Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

Unit 1

Q: Types of network based on geographical coverage along with distance

between inter processor or nodes
Solution:

The different types of distance based networks are PAN, LAN, CAN, MAN & WAN.

The approximate maximum distance between any two communicating computers for each of the
networks is given below:

 PAN (Personal Area Network) – Few meters (within a room, home)

 LAN (Local Area Network) – < 1 km (Intra–Floor, Building)

 CAN (Campus Area Network) – 5 to 10 kms (Within a Campus)

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – within 10 km (Intra-City)

 WAN (Wide Area Network) – > 10 Kms (Inter-City, Inter-National, Inter-Continental)

Local Area Network:

looks like an acronym that a board of directors spent a lot of money and time trying to create,
but it actually stands for any generic local area network. A network is a group of computers and
other devices connected together so they can pass information back and forth.

• The local area network (LAN) is a network which is designed to operate over a small
physical area such as an office, factory or a group of buildings. LANs are very widely
used in a variety of applications.
• LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot. The personal computers and workstations
in the offices are interconnected via LAN.
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• The exchange of information and sharing of resources becomes easy because of LAN.
• Local Area Network technology connects people and machines within a site.
• A LAN is a form of local (limited-distance), shared packet network
for computer communications.
• In LAN all the machines are connected to a single cable. Different types of. Topologies
such as Bus, Ring, Star, Tree etc. are used for LANs.
• LAN uses a layered architecture and they are capable of operating at hundreds of
Mbits/sec.
• A local area network (LAN) is usually a privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building or campus of upto a few kilometers in size.
• Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can
be as simple as two personal computers and a printer in someone's office or home or it
can extend throughout a company and include voice, sound and video peripherals.
• LAN s are widely used to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be shared can be hardware like a printer or softwares or
data.
• A common example of a LAN found in many business organizations, links a work
group of task related computers, e.g. accounting and finance PCs, administrative PCs or
engineering workstations.
• One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the
remaining clients.
• In a LAN its size can be determined by licensing restrictions on the number of users
per copy of software or by restricting the number of users licensed to access
the operating system.
• LAN's are also distinguished from MAN's and WAN's based on the transmission media
they use and topology. In general a given LAN will use only one type of transmission
medium. The most common topologies used are bus, ring and star.
• The term LAN can also refer just to the hardware and software that allows you to
connect all the devices together. In this sense, Local Talk is one kind of LAN, Ethernet is
another. (AppleTalk is the protocol for Local Talk.)
The data rates for LAN range from 4 to 16 Mbps with the maximum of 100 Mbps.

The components used by LANs can be divided into cabling standards, hardware, and
protocols. Various LAN protocols are Ethernet, Token Ring: TCP/IP, 5MB, NetBIOS and
NetBeui, IPX/SPX, Fiber Distributed Data Interchange (FDDI) and Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM).
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LAN Applications and Benefits

LANs are used almost exclusively for data communications over relatively short
distances such as within an office, office building or campus environment. LANs allow
multiple workstations to snare access to multiple host computers, other workstations,
printers and other peripherals, and connections to other networks. LANs are also being
utilized for imaging applications, as well. They are also being used for video and voice
communications, although currently on a very limited basis.

LAN applications include communications between the workstation and host

computers, other workstations, and servers. The servers may allow sharing of resources.
Resources could be information, data files, e-mail, voice mail, software, hardware (hard
disk, printer, fax, etc.) and other networks.

LAN benefits include the fact that a high-speed transmission system can be shared
among multiple devices in support of large number of active terminals and a large
number of active applications in the form of a multi-user, multi-tasking computer
network. LAN-connected workstations realize the benefit of decentralized access to very
substantial centralized processors, perhaps in the form of mainframe host computer and
storage capabilities (information repositories). Additionally, current technology allows
multiple LANs to be inter-networked through the use of LAN switches, routers and the
like.

Disadvantages of LANs include concern for security of files and accounts.

