LCD

Liquid-crystal display
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"LCD" redirects here. For other uses, see LCD (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with LED (light-emitting diode).
Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.

Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine
the shapes that will appear when the LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on
the surface are smooth.
Twisted nematic liquid crystal.
Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal ridges to line up
with the horizontal filter.
Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light.
Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD, this layer is
replaced or complemented with a light source.)
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically
modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid
crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly,
instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.[1]
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer
display) or fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or
hidden, such as preset words, digits, and seven-segment displays, as in a digital
clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made
from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can
either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer
arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black
lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character
negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color
as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them
their characteristic appearance.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer
monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor
signage. Small LCD screens are common in portable consumer devices such as digital
cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD
screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video
game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube
(CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a wider
range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in
sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very large television receivers. LCDs
are slowly being replaced by OLEDs, which can be easily made into different shapes,
and have a lower response time, wider color gamut, virtually infinite color
contrast and viewing angles, lower weight for a given display size and a slimmer
profile (because OLEDs use a single glass or plastic panel whereas LCDs use two
glass panels; the thickness of the panels increases with size but the increase is
more noticeable on LCDs) and potentially lower power consumption (as the display is
only "on" where needed and there is no backlight). OLEDs, however, are more
expensive for a given display size due to the very expensive electroluminescent
materials or phosphors that they use. Also due to the use of phosphors, OLEDs
suffer from screen burn-in and there is currently no way to recycle OLED displays,
whereas LCD panels can be recycled, although the technology required to recycle
LCDs is not yet widespread. Attempts to increase the lifespan of LCDs are quantum
dot displays, which offer similar performance as an OLED display, but the Quantum
dot sheet that gives these displays their characteristics can not yet be recycled.
Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they rarely suffer image burn-in when a
static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an
airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image
persistence.[2] The LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more
safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used
in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be. By 2008,
annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide,
and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes.
Contents
1 General characteristics
2 History
2.1 Background
2.2 1960s
2.3 1970s
2.4 1980s
2.5 1990s
2.6 2000s�2010s
3 Illumination
4 Connection to other circuits
5 Passive-matrix
6 Active-matrix technologies
6.1 Twisted nematic (TN)
6.2 In-plane switching (IPS)
6.2.1 Comparison to AMOLED
6.3 Super In-plane switching (S-IPS)
6.4 Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)
6.5 Vertical alignment (VA)
6.6 Blue phase mode
7 Quality control
8 "Zero-power" (bistable) displays
9 Specifications
10 Advantages and disadvantages
10.1 Advantages
10.2 Disadvantages
11 Chemicals used
11.1 Environmental impact
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
14.1 General information
General characteristics
An LCD screen used as a notification panel for travellers.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two
transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular),
the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each
other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing
through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before
an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is
determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic
(TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are
perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical
structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident
light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the
liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted
and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the
liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the
second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling
the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be
allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of
gray. Color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate
red, green, and blue pixels. The color filters are made with a photolithography
process. Red, green, blue and black resists are used. All resists contain a finely
ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The black
resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid that will separate
red, green and blue subpixels from one another. After the black resist has been
dried in an oven and exposed to UV light through a photomask, the unexposed areas
are washed away. Then the same process is repeated with the remaining resists. This
fills the holes in the black grid (or matrix) with their corresponding colored
resists. [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]
LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from device and
placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular. Note that
colors are inverted.
The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on
variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of
this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually
operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage
(the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright
state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and
smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary
images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed,
different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between
parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many
applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, in particular in smartphones such as
iPhones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain
ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a
long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades
the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current
or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the
response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of
the applied field).
A Casio Alarm Chrono digital watch with LCD.

