Glossary of Terms

Accuracy - The degree to which an indicated value matches the actual value of a measured variable.
In instrumentation, the ratio of the error to the full-scale output, usually measured as + ___ percent
of full-scale output.

Actuator - A part of the final control element that translates the control signal into action of the
final control device in the process. A device that actuates a final control element such as a control
valve.

Analog - Any continuously variable physical quantity. Voltage, current, and resistance are all analog
quantities, and can be expressed as continuous waveforms.

Analog-to-digital (A/D) converter - A device that converts analog information (voltage, frequency,
resistance, etc.) to approximate corresponding digital information.

Bourdon tube - A pressure sensing element consisting of a twisted tube of noncircular cross section
closed at one end. When a process stream is routed to the open end of the tube, any increase in the
pressure will cause the tube to unwind.

Bridge circuit - An electronic network in which an input voltage is applied across two parallel
elements and an output voltage -- to an indicating device -- is taken across two intermediate points
on the parallel elements. A bridge circuit is used to determine an unknown resistance. Typically
used with strain gages, and RTDs.

Buoyancy - The tendency of a fluid to lift any body submerged in the fluid. The amount of force
applied to the body equals the product of the fluid density and the volume of the body displaced.

Bus - A group of wires or conductors considered to be a single entity. A common connector circuit,
usually multiwire, for transfer of power, data, etc. between several modules on the bus.

Capacitance - The ability of a condensor to store a charge before the terminals reach a potential
difference of one volt.

Capacitor - A device used to store an electric charge.

Capillary - A tube with a very small diameter .

Cascade control - A type control action in which the output of one controller is the setpoint of
another controller. The purpose of this type of control is to reduce the effects of disturbances on the
primary control parameter and to improve performance of the primary loop.

Coefficient of linear expansion - A constant that defines the degree of expansion that will take
place per degree Centigrade of temperature increase. For example, the coefficient for aluminium is
25 x 10-6 / degC.

Controlled variable - The variable that the control system attempts to keep at the set point value.
The set point may be constant or variable.

Control valve - Any valve that controls pressure, flow rate, or flow direction in a fluid or gas-filled
system. The control valve is a final control element that adjusts the size of the flow passage as

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directed by a signal from the controller to modify the rate of flow of the fluid.

Controller - A device that operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable. An automatic

controller varies its output signal in response to changes in the measured variable. The output of a
manual controller can be varied only by manual adjustment.

Data highway - A communications link between separate stations. It eliminates the need for
separately wired datalinks. Each station on a highway can function independently.

Dead band - The range through which an input can be varied without causing a measurable
response. Dead band is usually expressed in percent of span.

Derivative control action (rate) - A type of control action in which the output is proportional to the
rate of change of the input.

Diaphragm - A sensing element consisting of a thin, usually circular disc that is deformed by a
difference in pressure. The device is usually supported around the edges, and the center of the disc
moves in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the disc.

Digital - The use of binary digits (1's and 0's) to represent continuous values or discrete states.

Direct Digital Control (DDC) - A computer control technique that sets the final control element's
position directly by computer output. The computer carries out functions normally performed by a
controller.

Distributed control system (DCS) - A system of dividing plant or process control into several areas
of responsibility, each managed by its own controller, with the whole system connected to form a
single entity, usually by means of communication buses.

Electronic transmission - A transmission system that uses the flow of electric current (usually 4 -
20 milliamperes) to transmit output or input signals.

Feedback - The process signal used in control as a measure of response to control action.

Feedback control loop - A signal path which includes a forward path, a feedback path, and a
summing point.

Feedforward control - A method of control in which information concerning one or more

conditions that can disturb the controlled variable is converted, outside of any feedback loop, into
corrective action to minimize deviations of the controlled variable.

Governor - A device that automatically regulates the speed or power of another device (typically an
internal combustion or steam engine).

Heat sink - Any device used primarily to absorb heat from, and thereby protect, another device from
damage due to excessive heat.

Hydraulic - Any device or operation that uses pressure or flow of oil, water, or other liquid of low
viscosity.