LAN topologies:
Various topologies are possible for the broadcast LANs such as bus topology or ring
topology.
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Bus topology:
• Bus topology is shown in Fig. In this topology at any instant only one computer acts as
master and it is allowed to transmit (broadcast). The others are supposed to listen.
• If two or more machines want to transmit simultaneously then an arbitration
mechanism has to be used for resolving the conflict.
• It is possible to have a centralized or distributed type arbitration mechanism.
• The most popular example of bus topology is Ethernet (IEEE 802.3). It has a
decentralized control and it operates at 10 or 100 Mbps.
• Computers on Ethernet can transmit whenever they want. If collision of their packets
takes place, then they wait for a random time and retransmit their packets.
Ring topology:
• This is another broadcast topology.
• In a ring each bit propagates around on its own without waiting for the rest of the
packet to which it belongs.
• Since it is a broadcast system, some rules are essential for arbitrating the simultaneous
access to the ring.
• An example of ring based LAN is IEEE 802.5 (IBM token ring) operating at 4 and 16
Mbps.
Static and dynamic broadcast networks:
• The broadcast networks are further classified into two types namely,

1. Static networks and

2. Dynamic networks.

• This classification is based on how the channel is allocated.

• In static allocation, each machine is allowed to broadcast only in its allotted time slot.
• But static allocation wastes the channel capacity when a machine does not want to
transmit in its allotted time slot.
• Hence most of the systems try to allocate the channel dynamically i.e. on demand.
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Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is the acronym for, Wide Area Network and refers to a network used to
connect different equipments from remote areas. This technology connects sites that are
in diverse locations. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic area, such
as New York, Canada, or the world. The geographical limit of WAN is unlimited.
Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of
network. Hence, a WAN may be defined as a data communications network that covers
a relatively broad geographic area to connect LANs together between different cities
with the help of transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone
companies. WAN technologies function at the lower three layers.
Normally, network services are provided by a Common Carrier of, for example, telephone
company. Users can use services on rent basis. Available services include telephone network,
leased line, packet switched network, X.25, ISDN, frame relay and cell relay.
WAN is composed of a number of autonomous computers that are distributed over a
large geographical area. LAN can be extended across large distances using Satellite
Bridge but still this cannot accommodate many computers arbitrarily. WAN must be
scalable to long distances and many computers. Therefore, network must replace shared
medium with packet switches to span long distances or many computers. Each switch
moves an entire packet from one connection to another. This mechanism is called
packet switching. These switches are nothing but a small computer with network
interfaces, memory and program dedicated to packet switching function. These packet
switches may connect to computers and to other packet switches, typically high-speed
connections to other packet switches, lower speed to computers. These packet switches
can be linked together to form WANs. WANs need not be symmetric or have regular
connections, i.e. each switch may connect to one or more other switches and one or
more computers.
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Data delivery from one computer to another is accomplished through store and forward
technology. Packet switch stores incoming packet and forwards the packet to another
switch or computer that has internal memory. Therefore, this can hold a packet in queue
if outgoing connection is busy.
• When a network spans a large distance or when the computers to be connected to each
other are at widely separated locations a local area network cannot be used.
• A wide area network (WAN) must be installed. The communication between different
users of "WAN" is established using leased telephone lines or satellite links and similar
channels.
• It is cheaper and more efficient to use the phone network for the links.
• Most wide area networks are used for transferring large blocks of data between its
users. As the data is from existing records or files, the exact time taken for this data
transfer is not a critical parameter.
• Another example of WAN is an airline reservation system. Terminals are located all
over the country through which the reservations can be made .
• It is important to note here that all the terminals use the same common data provided
by the central reservation computer.
• Because of the large distances involved in the wide area networks, the propagation
delays and variable signal travel times are major problems.
• Therefore most wide area networks are not used for time critical applications. They are
more suitable for transfer of data from one user to the other which is not a time critical
application. Wide area networks are basically packet switching networks.
• A WAN provides long distance transmission of data, voice image and
video information over large geographical areas that may comprise a country, a
continent or even the whole world.
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• WAN contains a collection of machines used for running user (i.e. application)
programs. All the machines called hosts are connected by a communication subnet.