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital
watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for
each segment.[17] In contrast, full alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are
usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically
connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which
makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of
matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for
example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on
the other side at the columns row-by-row. For details on the various matrix
addressing schemes see passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.
LCDs, along with OLED displays, are manufactured in cleanrooms using large sheets
of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays are manufactured at
the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother
glass. The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made,
just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing. The glass
sizes are as follows:
LCD-Glass-sizes-generation
Generation Length [mm] Height [mm] Year of introduction References
GEN 1 200-300 200-400 1990 [18][19]
GEN 2 370 470
GEN 3 550 650 1996-1998 [20]
GEN 3.5 600 720 1996 [19]
GEN 4 680 880 2000-2002 [19][20]
GEN 4.5 730 920 2000-2004 [21]
GEN 5 1100 1250-1300 2002-2004 [19][20]
GEN 6 1500 1800--1850 2002-2004 [19][20]
GEN 7 1870 2200 2006 [22][23]
GEN 7.5 1950 2250 [19]
GEN 8 2160 2460 [23]
GEN 8.5 2200 2500 [24]
GEN 10 2880 3130 2009 [25]
GEN 10.5 (also known as GEN 11) 2940 3370 2018[26] [27]
Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and as a
result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for the
same generation.[28] The thickness of the mother glass also increases with each
generation, so larger mother glass sizes are better suited for larger displays. An
LCD Module (LCM) is a ready-to-use LCD. Thus, a factory that makes LCD Modules does
not necessarily make LCDs, it may only assemble them into the modules.
History
The origins and the complex history of liquid-crystal displays from the perspective
of an insider during the early days were described by Joseph A. Castellano in
Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry.
[29] Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective
until 1991 has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History
Center.[30] A description of Swiss contributions to LCD developments, written by
Peter J. Wild, can be found at the Engineering and Technology History Wiki.[31]
Background
Main articles: Liquid crystal and Thin-film transistor
In 1888,[32] Friedrich Reinitzer (1858�1927) discovered the liquid crystalline
nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and
generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna
Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beitr�ge zur Kenntniss des
Cholesterins, Monatshefte f�r Chemie (Wien) 9, 421�441 (1888)).[33] In 1904, Otto
Lehmann published his work "Fl�ssige Kristalle" (Liquid Crystals). In 1911, Charles
Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin
layers.
In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals
and classified them in 3 types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927,
Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the
Fr�edericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the
Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the
technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In 1962, the first major English
language publication on the subject "Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid
Crystals", by Dr. George W. Gray.[34] In 1962, Richard Williams of RCA found that
liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized
an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid
crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an
electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains"
inside the liquid crystal.[35]
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by

Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and presented in 1960.[36]
[37] Building on their work with MOSFETs, Paul K. Weimer at RCA developed the thin-
film transistor (TFT) in 1962.[38] It was a type of MOSFET distinct from the
standard bulk MOSFET.[39]
In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK's
Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing
work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately
discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and
temperature properties for application in LCDs.
1960s
In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, then working at the RCA laboratories on the effect
discovered by Williams achieved the switching of colors by field-induced
realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal.
Practical problems with this new electro-optical effect made Heilmeier continue to
work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the achievement of the
first operational liquid-crystal display based on what he called the dynamic
scattering mode (DSM). Application of a voltage to a DSM display switches the
initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a milky turbid state. DSM
displays could be operated in transmissive and in reflective mode but they required
a considerable current to flow for their operation.[40][41][42][43] George H.
Heilmeier was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of Fame[44] and credited with
the invention of LCDs. Heilmeier's work is an IEEE Milestone.[45]
The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard

Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.[46] Lechner, F.J. Marlowe, E.O. Nester and J.
Tults demonstrated the concept in 1968 with an 18x2 matrix dynamic scattering mode
(DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.[47]
1970s
On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was
filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261)
with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research
Laboratories) listed as inventors.[40] Hoffmann-La Roche then licensed the
invention to the Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie which produced TN displays
for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international
markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first
digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James
Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State
University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States
on April 22, 1971.[48] In 1971, the company of Fergason, ILIXCO (now LXD
Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the
poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower
power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent
dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD.[49] In
1972, the first wristwatch with TN-LCD was launched on the market: The Gruen
Teletime which was a four digit display watch.
In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal

display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody's team at
Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[50] In 1973, Brody, J. A. Asars and G.
D. Dixon at Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-
transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD).[51][52] As of 2013, all modern high-
resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use TFT-based active
matrix displays.[53] Brody and Fang-Chen Luo demonstrated the first flat active-
matrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term
"active matrix" in 1975.[46]
In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of DSM LCD
displays for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these
required an internal light source for illumination.[54] Sharp Corporation followed
with DSM LCD displays for pocket-sized calculators in 1973[55] and then mass-
produced TN LCD displays for watches in 1975.[56] Other Japanese companies soon
took a leading position in the wristwatch market, like Seiko and its first 6-digit
TN-LCD quartz wristwatch. A particular type of color LCD was invented by Japan's
Sharp Corporation in the 1970s, receiving patents for their inventions, such as a
patent by Shinji Kato and Takaaki Miyazaki in May 1975,[57] and then improved by
Fumiaki Funada and Masataka Matsuura in December 1975.[58] TFT LCDs similar to the
prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team
at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada,[59] then
improved in 1977 by a Sharp team consisting of Kohei Kishi, Hirosaku Nonomura,
Keiichiro Shimizu, and Tomio Wada.[60] However, these TFT-LCDs were not yet ready
for use in products, as problems with the materials for the TFTs were not yet
solved.
1980s
In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland,
invented the super-twisted nematic (STN) structure for passive matrix-addressed
LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent
applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents
were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216,[61] U.S. Patent 4,634,229
and many more countries. In 1980, Brown Boveri started a 50/50 joint venture with
the Dutch Philips company, called Videlec.[62] Philips had the required know-how to
design and build integrated circuits for the control of large LCD panels. In
addition, Philips had better access to markets for electronic components and
intended to use LCDs in new product generations of hi-fi, video equipment and
telephones. In 1984, Philips researchers Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan
invented a video speed-drive scheme that solved the slow response time of STN-LCDs,
enabling high-resolution, high-quality, and smooth-moving video images on STN-LCDs.
[63] In 1985, Philips inventors Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan solved the
problem of driving high-resolution STN-LCDs using low-voltage (CMOS-based) drive
electronics, allowing the application of high-quality (high resolution and video
speed) LCD panels in battery-operated portable products like notebook computers and
mobile phones.[64] In 1985, Philips acquired 100% of the Videlec AG company based
in Switzerland. Afterwards, Philips moved the Videlec production lines to the
Netherlands. Years later, Philips successfully produced and marketed complete
modules (consisting of the LCD screen, microphone, speakers etc.) in high-volume
production for the booming mobile phone industry.
The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan. In
1980, Hattori Seiko's R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions.
[65] In 1982, Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a
wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television.[66][67] Sharp
Corporation introduced dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.[56] In 1984, Epson released the
ET-10, the first full-color, pocket LCD television.[68] The same year, Citizen
Watch,[69] introduced the Citizen Pocket TV,[65] a 2.7-inch color LCD TV,[69] with
the first commercial TFT LCD display.[65] In 1988, Sharp demonstrated a 14-inch,
active-matrix, full-color, full-motion TFT-LCD. This led to Japan launching an LCD
industry, which developed large-size LCDs, including TFT computer monitors and LCD
televisions.[70] Epson developed the 3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and
licensed it for use in projectors in 1988.[71] Epson's VPJ-700, released in January
1989, was the world's first compact, full-color LCD projector.[67]
1990s
In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as
alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and STN- LCDs). One approach
was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an
electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates.[72][73] To take full
advantage of the properties of this In Plane Switching (IPS) technology further
work was needed. After thorough analysis, details of advantageous embodiments are
filed in Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries.[74][75]
The Fraunhofer Institute ISE in Freiburg, where the inventors worked, assigns these
patents to Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, a supplier of LC substances. In 1992, shortly
thereafter, engineers at Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS
technology to interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid
undesirable stray fields in between pixels.[76][77] Hitachi also improved the
viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super
IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs
based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs
having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and
television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique
that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently
remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006.[78] In the late 1990s, the LCD
industry began shifting away from Japan, towards South Korea and Taiwan.[70]
2000s�2010s
In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of
cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.[79] In the fourth quarter of 2007, LCD
televisions surpassed CRT TVs in worldwide sales for the first time.[80] LCD TVs
were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in
2006, according to Displaybank.[81][82] In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2560 �
1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet
computer,[83] especially for Chinese character display. The 2010s also saw the wide
adoption of TGP (Tracking Gate-line in Pixel), which moves the driving circuitry
from the borders of the display to in between the pixels, allowing for narrow
bezels.[84] LCDs can be made transparent and flexible, but they cannot emit light
without a backlight like OLED and microLED, which are other technologies that can
also be made flexible and transparent.[85][86][87][88] Fujifilm makes special films
used for increasing the viewing angles of LCD panels.[89][90]
Illumination
Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a
visible image. In a transmissive type of LCD, the light source is provided at the
back of the glass stack and is called a backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost
always backlit.[91][92] Passive LCDs may be backlit but many use a reflector at the
back of the glass stack to utilize ambient light. Transflective LCDs combine the
features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display.
The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are:
18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch (106 cm) LCD TV

CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed at
opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger displays.
A diffuser then spreads the light out evenly across the whole display. For many
years, this technology had been used almost exclusively. Unlike white LEDs, most
CCFLs have an even-white spectral output resulting in better color gamut for the
display. However, CCFLs are less energy efficient than LEDs and require a somewhat
costly inverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V)
to �1000 V needed to light a CCFL.[93] The thickness of the inverter transformers
also limits how thin the display can be made.
EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more edges of
the screen. A light diffuser is then used to spread the light evenly across the
whole display. As of 2012, this design is the most popular one in desktop computer
monitors. It allows for the thinnest displays. Some LCD monitors using this
technology have a feature called dynamic contrast, invented by Philips researchers
Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan[94] Using PWM (pulse-width
modulation, a technology where the intensity of the LEDs are kept constant, but the
brightness adjustment is achieved by varying a time interval of flashing these
constant light intensity light sources[95]), the backlight is dimmed to the
brightest color that appears on the screen while simultaneously boosting the LCD
contrast to the maximum achievable levels, allowing the 1000:1 contrast ratio of
the LCD panel to be scaled to different light intensities, resulting in the
"30000:1" contrast ratios seen in the advertising on some of these monitors. Since
computer screen images usually have full white somewhere in the image, the
backlight will usually be at full intensity, making this "feature" mostly a
marketing gimmick for computer monitors, however for TV screens it drastically
increases the perceived contrast ratio and dynamic range, improves the viewing
angle dependency and drastically reducing the power consumption of conventional LCD
televisions.
WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a
diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this implementation will usually have the
ability to dim the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively
increasing the contrast ratio of the display. As of 2012, this design gets most of
its use from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.
RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array
of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color gamut
than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This
implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012,
LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of 2016 the cost of this
category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions obtained same price
levels as the former 28" (71 cm) CRT based categories.
Monochrome LEDs: These are used for the small passive monochrome LCDs typically
used in clocks, watches and small appliances.
Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the
traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the
video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic
backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus
Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the
display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television or called Full-
area Local Area Dimming (FLAD)[96][97][94]
Mini-LED: Backlighting with Mini-LEDs can support over a thousand of Full-area