Hydrostatic head - The pressure created by the height of a liquid above a given point.

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Integral action - A type of controller function wherein the ouput (control) signal or action is a time
integral of the input (sensor) signal.

Magnetic flowmeter - A device that uses magnetic effects to measure the flow rate of conductive
liquids. This type of flowmeter presents very little obstruction to the flow of the liquid being
measured.

Manometer - A gage for measuring pressure or pressure differences. The U-tube manometer
consists of two legs, each containing a liquid of known specific gravity.

Manipulated variable - The quantity or condition that is varied as a function of the actuating error
signal in order to change the value of the directly controlled variable.

Measured variable - A quantity, property, or condition that is measured. Also referred to as the
measurand. The part of the process that is measured.

Microprocessor - A very large-scale integrated circuit that has all the functions of a computer
except for memory and input/output systems

Noise - An unwanted component of a signal. Meaningless signals similar to radio static. Some noise
interferes with the correct output of a signal.

Offset - A sustained deviation of the controlled variable from setpoint. Offset is caused by load
changes and is inherent in the use of proportional controllers that do not incorporate reset action.

Pascal's Law - Whenever an external pressure is applied to any confined fluid at rest, the pressure is
increased at every point in the fluid by the amount of the external pressure. A practical application
of this law is a hydraulic press.

Piezoelectric effect - The generation of an electric potential when pressure is applied to certain
crystallized materials.

Pneumatic - A device that converts the enrgy of a compressed fluid (typically air) into motion.

Positioner - A device that can be used to modify the action of a valve, extend the stroke/controller
signal, increase the pressure to the valve actuator, or modify the control valve flow characteristics.

Precision - The degree of reproducibility among several independent measurements.

Process - A physical or chemical change of matter, or conversion of energy.

Process control - The regulation or manipulation of variables influencing a process in such a way to
obtain the desired quantity and quality of product in an efficient manner.

Programmable logic controller (PLC) - A microprocessor-based controller that has multiple

inputs and outputs, and that contains an alterable program. A PLC has a user programmable memory
for storage of instructions to implement specific functions such as input/output control, timing,
counting and control.

Proportional band - The change in input required to produce a full range change in output due to
proportional control action. This value is the reciprocal of the proportional gain.

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Proportional control action - Corrective action which is proportional to the error. The change of
the manipulated variable is equal to the gain of the proportional controller multiplied by the error
(activating signal).

Proportional gain - The ratio of the change in output due proportional control action to the change
in input

Proportional-plus-integral control action - Control action in which the output is proportional to

the linear combination of the input and the time integral of the input.

Rangeability - Describes the relationship between range and the minimum quantity that can be
measured. Installed rangeability may be defined as the ratio of maximum to minimum flow that
within which limits the deviation from a desired flow characteristic does not exceed some stated
limit.

Ratio control - A method of control in which a predetermined ratio between two or more variables
is maintained. Commonly used when mixing two or more materials.

Resistance temperature detector (RTD) - A component of a resistance thermometer consisting of

a material whose electrical resistance is a known function of temperature.

Semiconductor - Materials (silicon, germanium, etc.) used as the basis for sensing elements whose
resistances to electric current fall between that of conductors and insulators.

Sensitivity - The ratio of the change in output to the change in input that causes it after the steady-
state has been reached. Also, the smallest changed in actual value of a measured quantity that will
produce an observable change in an instrument's indicated output.

Sensor - The part of the loop or instrument that senses the value of a process variable and sends a
corresponding predetermined output. The device may be part of another device (a transmitter, for
example) or may be separate. It is also known as a "detector" or "primary element".

Smart device - Any microprocessor based device that can be programmed; has a memory; can
perform calculations; perform self-diagnostics; reports faults; and can be communicated with from a
remote location. A smart transmitter can be programmed with the type of sensor, range, can linearize
the signal, and can correct for errors due to ambient temperature.

Smart transmitter - A microprocessor-based transmitter that can be programmed; has a memory;

can perform calculations; perform self-diagnostics; reports faults; and can be communicated with
from a remote location.

