11/25/2016

LIGHT
DEPENDEN
T RESISTOR

Submitted by
MALAY KHARE
Class XII SCIENCE
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Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my teacher (Mrs. Alka Chopra)
as well as our principal (R K Tyagi) who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on the topic (Write the
topic name), which also helped me in doing
a lot of Research and i came to know about
so many new things I am really thankful to
them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my
parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time
frame.

Gopi Nath Sah

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Bonafide certificate
This is to certify that Gopi Nath Sah of class XII A
has successfully completed the investigatory project
on “TO STUDY VARIATION OF CURRENT
USING A LDR" under the guidance ofMrs.Alka
Chopra .This project is absolutely genuine and doesn't
not involve in any kind of plagiarism.This is in partial
fulfillment of Physics practical examination CBSE
2016.

Department of Physics
(MrsAlka Chopra)
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INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
i.
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
ii.
1. INTRODUCTION
2
2. AIM & APPARATUS
3
3. PHOTORESISTOR DISCOVERY
4-5
AND MECHANISM
4. PRINCIPLE & THEORY
5-6
5. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF
6-8
COMPONENTS
6. APPLICATIONS
9
7. PROCEDURE
10
8. OBSERVATIONS
11-14
9. RESULT & CONCLUSIONS
15
10. BIBLOGRAPHY
16
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LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTANCE

Project Report Physics
INTRODUCTION
In the society, sometimes street lights glow in day time due to any
reason. In mines area people face many difficulties due to absence
of light in the nights. In frontier and hilly areas, people face many
problems due to damaged street lights.
For solve above these problems, we create a device in which the
lights glow in night and in day time, they off automatically and
don't glow. Due to use of it, we can solve above problems and can
also save electricity and men's power.

AIM: To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit

containing a LDR, because of a variation:-
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’ the
LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of an incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used
to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR),Connecting Wires, Source of
different power rating(bulbs), Bulb Holder , Metrescale, Multi
Meter Battery.
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Photoresistor discovery
Photoresistors, or light dependent resistors have
been in use for very many years. Photoresistors
have been seen in early forms since the nineteenth
century when photoconductivity in selenium was
discovered by Smith in 1873. Since then many
variants of photoconductive devices have been
made.
Much useful work was conducted by T. W. Case in
1920 when he published a paper entitled
"Thalofide Cell - a new photo-electric cell".
Other substances including PbS, PbSe and PbTe
were studied in the 1930s and 1940s, and then in
1952, Rollin and Simmons developed their
photoconductors using silicon and germanium.

Photoresistor mechanism
A photoresistor or photocell is a component that uses a
photoconductor between two contacts. When this is exposed to
light a change in resistance is noted.Photoconductivity - the
mechanism behind the photoresistor - results from the
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generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by

the semiconductor material used for the photoconductor. While
the different types of material used for light dependent resistors
are semiconductors, when used as a photo-resistor, they are
used only as a resistive element and there are no PN junctions.
Accordingly the device is purely passive.
There are two types of photoconductor and hence
photoresistor:
 Intrinsic photoresistor: This type of photoresistor
uses a photoconductive material that involves excitation of
charge carriers from the valence bands to the conduction
band.
 Extrinsic photoresistor: This type of photoresistor uses
a photoconductive material that involves excitation of
charge carriers between an impurity and the valence band
or conduction band. It requires shallow impurity dopants
that are not ionized in the presence of light.

 Extriniscphotoresistors or photocells are generally

designed for long wavelength radiation - often infra-red, but
to avoid thermal generation they need to be operated at
low temperatures.

PRINCIPLE
This project is based on Light Dependent Resistance
(L.D.R.). Light Dependent Resistance [LDR] is a resistance, in
which opposing power of current depends on the presence of
quantity of light present, i.e. the resistance of LDR increases or
decreases, according to quantity of light which falls on it.
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If LDR places in darkness, the resistance of LDR increases and

when light falls on it, the resistance of LDR decreases and act
as a conductor. Any LDR in the presence of light and darkness
changes its resistance is depends on the different types of LDR.
ADVANTAGES

 Collection of parts of the circuit are easily available.

 Accuracy of this circuit is more than accuracy of other circuits.
 by using laser, it can be used for security purposes.
 It can be used to stop the wastage of electricity.
 The cost of circuit is low.
 This circuit saves the men's power.

USES

 It can be used in street lights.

 It can be used in mines areas.
 It can be used in hilly areas.
 By using laser, it can be used for safety purposes.
 It can be used in frontier areas.
 It can be used in houses.
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 It can be used in jail lights.

BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF COM PONENTS
1. TRANSISTOR:-When a thin slice of p-type is sandwiched
between two blocks of n-type, then n-p-n transistor is formed. It
consists of emitter, base, and collector. In the project, common emitter
n-p-n transistor ( BC-147 & SL-100) is used.
2. DIODE:- When a p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined a
diode is formed. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. In the project, IN-4007diode is used.
3. RELAY:- It helps to contact and discontact. In the project, we use
relay of 6 ohms.
4. CARBON RESISTOR:- A carbon resistor has generally four rings
or bands A,B,C and D of different colours corresponding to the value
of resistance. In project, we use carbon resistance of 220 kilo-ohms,
1.5 kilo-ohms and 820 ohms.
5. LDR:- LDR means light dependent resistance which is used to
complete the circuit.
6. TRANSFORMER:- Transformer is used to convert low alternating
voltage to high alternating voltage by decreasing the current and vice-
versa. We use a transformer of 6-0-6V for the circuit.

Photoresistor
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7. CAPACITOR:- Capacitor is used to

block DC. In the circuit, we use the
capacitor of 220mfd and 1000mfd.
8.BULB:- An electric bulb is
connected to the circuit when LDR
comes in the darkness.
9.PHOTORESISTOR-
A photoresistor (or light-
dependent resistor, LDR,
or photocell) is a light-controlled Type Passive
variable resistor. The resistance of
a photoresistor decreases with Working Photoconductivity
increasing incident light intensity; in principle
other words, it
exhibits photoconductivity. A Electronic symbol
photoresistor can be applied in
light-sensitive detector circuits, and
light- and dark-activated switching
circuits.
A photoresistor is made of a high The symbol for a
resistance semiconductor. In the photoresistor
dark, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light,
a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred
ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction
band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners)
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance
range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ
among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may
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react substantially differently to photons within certain

wavelength bands.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An
intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not
an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic
devices the only available electrons are in the valence band,
and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the
electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have
impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state
energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do
not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer
wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the
device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by
phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons
available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic
semiconductor.

Applications
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The internal components of a photoelectric control for a typical

American streetlight. The photoresistor is facing rightwards, and
controls whether current flows through the heater which opens
the main power contacts. At night, the heater cools, closing the
power contacts, energizing the street light.
Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium
sulphide cells can be found in many consumer items such as
camera light meters, clock radios, alarm devices (as the
detector for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar
street lamps and solar road studs, etc.
Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the
light is on. Ambient light falling on the photoresistor causes the
streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light
is only on during hours of darkness.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with
a small incandescent or neon lamp, or light-emitting diode to
control gain reduction. A common usage of this application can
be found in many guitar amplifiers that incorporate an
onboard tremolo effect, as the oscillating light patterns control
the level of signal running through the amp circuit.
The use of CdS and CdSe[3] photoresistors is severely
restricted in Europe due to the RoHS ban on cadmium.
Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light-
dependent resistors) are used for the mid-infrared spectral
region. Ge:Cuphotoconductors are among the best far-
infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

PROCEDURE
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1. Choose a specific position for the source and mount

it using a holder, make sure it is stable.
2. Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and
connect it to the holder as shown in the figure.
3. Connect the LDR, battery (6V) and the multimeter
in series.
4. Set the multimeter to ohm section and select
suitable range and measure the resistance with a
bulb on.
5. Similarly switch to current section and move to
micro ampere in the multimeter. This gives the
value of the current.
6. Repeat these steps with different power sources at
different distances and note down observations.

OBSERVATIONS :-
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources with
different power ratings.Voltage of the battery = 6 V.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE :-
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(a) Variation in current of LDR with lamps of different power,

keeping distance fixed.

Distance
between Source(Bulb)
S.No. LDR and Of power Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
the source imputs(W)
d(cm)
1. 10 15 1310 4.58
2. 10 30 770 7.00
3. 10 60 285 21.00
4. 10 100 195 30.00

1. 20 15 2800 2.14
2. 20 60 650 9.00
3. 20 100 435 13.79

1. 30 15 4300 1.4
2. 30 60 1000 6.00
3. 30 100 660 9.00

(b) Variation in current of LDR with distance :-

FOR 15 W POWER SOURCE

S.No. Distance between Resistance(Ω ) Current(µA)
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LDR and the

source d(cm)
1. 4 1010 5.94
2. 6 1350 4.44
3. 8 1490 4.03
4. 10 1610 3.73
5. 12 1740 3.45
6. 14 1880 3.19
7. 16 2300 2.61
8. 18 2540 2.36
9. 20 2800 2.14
10. 22 3000 2.00
11. 24 3240 1.85

FOR 60 W POWER SOURCE

Distance between
S.No. Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
LDR and the
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source d(cm)
1. 4 105 57
2. 6 180 33
3. 8 230 26
4. 10 280 21
5. 12 360 16
6. 14 440 13
7. 16 500 12
8. 18 575 10
9. 20 675 8.8
10. 22 740 8.1
11. 24 820 7.3

FOR 100 W POWER SOURCE

Distance between
S.No. LDR and the Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
source d(cm)
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1. 4 80 75
2. 6 130 46
3. 8 170 35
4. 10 205 29
5. 12 270 22
6. 14 300 20
7. 16 360 16
8. 18 410 14
9. 20 460 13
10. 22 525 11
11. 24 585 10

CONCLUSION & RESULT

1. The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of light

and hence there is an increase in the flow of current.
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2. There is an increase in the current as the distance from the

source decreases.
3. The intensity decreases as the distance from the source
increases
4. The error lies within the experimental limit.