Local Area Dimming (FLAD) zones. This allows deeper blacks and higher contract
ratio.[98] (Not to be confused with MicroLED.)
The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such
as prismatic structure to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and
reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly
absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers
Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman),[99] generally achieved using so called
DBEF films manufactured and supplied by 3M.[100] These polarizers consist of a
large stack of uniaxial oriented birefringent films that reflect the former
absorbed polarization mode of the light.[101] Such reflective polarizers using
uniaxial oriented polymerized liquid crystals (birefringent polymers or
birefringent glue) are invented in 1989 by Philips researchers Dirk Broer, Adrianus
de Vaan and Joerg Brambring.[102] The combination of such reflective polarizers,
and LED dynamic backlight control[94] make today's LCD televisions far more
efficient than the CRT-based sets, leading to a worldwide energy saving of 600 TWh
(2017), equal to 10% of the electricity consumption of all households worldwide or
equal to 2 times the energy production of all solar cells in the world.[103][104]
Due to the LCD layer that generates the desired high resolution images at flashing
video speeds using very low power electronics in combination with LED based
backlight technologies, LCD technology has become the dominant display technology
for products such as televisions, desktop monitors, notebooks, tablets, smartphones
and mobile phones. Although competing OLED technology is pushed to the market, such
OLED displays do not feature the HDR capabilities like LCDs in combination with 2D
LED backlight technologies have, reason why the annual market of such LCD-based
products is still growing faster (in volume) than OLED-based products while the
efficiency of LCDs (and products like portable computers, mobile phones and
televisions) may even be further improved by preventing the light to be absorbed in
the colour filters of the LCD.[105][106][107] Although until today such reflective
colour filter solutions are not yet implemented by the LCD industry and did not
made it further than laboratory prototypes, such reflective colour filter solutions
still likely will be implemented by the LCD industry to increase the performance
gap with OLED technologies).
Connection to other circuits
A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown
next to a centimeter-scale ruler. (The conductive and insulating layers in the
black stripe are very small, click on the image for more detail.)
A standard television receiver screen, an LCD panel today in 2017, has over six
million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in
the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the
whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen
on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection
on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of
wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going
horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically. That's three
for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of
5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel
that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires
per inch along the horizontal edge. The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that
are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. These
same principles apply also for smart phone screens that are so much smaller than TV
screens.[108][109][110] LCD panels typically use thinly-coated metallic conductive
pathways on a glass substrate to form the cell circuitry to operate the panel. It
is usually not possible to use soldering techniques to directly connect the panel
to a separate copper-etched circuit board. Instead, interfacing is accomplished
using anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric connectors.
Passive-matrix
Prototype of a passive-matrix STN-LCD with 540�270 pixels, Brown Boveri Research,

Switzerland, 1984
Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops
(although a few used plasma displays[111][112]) and the original Nintendo Game
Boy[113] until the mid-1990s, when color active-matrix became standard on all
laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was
one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome).
Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding
than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular,
these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be
displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or
readability in direct sunlight is needed.
A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix

display (bottom). A passive-matrix display can be identified when the blank
background is more grey in appearance than the crisper active-matrix display, fog
appears on all edges of the screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the
screen.
Displays having a passive-matrix structure are employing super-twisted nematic STN
(invented by Brown Boveri Research Center, Baden, Switzerland, in 1983; scientific
details were published[114]) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology (the latter of
which addresses a color-shifting problem with the former), and color-STN (CSTN) in
which color is added by using an internal filter. STN LCDs have been optimized for
passive-matrix addressing. They exhibit a sharper threshold of the contrast-vs-
voltage characteristic than the original TN LCDs. This is important, because pixels
are subjected to partial voltages even while not selected. Crosstalk between
activated and non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS
voltage of non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage,[115] while activated
pixels are subjected to voltages above threshold (the voltages according to the
"Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme)[116] Driving such STN displays according to the Alt &
Pleshko drive scheme require very high line addressing voltages. Welzen and de Vaan
invented an alternative drive scheme (a non "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme) requiring
much lower voltages, such that the STN display could be driven using low voltage
CMOS technologies.[64] STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating
pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity
during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and
column circuits. This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed, because
the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady
electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows)
increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Slow response times and poor
contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and
driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also
invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and
enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display.[63] Citizen, amongst
others, licensed these patents and successfully introduced several STN based LCD
pocket televisions on the market[117]
File:Lcd-engineerguy.ogv
How an LCD works using an active-matrix structure
Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for
picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN
type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extreme high
resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages.[118] Since a
pixel however may be either in an on-state or in an off state at the moment new
information needs to be written to that particular pixel, the addressing method of
these bistable displays is rather complex, reason why these displays did not made
it to the market. That changed when in the 2010 "zero-power" (bistable) LCDs became
available. Potentially, passive-matrix addressing can be used with devices if their
write/erase characteristics are suitable, which was the case for ebooks showing
still pictures only. After a page is written to the display, the display may be cut
from the power while that information remains readable. This has the advantage that
such ebooks may be operated long time on just a small battery only. High-resolution
color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an
active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the
electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated
transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is
selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages
corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines.
The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row
lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed
displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the
same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.
Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only
requires small amounts of power to mantain an image. [119]
Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD). This
kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB backlight.
The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the naked eye. The
LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight. For example, to make a segment appear
red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment
appear magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it
continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF when the
backlight becomes green. To make a segment appear black, the segment is, simply,
always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3 images (one Red, one
Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order. Due to persistence of vision,
the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image. An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel
with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5
milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of
16 milliseconds.[120][121][122][123] FSC LCDs contain a Chip-On-Glass driver IC can
also be used with a capacitive touchscreen.
Active-matrix technologies
A Casio 1.8 in color TFT LCD, used in the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-P93A digital compact
cameras
Main articles: Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display and Active-matrix
liquid-crystal display
See also: List of LCD matrices
Twisted nematic (TN)
See also: Twisted nematic field effect
Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at varying
degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid
crystal cell, polarized light passes through the 90-degrees twisted LC layer. In
proportion to the voltage applied, the liquid crystals untwist changing the
polarization and blocking the light's path. By properly adjusting the level of the
voltage almost any gray level or transmission can be achieved. FSTN (Film Super-
twisted nematic) can improve image sharpness. [124]
In-plane switching (IPS)