Setpoint - An input variable that sets the desired value of the controlled variable. The set point may
set manually or automatically. Also, the position at which the control point setting mechanism is set.
This is the same as the desired value of the controlled.

Specific gravity (S.G.) - A unitless number that is the ratio of the density of a material to the
density of a standard. Water (at 60 F) is the standard for liquids. Air (at standard conditions) is the
standard for gases.

Supervisory control - A method of control in which a computer generates setpoints for controllers.

Thermistor - A temperature transducer constructed of semiconductor material and for which the

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temperature is converted into a resistance.

Thermocouple - A temperature measuring instrument that develops an electric voltage due to the
joining together of two dissimilar wires. The voltage generated is proportional to temperature when
the junction of the wires are heated.

Time constant - The length of time required for the output of a transducer to rise to 63.2 percent of
its final value as a result of a step change in the measurand.

Torque - A rotary force, such as that applied by a rotating shaft at any point on its axis of rotation.

Transducer - A device that receives information in one form and converts it to another form. The
transducer may also serve as a signal converter.

Transmitter - A transducer that responds to a measured variable by means of a sensing element and
converts it to a standardized transmission signal that is a function of the measured variable. The
sensor may or may not be part of the transmitter.

Trial and error tuning - Trial

Valve - A device used for the control of fluid flow. Valves can interrupt flow, regulate flow, or
divert flow.

Variable - A physical quantity or property that can be measured. Also known as the measurand.

Ziegler-Nichols method - A method used to determine the optimum controller settings when tuning
a process control loop. It is based on finding the proportional gain that causes instability in a closed
loop.

1. Measurement Devices
Measurement devices perform a complete measuring function, from initial detection to final
indication. Two important aspects of a measurement system are the sensor and the transmitter. A
third is the transducer.

Here are definitions of these three terms:

 Sensor: Primary sensing element

 Transducer: Changes one instrument signal value to another instrument signal value
 Transmitter: Contains the transducer and produces an amplified, standardized instrument
signal

1.1 Sensor, Transmitter and Transducer

You may wish to refer again to the figure in the Introduction to clarify the role of sensors,
transmitters and transducers. The sensor is the primary sensing element and exists in close proximity
to the process. The sensor measures the controlled variable in the process and sends a non-
standardized signal to the transmitter.

The transmitter contains a transducer which converts the non-standardized signal of the sensor into a
standardized form that it amplifies. The most common standardized forms are either 4-20 milliamps
or 3-15 psi. If digital signals are being used, the transmitter converts the signal to digital. If it is

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a smart device (which will be covered later) the transmitter may convert the signal into two signals,
both an analog signal and a digital signal, before sending them out. Smart devices also have the
ability to superimpose a digital signal over an analog signal.

Transducers convert one instrument signal value to another, usually a pneumatic signal to an
electronic signal (pressure to current, abbreviated "P to I") or an electronic signal to a pneumatic
signal (I to P). Technically, sensors and transmitters are transducers because their basic function is
to translate a signal. However, to clarify specifically how they function the various elements are
referred to individually (sensor, thermocouple, transmitter, etc.) and the term "transducer is reserved
for a device that converts I to P or P to I.
2. Primary Measuring Element Selection and Characteristics
When selecting the sensor, there are a number of factors to keep in mind. Knowing these factors in
advance, and the needs of the process, saves a buyer time and money. Before any of these factors
can be considered, the intended use of the sensor must be known. Once that is established, several
factors should be considered:

 Range: What is the normal range over which the controlled variable might vary? Are there
extremes to this?
 Response time: The amount of time required for a sensor to completely respond to a change
in its input.
 Accuracy: How close the sensor comes to indicating the actual value of the measured
variable?
 Precision: How consistent the sensor is in measuring the same value under the same
operating conditions over a period of time?
 Sensitivity: How small a change in the controlled variable the sensor can measure?
 Dead band: How much of a change to the process is required before the sensor responds to
the change?
 Costs: What are the costs involved - not simply the purchase cost, but also the
installed/operating costs?
 Installation problems: Are there special installation problems, e.g., corrosive fluids,
explosive mixtures, size and shape constraints, remote transmission questions, etc.?

