to mRNA and 30S subunit. eIF4B
Ÿ The complex of mRNA, fMet-tRNAfMet, IF1, IF2 and the 30S ribosomal subunit is called the 30S initiation complex. eIF3, 1, 1A Met
Ÿ Structural changes then lead to the ejection of IF1 and IF3 and IF2 now stimulates the association of 50S eIF2 eIF5
subunit of ribosomes. Simultaneously, the GTP bound to IF2 is hydrolysed to GDP and Pi and leading to
release of IF2. This forms 70S initiation complex. Cap AUG
Ÿ When this complex is formed, the ribosome is ready for the elongation phase.

3 3
Elongation A. Elongation
Charged tRNA
Ÿ Elongation requires three factors, i.e., Ÿ The elongation stage of translation in
EF – Tu, EF – Ts and EF – G and enzyme eukaryotes is quite similar to the prokaryotes.
peptidyl transferase. Ÿ It requires three elongation factors, eEF1a,
Ÿ The fMet-tRNAfMet occupies the P site E eEF1bg and eEF2 as counterparts of prokaryotic
site 3’ EF – Tu, EF – Ts and EF – G respectively.
and another aminoacyl tRNA complex
Ribosome ready for mRNA
(aminoacyl tRNA – EF – Tu – GTP) reach at Ÿ The GTP form of EF1a delivers aminoacyl tRNA to
next aminoacyl tRNA P A
A site depending upon the anticodon site site 2 GTP Peptide the A site of the ribosome and EF1bg catalyses the
5’
present on mRNA. EF – Ts and GTP are bond exchange of GTP for bound GDP. eEF2 mediates
required for the regeneration of EF – Tu – 2GDP formation GTP driven translocation similar to prokaryotic
GTP complex. D. B. EF – G.
Ÿ First peptide linkage is now established Ÿ As eukaryotic ribosome do not have E site,
between –COOH group of amino acids at uncharged tRNAs are expelled directly from the
P site and –NH2 group of amino acid at A P site.
Free E E Ÿ The elongated peptide chain or polypeptide
site catalysed by the ezyme peptidyl
tRNA lies in the groove of the larger subunit of
transferase.
Ÿ This produces a dipeptidyl – tRNA in the A P A P A ribosome.
site and now uncharged tRNA f M et
remains bound to the P site. With the help
GDP 4
of EF – G (translocase) dipeptidyl - tRNA
C. Termination
moves from A site to P site. The ribosome GTP
Ÿ Termination in eukaryotes is similar to that in
moves one codon toward the 3’ end of
mRNA (called translocation). Free tRNA prokaryotes.
slips to E site and from there to outside in Ÿ In eukaryotes, a single factor eRF1 recognises
E all three termination codons and with the
the cytoplasm.
Ÿ New codon exposed at A site attract new help of eRF3, ribosomal subunits are released.
aminoacyl tRNA complex and thus P A Ÿ eRF3 prevents the reassociation of ribosomal
peptide chain elongates. subunits in the absence of an initiation complex.

Free
4 Free tRNA polypeptide 50S
Termination Release
Ÿ Termination occurs when a non sense or stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) reaches A site. factor
Ÿ Stop codons are recognised by 2 release factors RF1 and RF2. A third factor RF3
mediates interaction between RF1 or RF2 with the ribosome. 5’
Ÿ RF1 is specific to UAG and UAA. 3’ 3’ mRNA
Ÿ RF2 is specific to UAA and UGA. 3’
Ÿ RFs hydrolyse the terminal peptidyl-tRNA bond, release polypeptide and last tRNA 5’ 5’
Release
from the P site and dissociates two subunits of ribosomes to start new cycle of factor
Stop codon
translation. (UAG, UAA or UGA) 30S
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