In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane
parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied
through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid
crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although
fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors
for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film
transistor (TFT) display. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2009, the
additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring
a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less
desirable for notebook computers. Currently Panasonic is using an enhanced version
eIPS for their large size LCD-TV products as well as Hewlett-Packard in its WebOS
based TouchPad tablet and their Chromebook 11.
Comparison to AMOLED
In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the
brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and
double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the
NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only
50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.[125]
When it comes to contrast ratio, AMOLED display still performs best due to its
underlying technology, where the black levels are displayed as pitch black and not
as dark gray. On August 24, 2011, Nokia announced the Nokia 701 and also made the
claim of the world's brightest display at 1000 nits. The screen also had Nokia's
Clearblack layer, improving the contrast ratio and bringing it closer to that of
the AMOLED screens.
Super In-plane switching (S-IPS)

Super-IPS was later introduced after in-plane switching with even better response
times and color reproduction.[126]
This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron-shape is used to widen the

viewing-cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift)
Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)
Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003,[127] advanced fringe field
switching is similar to IPS or S-IPS offering superior performance and color gamut
with high luminosity. AFFS was developed by Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd, Korea
(formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD Task Force).[128] AFFS-applied notebook
applications minimize color distortion while maintaining a wider viewing angle for
a professional display. Color shift and deviation caused by light leakage is
corrected by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances white/gray
reproduction. In 2004, Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd licensed AFFS to Japan's Hitachi
Displays. Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high-end panels. In 2006, HYDIS
licensed AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices Corporation. Shortly thereafter, Hydis
introduced a high-transmittance evolution of the AFFS display, called HFFS (FFS+).
Hydis introduced AFFS+ with improved outdoor readability in 2007. AFFS panels are
mostly utilized in the cockpits of latest commercial aircraft displays. However, it
is no longer produced as of February 2015.[129][130][131]
Vertical alignment (VA)

Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals
naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the
liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display
between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a
tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display
depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper-
black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image
quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.[132]
Blue phase mode

Main article: Blue phase mode LCD
Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they
are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very
short switching times (�1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can
possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.[citation
needed]
Quality control
Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels
which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike
integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually
still usable. Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels
vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors
sold in Korea.[133] As of 2005, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO
13406-2 standard.[134] Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11
dead pixels in their policies.[135]
Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To
regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the
ISO 13406-2 standard,[136] which was made obsolete in 2008 with the release of ISO
9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not
every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite
often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects
than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8
defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the
wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0%
yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4
defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an
exchange for a new one.[according to whom?] Some manufacturers, notably in South
Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located,
now have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process
which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels.[original research?] Many
manufacturers would replace a product even with one defective pixel. Even where
such guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important. A
display with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective
pixels are near each other. LCD panels also have defects known as clouding (or less
commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is
most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.[137] As of 2010, most
premium branded computer LCD panel manufacturers specify their products as having
zero defects.
"Zero-power" (bistable) displays