2.1 Range
Range is the region in which the controlled variable might vary, in both normal and extreme
situations? For instance, if a process normally has a pressure of between 200 and 300 pounds per
square inch, a sensor that measures from 100 to 400 pounds would be desirable; this allows for
extreme conditions to be measured as well as normal ones. A broad range also allows the operator
time to respond when measurements occur outside the norm. Ideally, a process should be 40 to 60,
or 30 to 70 percent of the range most of the time and under normal operating conditions.
2.2 Response time
Response time is the amount of time required for a sensor to respond completely to a change in
input. The response time of the control loop is the combination of the responses of all the parts,
including the sensor. An important objective of control system design is to match correctly the time
responses of the control system (and its measurement systems) to that of the process. In general, a
system with a quicker response time will be more expensive.

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Sensor Response Time (Time Constant)

This figure shows a key principle of sensor response time. It illustrates that in a fixed amount of
time, known as the "time constant," here shown as 3 seconds, the sensor registers 63.2% of the total
change. In the next time constant, the sensor registers 63.2% of the remaining difference, and so on.
In each time constant, the sensor registers the same percent of the remaining difference.
2.3 Accuracy vs. Precision

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Precision and Accuracy

These figures contrast the term "precision" as shown above, with the term "accuracy" below. The
actual value (70) is shown as a solid line in both figures. The measured values are shown as dots.
Accuracy is a measure of how close the sensor comes to indicating the actual value of the measured
variable. Here we see that the measured values are scattered above, below and on the actual value.
Accuracy is always given in terms of inaccuracy such as +/- 2% or +1%, -3%. Precision is a measure
of the consistency of a sensor is in measuring the same value under the same operating conditions
over a period of time. The figure shows precise measured values, all the same distance below the
actual value. Precision is synonymous with repeatability and may be specified as a range or value
excursions or as a percent.

2.3.1 Accuracy

Most devices are rated on their accuracy, not their precision. The specifications usually state that the
device is accurate to plus or minus some value. Thus, with accuracy, the deviation is known, but not

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the direction of the deviation. For example, if a watch has an accuracy of ten minutes, it means an
accuracy of plus or minus ten minutes. The owner of this watch has an appointment for 2:30 p.m.,
but must arrive at 2:20 in order to be on time because of the rated accuracy of the watch. The owner
cannot know if the watch is showing the time ten minutes early or ten minutes late or somewhere in
between.

2.3.2 Precision

Precision is always within a given value and is always in the same direction. Thus, a precise
measurement may be wrong, but it is consistent. For example, another watch has a precision of plus
five minutes. The owner of this watch knows that she can arrive at her 2:30 p.m. appointment at
2:35 (on the watch) and still be on time.
2.4 Sensor sensitivity
The sensitivity of the sensor is a measurement of how small a change in the controlled variable it
can actually measure. The greater the sensitivity, the greater the sensor's reaction to an input
stimulus.
2.5 Dead band and dead time
Dead band is the "unresponsiveness" of the sensor. It describes how much change to the process is
required before the sensor actually responds to it or even detects it. The term sensitivity has
frequently been used to denote dead band, but the terms are not truly interchangeable. Sensitivity
refers to the reaction of the sensor. Dead time applies to the time it takes for the sensor to react.
2.6 Cost
In addition to the above factors, cost must also be considered. Not only the cost of the initial
purchase, but also the cost of maintaining the instrument. Very often more money is spent
maintaining an instrument than buying it initially.
2.7 Installation problems
Installation problems can include special problems in the environment such as humidity, vibration,
temperature, or dust. Installation problems can also be anything that causes a problem to the devices
installed, such as, installing the device in a difficult to reach location.

3. Signal Transmission
As we have mentioned before, the transmitter receives a non-standard signal and transmits a signal
within a standard range. A number of signals can be used to transmit the value of a variable. The
most common are pneumatic, electronic, and optical.
3.1 Signal types
In most exsisting plants pneumatic and electronic signals are predominant. Pneumatic signals are
normally 3-15 pounds per square inch (psi), and electronic signals are normally 4-20 milliamps
(mA). Optical signals are also used with fiber optic systems or when a direct line of sight exists.