• The function of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host. The subnet consists
of two important components; transmission lines and switching elements.
• Transmission lines move bits from one machine to another. The switching elements
are specialized computers used to connect two or more transmission lines. When data
arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an outgoing line to
forward them.
• The switching elements are either called as packet switching nodes, intermediate
systems, data switching exchanges or routers.
• When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more intermediate
routers, the packet is received at intermediate router. It is stored in the routers until the
required output line is free and then forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called a
point to point, store-forward or packet switched subnet.
• WAN's may use public, leased or private communication devices, and can spread over
a wide geographical area. A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is
often called as an enterprise network.
• In most WANs the network contains a large number of cables or telephone lines each
one connecting a pair of routers.
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• If two routers which are not connected to each other via a cable want to communicate,
then they have to do it indirectly via other routers.

Packet switching technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame

Relay, Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS), and X.25 are used to implement
WAN along with statistical multiplexing to enable devices to share these circuits.

Packet switched subnet

• When a packet is sent from one router to the other, via some intermediate routers, the
packet received at each intermediate router is stored until the required output line is
free.
• Once the line becomes free, the packet is forwarded.
• A subnet working on this principle is called as point to point or store and forward or
packet switched subnet.
• If the packets are small and of same size they are called as cells.

Router interconnection topologies

• Fig. shows some of the possible router interconnection topologies in a point to point
subnet.

• The LANs have a symmetric topology while WANs have irregular topologies.
• The WAN s can also be formed using satellite or ground radio system. Satellite
networks are inherently broadcast type so they are useful when the broadcast property is
important.

Difference between WAN and LAN

With LAN additional expanses are rarely required once it is installed. With WAN, users
must continue to pay a communication cost to their contracted common carrier.
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 WAN is generally slower in transmission speed. Requesting the same level of speed as
with LAN leads to a substantial increase in communication costs.
 The Satellite Bridge can extend LAN across large distances while in case of the WAN, it
spans over a wide geographical area.
 LAN still can not accommodate arbitrarily many computers; WAN must be scalable to
long distances and many computers.

Q: Architecture of MESH, Star, Bus Topology

The term Network Topology defines the geographic Physical or logical
arrangement of computer networking devices. The term Topology refers to the
way in which the various nodes or computers of a network are linked together. It
describes the actual layout of the computer network hardware. Two or more devices
connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. Topology determines the data
paths that may be used between any pair of devices of the network.
The selection of a Network Topology for a network can not be done in isolation as it
affects the choice of media and the access method used. Because it determines the
strategy used in wiring a building for a network and deserves some careful study.

The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:

1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
4. Bandwidth capacity
5. Ease of installation
6. Ease of troubleshooting
7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.

Types of Topologies
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Basic Network Topology

The three simple Topology that are combined to form a basic Network Topology.
They are, Bus Topology, Ring and Star Topology.
Bus Topology
The physical Bus Network Topology is the simplest and most widely used of the
network designs. It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) that is
shared by all the nodes in the network and a terminating resistor (terminator) at
each end that absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of line. Without a terminator
the electrical signal would reach the end of copper wire and bounce back, causing errors
on the network.
Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked
up by a workstation or server NIC. If the message is missed or not recognized, it reaches
the end of the cabling and dissipates at the terminator. Bus Network Topology
requires a multipoint connection.
All nodes on the bus topology have equal access to the trunk. This is accomplished using
short drop cables or direct T-connectors. The number of devices and the length of the
trunk can be easily expanded.
Advantages of Bus Topology
The advantages of physical bus topology are:
1. It uses established standards and it is relatively easy to install and the use for small
networks.
2. It requires less media than other topologies.
3. Failure of one node does not affect the network functioning.
2. Cost is less as only one main cable is required and least amount of cable is required to
connect computers.
4. Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by using a connector.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
The disadvantages of bus Topology are:
1. If the main central line fails the entire network collapses.
2. The bus networks are difficult to reconfigure, especially when the acceptable number of
connections or maximum distances have been reached.
3. They are also difficult to troubleshoot because everything happens on a single media
segment. This can have dangerous consequences because any break in the cabling brings
the network to its knee.
4. Sharing a single communication channel results in slower access time.
5. In this topology, higher network traffic slows down the bus speed. Only one device
transmits at a time, other devices wait for their turn. As a result there is no coordination
between the devices for reservation of transmission time slots, so data collisions are
frequent.
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Star Topology
The physical star Topology uses a central controlling or hub with dedicated legs
pointing in all directions – like points of a star. Each network device has a dedicated
point-to-point link to the central hub. There is no direct link between these computers
and the computers can communicate via central controller only. This strategy prevents
troublesome collisions and keeps the lines of communications open and free of traffic.
The routing function is performed by the central controller which centrally controls
communication between any two computers by establishing a logical path between
them. It means that if one computer A wants to send data to another computer
B, Computer A sends the data to the controller & this controller then sends the data to
computer B.