IC TIMER
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip)
used in a variety of timer, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to
provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-
flop element. Derivatives provide two (556) or
four (558) timing circuits in one package. [2]

Introduced in 1972 by Signetics, the 555 is still

[3] [4]

in widespread use due to its low price, ease of use,

and stability. It is now made by many companies
in the original bipolar and in low-
power CMOS technologies. As of 2003, it was
estimated that 1 billion units were manufactured
every year. The 555 is the most popular
[5]

integrated circuit ever manufactured. [6][7]

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes

25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in
an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP-8). Variants available include
[12]

the 556 (a DIP-14 combining two complete 555s on one

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chip), and 558 / 559 (both a DIP-16 combining four reduced-

[13]

functionality timers on one chip). [2]

The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 °C to +70

°C, and the SE555 part number designated the military temperature
range, −55 °C to +125 °C. These were available in both high-
reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V
package) packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE555V,
NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T.
Low-power CMOS versions of the 555 are also available, such as
the Intersil ICM7555 and Texas Instruments LMC555, TLC555,
TLC551. CMOS timers use significantly less power than
[14][15] [16][17]

bipolar timers; CMOS timers also cause less supply noise than
bipolar version when the output switches states. The ICM7555
datasheet claims that it usually doesn't require a "control" capacitor
and in many cases does not require a decoupling capacitor across
the power supply pins. A decoupling capacitor reduces noise or
variation in power supply voltage that may affect other parts of a
circuit or affect the timer's threshold voltages.
Internal schematic[edit]
The internal block diagram and schematic of the 555 timer are highlighted
with the same color across all three drawings to clarify how the chip is
implemented: [2]

 Green: Between the positive supply voltage V and the ground GND is
CC

a voltage divider consisting of three identical resistors, which create two

reference voltages at ⁄ V and ⁄ V . The latter is connected to the
1
3 CC
2
3 CC

"Control Voltage" pin. All three resistors have the same resistance,
5 kΩ for bipolar timers, 100 kΩ (or higher resistance values) for CMOS
timers. It is a false myth that the 555 IC got its name from these three
5 kΩ resistors. [5]
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 Yellow: The comparator negative input is connected to the higher-

reference voltage divider of ⁄ V (and "Control" pin), and comparator
2
3 CC

positive input is connected to the "Threshold" pin.

 Red: The comparator positive input is connected to the lower-reference
voltage divider of ⁄ V , and comparator negative input is connected to
1
3 CC

the "Trigger" pin.

 Purple: An SR flip-flop stores the state of the timer and is controlled by
the two comparators. The "Reset" pin overrides the other two inputs, thus
the flip-flop (and therefore the entire timer) can be reset at any time.
 Pink: The output of the flip-flop is followed by an output stage with push-
pull (P.P.) output drivers that can load the "Output" pin with up to 200
mA (varies by device).
 Cyan: Also, the output of the flip-flop turns on a transistor that connects
the "Discharge" pin to ground
 RESISTOR

 A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic
circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels,
to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission
lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate
many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators.
Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used
to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp
dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.
 Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors
as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and
forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.
 The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance:
common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more
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than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance

falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.
Theory of operation

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing through pipes. When
a pipe (left) is clogged with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing
electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a
larger push (voltage) to drive the same flow (electric current).[1]

Ohm's law
Main article: Ohm's law
The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached
across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through
that resistor.
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation between
voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An
ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very
large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10− Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 10 Ω), and
3 3

megohm (1 MΩ = 10 Ω) are also in common usage.

6
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Series and parallel resistors

Main article: Series and parallel circuits
The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistance values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual resistors.

For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm

resistor and a 15 ohm resistor produces 1/1/10 + 1/5 + 1/15 ohms of
resistance, or 30/11 = 2.727 ohms.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series
connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one
or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved
in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally,
the Y-Δ transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such
problem

Nonideal properties
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these
specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise
amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue.
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The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision
applications.
The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly
dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not
normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a
particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to
[5]

its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals)
which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must
exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power
ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit,
attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the
resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to
account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when
current is run through it

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.

2. Connections may be faulty.
3. The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
4. Measurements should be taken accurately.
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Biblography

1. NCERT CLASS 12 PHYSICS TEXTBOOK

2. www.google.co.in
3. www.wikipedia.com
4. www.yahoo.co.in
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