Radio and hydraulic signals are also used, though they are not as common because of inherent
problems such as radio signal interference and leakage of hydraulic systems. However, radio signals
commonly are used when sensors and transmitters are great distances (on pipelines, for example)
from control centers.
3.2 Standard signal ranges
Signal ranges vary, but are important to the calculation of process functions. The concept of signal
ranges is synonymous with steady-state gain.

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3.3 Electronic transmitter adjusted range

Electronic Transmitter Adjusted Range

This figure shows how the range of the measured variable, on the left, relates to the range of the
transmitted signal, on the right. The measured variable is also the input and the transmitted signal is
the output. The measurement range is 100 to 500 degrees C. Thus, the span of measurement is 400
degrees C. The transmitter range is 4 to 20 milliAmps (mA), and the transmitter span is 16 mA. At
the lowest measurement (100 C), the transmitter output should be 4 mA. At fifty percent of the
measurement (300 C), the transmitter output should be 12 mA.

Using standard signal ranges, current output in a process can be readily calculated using the formula
for steady-state gain:

Steady-State Gain (K) = Change in Output / Change in Input that caused output change

The gain for this transmitter is .04 (for example, 16 divided by 400). Once the gain is known, the
temperature can be calculated from the output of the transmitter. For example, let's say the the
transmitter output is 8 mA. Remember, 4 mA is zero percent of span, so (subtracting 4 mA from 8
mA) the transmitter output change is 4 mA. Dividing 4 mA by the gain (.04) produces an answer of
100. The lowest temperature in the range is 100 degrees C. Adding 100 and 100 produces the actual
temperature 200 degrees C.

3.4 Pneumatic transmitter adjusted range

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 Pneumatic Transmitter Adjusted Range

The figure above shows an example of a pneumatic transmitter. The previous formulas can be used
to calculate the adjusted range of a pneumatic transmitter. Using the figure, the input range is 100-
200 psi (pounds per square inch) for a 3-15 psi output or transmitted signal range. The span is 100
psi for the input and 12 psi for the output.

The gain for this transmitter is .12. For the same transmitter, a reading of 12.72 psi transmitter
indicates a process pressure of 181 psi. Try the calculations, to see for yourself.

4. Transmission System Dynamics

A major difference between electronic and pneumatic transmission systems is the time required for
signal transmission. In an electronic system there are no moving parts, only the state of the signal
changes. This change occurs with virtually no time lost.

Signal Transmission for Electronic and Pneumatic Signals

As we stated previously, mechanical movement takes place whenever any pneumatic process signal
changes. When devices move mechanically, time is lost. In addition, pneumatic systems, because
they contain moving parts, are higher maintenance and subject to vibration, as well as rotational or
gravitational mounting problems. However, pneumatic systems are still in place in many plants
because they are safer than electrical systems in certain environments containing potentially

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explosive atmospheres.
4.1 Transmission lag

Pneumatic Transmission Signal Lag

The figure above shows the time lost with a pneumatic system. This figure represents a system using
3/16 ID tubing for the transmission line. As shown at the bottom of the graphic, in short distances,
the effect of time is small. Under 200 feet, a signal can change 15 psi to 3 psi (the span of a
pneumatic device) in roughly 0.4 seconds or less. This lost time represents the time needed to make
up the air volume difference in the line (either replacing or releasing the air volume). A lag of 0.4
seconds is not critical, but as the distance of the signal line increases, so does the lag. At 400 feet,
the lag time rises to about 1.3 seconds. At 1000 feet, the time is nearly 7 seconds -- in some
processes, a critical period of time. Note: This time measurement represents the time required for the
signal to travel from the sensing device to the controlling device. If there is a change and the
controller responds to it immediately, the amount must be doubled for the signal transmission to
reach a final control device. Pneumatic devices are best used for safety applications, simplicity, and
for valve actuators, always in applications where the line length is kept under 100 feet; otherwise
electronic signals should be used.
4.2 Transmitter gain
A transmitter's gain, that is the ratio of the output of the transmitter to the input signal, is constant
regardless of its output. In other words, an electronic transmitter's gain will remain constant whether
it's output is 0% of span (4 mA) or 100% of span (20 mA) or any other point between those
extremes.