This Topology, obviously, require a great deal of cabling. This design provides an
excellent platform for reconfiguration and trouble-shooting. Changes to the network
are as simple as plugging another segment into the hub and a break in the LAN is easy to
isolate and doesn't affect the rest of the network.
Advantages of Star Topology
The benefits of star topology are:
1. It is easier to add new node or modify any existing node without disturbing
network i.e. expansion is easier.
2. Addition of new node does not increase communication delay.
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

3. If any local computer or link fails, the entire system does not collapse. Only that link
or computer is affected.
4. It is easy to find device and cable problems i.e. fault identification and isolation is
easier.
5. Media faults are automatically isolated to the failed segment.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
The disadvantages are considered as follows:
1. If the central controller or hub fails, entire system collapses.
2. Cabling cost is more as each node is connected individually to the hub.
3. Requires more cable than most topologies
4. Moderately difficult to install

Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, each node is connected to every other node in the network i.e. each
node has a dedicated point to point link to every other node as shown. Dedicated means
that the link carries the traffic only between two devices it connects.
In this way there exist multiple paths between two nodes of the network. In case of
failure of one path, the other one can be used.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. It is robust as the failure of one node does not collapse the entire system. If one link
fails, the entire system continues to work.
2. There is no traffic congestion problem as dedicated links are being used.
3. Dedicated links ensure faster transmission without any delay.
4. Dedicated links also ensure data privacy and security.
5. Point to point links makes fault identification and isolation easier.
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Connecting each device to every other device in the network makes installation and
reconfiguration difficult.
2. It has high cabling cost as n (n-l)/2 links are required to connect n nodes.

Q: Compare OSI and TCP/ IP

Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference
Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet

Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
standard, acting as a communication which the Internet has developed. It is a
gateway between the network and end user. communication protocol, which allows connection of
hosts over a network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model
is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer
layer and Session layer. or Session layer.

5. OSI is a reference model around which 5. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the
the networks are built. Generally it is used OSI model.
as a guidance tool.

6. Network layer of OSI model provides 6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
both connection oriented and connectionless service.
connectionless service.
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

7. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.

8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and 8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
are easily replaced as the technology
changes.

9. OSI model defines services, interfaces 9. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
and protocols very clearly and makes clear clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
distinction between them. It is protocol
independent.

10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers

Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP

Reference Model
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 Circuit Switching: Three Phases

A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A
connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. However, each
connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is normally divided into n
channels by using FDM or TDM . A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected
by physical links, in which each link is divided into n channels. Figure 8.3 shows a trivial circuit-
switched network with four switches and four links. Each link is divided into n (n is 3 in the
figure) channels by using FDM or TDM.

Figure 8.3 A trivial circuit-switched network

We have explicitly shown the multiplexing symbols to emphasize the division of the link into
channels even though multiplexing can be implicitly included in the switch fabric. The end systems,
such as computers or telephones, are directly connected to a switch. We have shown only two end
systems for simplicity. When end system A needs to communicate with end system M, system A
needs to request a connection to M that must be accepted by all switches as well as by M itself. This
is called the setup phase; a circuit (channel) is reserved on each link, and the combination of circuits
or channels defines the dedicated path. After the dedicated path made of connected circuits
(channels) is established, data transfer can take place. After all data have been transferred, the
circuits are tom down. We need to emphasize several points here:
 Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
 Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation for the resources to be
used during the communication. These resources, such as channels (bandwidth in FDM and
time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and switch input/output ports,
must remain dedicated during the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase.
 Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized (physical layer transfer of the
signal). The data are a continuous flow sent by the source station and received by the
destination station, although there may be periods of silence.
 There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The switches route the data based on
their occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM). Of course, there is end-toend addressing
used during the setup phase, as we will see shortly. In circuit switching, the resources need to
be reserved during the setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration
of data transfer until the teardown phase.
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

Example 8.1
As a trivial example, let us use a circuit-switched network to connect eight telephones in a small area.
Communication is through 4-kHz voice channels. We assume that each link uses FDM to connect a maximum
of two voice channels. The bandwidth of each link is then 8 kHz. Figure 8.4 shows the situation. Telephone 1
is connected to telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to 8; and 4 to 6. Of course the situation may change when new
connections are made. The switch controls the connections.

Figure 8.4 Circuit-switched network used in Example 8.1

Example 8.2
As another example, consider a circuit-switched network that connects computers in two remote offices of a
private company. The offices are connected using a T-l line leased from a communication service provider.
There are two 4 X 8 (4 inputs and 8 outputs) switches in this network. For each switch, four output ports are
folded into the input ports to allow communication between computers in the same office. Four other output
ports allow communication between the two offices. Figure 8.5 shows the situation.

Figure 8.5 Circuit-switched network used in Example 8.2

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Three Phases
The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires three phases: connection
setup, data transfer, and connection teardown.

 Setup Phase
Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call) can communicate, a dedicated
circuit (combination of channels in links) needs to be established. The end systems are normally
connected through dedicated lines to the switches, so connection setup means creating dedicated
channels between the switches. For example, in Figure 8.3, when system A needs to connect to
system M, it sends a setup request that includes the address of system M, to switch I. Switch I
finds a channel between itself and switch IV that can be dedicated for this purpose. Switch I then
sends the request to switch IV, which finds a dedicated channel between itself and switch III.
Switch III informs system M of system A's intention at this time.
In the next step to making a connection, an acknowledgment from system M needs to be sent in
the opposite direction to system A. Only after system A receives this acknowledgment is the
connection established. Note that end-to-end addressing is required for creating a connection
between the two end systems. These can be, for example, the addresses of the computers
assigned by the administrator in a TDM network, or telephone numbers in an FDM network.
 Data Transfer Phase
After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties can transfer data.
 Teardown Phase
When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release the
resources.
Efficiency
It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types of
networks because resources are allocated during the entire duration of the connection. These
resources are unavailable to other connections. In a telephone network, people normally
terminate the communication when they have finished their conversation. However, in computer
networks, a computer can be connected to another computer even if there is no activity for a long
time. In this case, allowing resources to be dedicated means that other connections are deprived.
Delay
Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in this type of
network is minimal. During data transfer the data are not delayed at each switch; the resources
are allocated for the duration of the connection. Figure 8.6 shows the idea of delay in a circuit-
switched network when only two switches are involved. As Figure 8.6 shows, there is no waiting
time at each switch. The total delay is due to the time needed to create the connection, transfer
data, and disconnect the circuit. The
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Figure 8.6 Delay in a circuit-switched network

delay caused by the setup is the sum of four parts: the propagation time of the source computer
request (slope of the first gray box), the request signal transfer time (height of the first gray box),
the propagation time of the acknowledgment from the destination computer (slope of the second
gray box), and the signal transfer time of the acknowledgment (height of the second gray box).
The delay due to data transfer is the sum of two parts: the propagation time (slope of the colored
box) and data transfer time (height of the colored box), which can be very long. The third box
shows the time needed to tear down the circuit. We have shown the case in which the receiver
requests disconnection, which creates the maximum delay.
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Unit 2

 Process to Process, End to End and Hop to Hop Delivery

Process to Process :

Process to Process Delivery:

* UDP and TCP are transport-layer protocols that create a process-to-process communication.
* UDP is an unreliable and connectionless protocol that requires little overhead and offers fast
delivery.
* In the client-server paradigm, an application program on the local host, called the client, needs
services from an application program on the remote host, called a server.
* Each application program has a unique port number that distinguishes it from other programs
running at the same time on the same machine.
* The client program is assigned a random port number called the ephemeral port number.
* The server program is assigned a universal port number called a well-known port number.
* The combination of the IP address and the port number, called the socket address, uniquely
defines a process and a host.
* The UDP packet is called a user datagram.
* UDP has no flow control mechanism.
* Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented, reliable, stream transport-layer
protocol in the Internet model.
* The unit of data transfer between two devices using TCP software is called a segment; it has 20
to 60 bytes of header, followed by data from the application program.
* TCP uses a sliding window mechanism for flow control.
* Error detection is handled in TCP by the checksum, acknowledgment, and time-out.
* Corrupted and lost segments are retransmitted, and duplicate segments are discarded.
* TCP uses four timers—retransmission, persistence, keep-alive, and time-waited—in its
operation.
* Connection establishment requires three steps; connection termination normally requires four
steps.
* TCP software is implemented as a finite state machine.
* The TCP window size is determined by the receiver.
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Hop-by-hop transport is a principle of controlling the flow of data in a network.

With hop-by-hop transport, chunks of data are forwarded from node to node in a store-
and-forwardmanner.
As hop-by-hop transport involves not only the source and destination node, but rather
some or all of the intermediate nodes as well, it allows data to be forwarded even if the
path between source and destination is not permanently connected during
communication.
However, the End-to-end principle claims that transport control should be implemented
end-to-end unless implementing hop-by-hop transport achieves considerably better
performance. Moreover, hop-by-hop transport requires per-flow state information at
intermediate nodes, which limits its scalability. This is one of the reasons why almost all
communication today is controlled by end-to-end transport protocols such as TCP.
Current research in the area of sparse mobile networks is considering hop-by-hop
transport for application scenarios where end-to-end connectivity is only available
intermittently, as under such conditions, hop-by-hop transport can achieve substantial
performance gains.

End to End Communication:

The fundamental notion behind the end-to-end principle is that for
two processes communicating with each other via some communication means,
the reliability obtained from that means cannot be expected to be perfectly aligned with
the reliability requirements of the processes. In particular, meeting or exceeding very
high reliability requirements of communicating processes separated by networks of
nontrivial size is more costly than obtaining the required degree of reliability by positive
end-to-end acknowledgements and retransmissions (referred to as PAR or ARQ).[nb 3] Put
differently, it is far easier to obtain reliability beyond a certain margin by mechanisms in
the end hosts of a network rather than in the intermediary nodes,[nb 4] especially when the
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latter are beyond the control of and accountability to the former.[nb 5] A positive end-to-
end acknowledgements with infinite retries can obtain arbitrarily high reliability from any
network with a higher than zero probability of successfully transmitting data from one
end to another.[nb 6]
The end-to-end principle does not trivially extend to functions beyond end-to-end error
control and correction. E.g., no straightforward end-to-end arguments can be made for
communication parameters such as latency and throughput.
The basic notion: reliability from unreliable parts[edit]
In the 1960s, Paul Baran and Donald Davies, in their pre-ARPANET elaborations of
networking, made brief comments about reliability that capture the essence of the later
end-to-end principle. To quote from a 1964 Baran paper, "Reliability and raw error rates
are secondary. The network must be built with the expectation of heavy damage anyway.
Powerful error removal methods exist."[9]:5 Similarly, Davies notes on end-to-end error
control, "It is thought that all users of the network will provide themselves with some
kind of error control and that without difficulty this could be made to show up a missing
packet. Because of this, loss of packets, if it is sufficiently rare, can be tolerated."[10]:2.3
The French CYCLADES network was the first to make the hosts responsible for the
reliable delivery of data.