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 Transmitter Gain for an Electronic Transmitter
4.3 Smart Transmitters
So far, the discussion has centered around electronic and pneumatic transmitters. The input and
output of both of these types of transmitters is an analog signal -- either a mA current or air
pressure, both of which are continuously variable. There is another kind of transmitter -- the "smart"
transmitter.

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 Smart Transmitter Components and Function

The figure above illustrates functions of a smart transmitter. They can convert analog signals to
digital signals (A/D), making communication swift and easy and can even send both analog
and digital signals at the same time as denoted by D/A.

A smart transmitter has a number of other capabilities as well. For instance, inputs can be varied, as
denoted by A/D. If a temperature transmitter is a smart transmitter, it will accept millivolt signals
fromthermocouples and resistance signals from resistance temperature devices (RTDs),
and thermistors.

Components of the smart transmitter are illustrated in the lower figure. The transmitter is built into a
housing about the size of a softball as seen on the lower left. The controller takes the output signal
from the transmitter and sends it back to the final control element. The communicator is shown on
the right.

The communicator is a hand-held interface device that allows digital "instructions" to be delivered
to the smart transmitters. Testing, configuring , and supply or acquiring data are all accomplished
through the communicator. The communicator has a display that lets the technician see the input or
output information. The communicator can be connected directly to the smart transmitter, or in
parallel any where on the loop.
4.4 Smart transmitter microprocessor-based features
Smart transmitters also have the following features:

 Configuration
 Re-ranging
 Characteristics
 Signal conditioning

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 Self-diagnosis

4.4.1 Configuration

Smart transmitters can be configured to meet the demands of the process in which they are
used. For example, the same transmitter can be set up to read almost any range or type of
thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor. Because of this, they reduce the need for a large number
of specific replacement devices.

4.4.2 Re-ranging

The range that the smart transmitter functions under can be easily changed from a remote
location, for example by the technician in a control room. The technician or the operator has
access to any smart device in the loop and does not even have to be at the transmitter to
perform the change. The operator does need to use a communicator, however. A
communicator allows the operator to interface with the smart transmitter. The communicator
could be a PC, a programmable logic controller (PLC), or a hand-held device. The type of
communicator depends on the manufacturer.

Re-ranging is simple with the smart transmitter. For instance, using a communicator, the
operator can change from a 100 ohm RTD to a type-J thermocouple just by reprogramming
the transmitter. The transmitter responds immediately and changes from measuring
resistance to measuring millivoltage.

There is a wide range of inputs that a smart transmitter will accept. For instance, with
pressure units, the operator can determine ahead of time whether to use inches of water,
inches of mercury, psi, bars, millibars, pascals, or kilopascals.

4.4.3 Characteristics

Another characteristic of a smart transmitter is its ability to act as a stand-alone transmitter.

In such a capacity, it sends the output signal to a distributed control system (DCS) or a PLC.

4.4.4 Signal conditioning

Smart transmitters can also perform signal conditioning, scanning the average signal and
eliminating any "noise" spikes. Signals can also be delayed (dampened) so that the response
does not fluctuate. This is especially useful with a rapidly changing process.

4.4.5 Self-diagnosis

Finally, a smart transmitter can diagnose itself and report on any problems in the process.
For example, it can report on a circuit board which is not working properly.

4.4.6 Summary of smart transmitter benefits

There are distinct advantages in using a smart transmitter. The most important include ease
of installation and communication, self-diagnosis, improved and digital reliability. Smart
transmitters are also less subject to effects of temperature and humidity than analog devices.
And although vibration can still affect them, the effects are far less than with analog devices.
Smart transmitters also provide increased accuracy. And because can replace several
different types of devices, using them allows for inventory reduction.

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