 Need of Flow control and Error Control protocols

Data link layer is layer 2 in OSI model. It is responsible for communications between adjacent
network nodes. It handles the data moving in and out across the physical layer. It also provides a
well defined service to the network layer. Data link layer is divided into two sub layers. The
Media Access Control (MAC) and logical Link Control (LLC).
Data-Link layer ensures that an initial connection has been set up, divides output data into data
frames, and handles the acknowledgements from a receiver that the data arrived successfully. It
also ensures that incoming data has been received successfully by analyzing bit patterns at
special places in the frames.
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

In the following sections data link layer's functions- Error control and Flow control has been
discussed. After that MAC layer is explained. Multiple access protocols are explained in the
MAC layer section.

Flow Control

Flow Control is one important design issue for the Data Link Layer that controls the flow of data
between sender and receiver.

In Communication, there is communication medium between sender and receiver. When Sender
sends data to receiver than there can be problem in below case :

1) Sender sends data at higher rate and receive is too sluggish to support that data rate.

To solve the above problem, FLOW CONTROL is introduced in Data Link Layer. It also
works on several higher layers. The main concept of Flow Control is to
introduce EFFICIENCY in Computer Networks.

Approaches of Flow Control

1. Feed back based Flow Control

2. Rate based Flow Control

Feed back based Flow Control is used in Data Link Layer and Rate based Flow Control is used
in Network Layer.

Feed back based Flow Control

In Feed back based Flow Control, Until sender receives feedback from the receiver, it will not
send next data.

Types of Feedback based Flow Control

A. Stop-and-Wait Protocol

B. Sliding Window Protocol

1. A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol

2. A Protocol Using Go Back N
3. A Protocol Using Selective Repeat
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

Error Control
Network is responsible for transmission of data from one device to another device. The end to
end transfer of data from a transmitting application to a receiving application involves many
steps, each subject to error. With the error control process, we can be confident that the
transmitted and received data are identical. Data can be corrupted during transmission. For
reliable communication, error must be detected and corrected.
Error control is the process of detecting and correcting both the bit level and packet level errors.
Types of Errors
Single Bit Error
The term single bit error means that only one bit of the data unit was changed from 1 to 0 and 0
to 1.
Burst Error
In term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit were changed. Burst error is also
called packet level error, where errors like packet loss, duplication, reordering.
Error Detection
Error detection is the process of detecting the error during the transmission between the sender
and the receiver.
Types of error detection

 Parity checking
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Checksum
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

Unit 3

 Channel allocation and types of access

channel allocation schemes allocate bandwidth and communication channels to base stations,
access points and terminal equipment. The objective is to achieve maximum system spectral
efficiency in bit/s/Hz/site by means of frequency reuse, but still assure a certain grade of
service by avoiding co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference among nearby
cells or networks that share the bandwidth.
In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or multiple access
method allows several terminals connected to the same multi-point transmission medium to
transmit over it and to share its capacity.[1] Examples of shared physical media are wireless
networks, bus networks, ring networks and point-to-point links operating in half-duplex mode.
A channel-access scheme is based on a multiplexing method, that allows several data streams or
signals to share the same communication channel or physical medium. In this context,
multiplexing is provided by the physical layer.[a]
A channel-access scheme is also based on a multiple access protocol and control mechanism,
also known as media access control (MAC). Media access control deals with issues such as
addressing, assigning multiplex channels to different users, and avoiding collisions. Media
access control is a sub-layer in Layer 2 (data link layer) of the OSI model and a component of
the link layer of the TCP/IP model.
These numerous channel access schemes which generally fall into the following categories:[2][3][1]

Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

The frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) channel-access scheme is based on

the frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) scheme, which provides different frequency bands to
different data-streams. In the FDMA case, the data streams are allocated to different nodes or
devices. An example of FDMA systems were the first-generation (1G) cell-phone systems,
where each phone call was assigned to a specific uplink frequency channel, and another
downlink frequency channel. Each message signal (each phone call) is modulatedon a
specific carrier frequency.

A related technique is wavelength division multiple access (WDMA), based on wavelength-

division multiplexing (WDM), where different datastreams get different colors in fiber-optical
communications. In the WDMA case, different network nodes in a bus or hub network get a
different color.

An advanced form of FDMA is the orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA)

scheme, for example used in 4G cellular communication systems. In OFDMA, each node may
use several sub-carriers, making it possible to provide different quality of service (different data
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

rates) to different users. The assignment of sub-carriers to users may be changed dynamically,
based on the current radio channel conditions and traffic load.

Time division multiple access (TDMA)

The time division multiple access (TDMA) channel access scheme is based on the time-division
multiplexing (TDM) scheme, which provides different time-slots to different data-streams (in the
TDMA case to different transmitters) in a cyclically repetitive frame structure. For example,
node 1 may use time slot 1, node 2 time slot 2, etc. until the last transmitter. Then it starts all
over again, in a repetitive pattern, until a connection is ended and that slot becomes free or
assigned to another node. An advanced form is Dynamic TDMA (DTDMA), where a scheduling
may give different time sometimes but some times node 1 may use time slot 1 in first frame and
use another time slot in next frame.

As an example, 2G cellular systems are based on a combination of TDMA and FDMA. Each
frequency channel is divided into eight timeslots, of which seven are used for seven phone calls,
and one for signalling data.

Statistical time division multiplexing multiple-access is typically also based on time-domain

multiplexing, but not in a cyclically repetitive frame structure. Due to its random character it can
be categorised as statistical multiplexing methods, making it possible to provide dynamic
bandwidth allocation. This requires a media access control (MAC) protocol, i.e. a principle for
the nodes to take turns on the channel and to avoid collisions. Common examples
are CSMA/CD, used in Ethernet bus networks and hub networks, and CSMA/CA, used in
wireless networks such as IEEE 802.11.

Code division multiple access (CDMA)/Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA)

The code division multiple access (CDMA) scheme is based on spread spectrum, meaning that a
wider radio spectrum in Hertz is used than the data rate of each of the transferred bit streams, and
several message signals are transferred simultaneously over the same carrier frequency, utilizing
different spreading codes. The wide bandwidth makes it possible to send with a very poor signal-
to-noise ratio of much less than 1 (less than 0 dB) according to the Shannon-Heartly formula,
meaning that the transmission power can be reduced to a level below the level of the noise and
co-channel interference (cross talk) from other message signals sharing the same frequency.

One form is direct sequence spread spectrum (DS-CDMA), used for example in 3G cell phone
systems. Each information bit (or each symbol) is represented by a long code sequence of several
pulses, called chips. The sequence is the spreading code, and each message signal (for example
each phone call) uses a different spreading code.
 Data Communication Network (NNK) PRMITR

Another form is frequency-hopping (FH-CDMA), where the channel frequency is changing very
rapidly according to a sequence that constitutes the spreading code. As an example,
the Bluetooth communication system is based on a combination of frequency-hopping and either
CSMA/CA statistical time division multiplexing communication (for data communication
applications) or TDMA (for audio transmission). All nodes belonging to the same user (to the
same virtual private area network or piconet) use the same frequency hopping sequence
synchronously, meaning that they send on the same frequency channel, but CDMA/CA or
TDMA is used to avoid collisions within the VPAN. Frequency-hopping is used to reduce the
cross-talk and collision probability between nodes in different VPANs.

Subdivisions of FH-CDMA are "fast hopping" where the frequency of hopping is much higher
than the message frequency content and "slow hopping" where the hopping frequency is
comparable to message frequency content. The subdivision is necessary as they are considerably
different.

Numerical: A slotted ALOHA channel has an average 10% of the slots idle.

a. What is offered traffic G?

b. What is the throughput?
c. Is the channel overloaded?
Solution:

For slotted ALOHA channel,

a) Probability of single transmission during a slot time = 𝒆−𝑮

10% = 𝒆−𝑮
0.1 = 𝒆−𝑮
Taking log
-G= -2.3
G = 2.3
b) 𝑆 = 𝐺. 𝑒 −𝐺
= 2.3 * 𝒆−𝟐.𝟑
= 0.23
c) For Slotted ALOHA, S is maximum at G=1
Here G = 2.3 and S = 0.23, G is way beyond 1, Hence channel is overloaded

(Kindly refer Printed notes and Class notes for remaining questions)