See also: Ferroelectric liquid crystal display
The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can
retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable
orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only required to change the image.
ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and
color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses
polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated
the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to
change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.[138] In 2004
researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power
bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.[139] Several bistable
technologies, like the 360� BTN and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on the
bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring, with
alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable materials.
Other bistable technologies, e.g., BiNem technology, are based mainly on the
surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.
Specifications
Resolution The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and rows
of pixels (e.g., 1024�768). Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a
green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few features of LCD performance
that remained uniform among different designs. However, there are newer designs
that share sub-pixels among pixels and add Quattron which attempt to efficiently
increase the perceived resolution of a display without increasing the actual
resolution, to mixed results.
Spatial performance: For a computer monitor or some other display that is being
viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot
pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing industry. Display
density varies per application, with televisions generally having a low density for
long-distance viewing and portable devices having a high density for close-range
detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be important depending on the display and
its usage, the limitations of certain display technologies mean the display only
displays accurately at certain angles.
Temporal performance: the temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it can display
changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per second the display
draws the data it is being given. LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, so
LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no matter how low the refresh rate.
[140] But a lower refresh rate can mean visual artefacts like ghosting or smearing,
especially with fast moving images. Individual pixel response time is also
important, as all displays have some inherent latency in displaying an image which
can be large enough to create visual artifacts if the displayed image changes
rapidly.
Color performance: There are multiple terms to describe different aspects of color
performance of a display. Color gamut is the range of colors that can be displayed,
and color depth, which is the fineness with which the color range is divided. Color
gamut is a relatively straight forward feature, but it is rarely discussed in
marketing materials except at the professional level. Having a color range that
exceeds the content being shown on the screen has no benefits, so displays are only
made to perform within or below the range of a certain specification.[141] There
are additional aspects to LCD color and color management, such as white point and
gamma correction, which describe what color white is and how the other colors are
displayed relative to white.
Brightness and contrast ratio: Contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightness of a
full-on pixel to a full-off pixel. The LCD itself is only a light valve and does
not generate light; the light comes from a backlight that is either fluorescent or
a set of LEDs. Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the LCD,
which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD and the brightness of
the backlight. In general, brighter is better[citation needed], but there is always
a trade-off between brightness and power consumption.
Advantages and disadvantages
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Some of these issues relate to full-screen displays, others to small displays as on
watches, etc. Many of the comparisons are with CRT displays.
Further information: Comparison of CRT, LCD, Plasma, and OLED

Advantages
Very compact, thin and light, especially in comparison with bulky, heavy CRT
displays.
Low power consumption. Depending on the set display brightness and content being
displayed, the older CCFT backlit models typically use less than half of the power
a CRT monitor of the same size viewing area would use, and the modern LED backlit
models typically use 10�25% of the power a CRT monitor would use.[142]
Little heat emitted during operation, due to low power consumption.
No geometric distortion.
The possible ability to have little or no flicker depending on backlight
technology.
Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their state between
refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or faster, regardless of the input
refresh rate).
Sharp image with no bleeding or smearing when operated at native resolution.
Emits almost no undesirable electromagnetic radiation (in the extremely low
frequency range), unlike a CRT monitor.[143][144]
Can be made in almost any size or shape.
No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used together to
create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total resolution of the
display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.[145]
Can be made in large sizes of over 80-inch (2 m) diagonal.
Masking effect: the LCD grid can mask the effects of spatial and grayscale
quantization, creating the illusion of higher image quality.[146]
Unaffected by magnetic fields, including the Earth's.
As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data from a
DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog. Some LCD panels have
native fiber optic inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI.[147]
Many LCD monitors are powered by a 12 V power supply, and if built into a computer
can be powered by its 12 V power supply.
Can be made with very narrow frame borders, allowing multiple LCD screens to be
arrayed side-by-side to make up what looks like one big screen.
Disadvantages
Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color, saturation,
contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the intended
viewing angle.
Uneven backlighting in some monitors (more common in IPS-types and older TNs),
causing brightness distortion, especially toward the edges ("backlight bleed").
Black levels may not be as dark as required because individual liquid crystals
cannot completely block all of the backlight from passing through.
Display motion blur on moving objects caused by slow response times (>8 ms) and
eye-tracking on a sample-and-hold display, unless a strobing backlight is used.
However, this strobing can cause eye strain, as is noted next:
As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation
(PWM) to dim the display,[148] which makes the screen flicker more acutely (this
does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is
because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT's phosphor
sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the
display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people.[149][150]
Unfortunately, many of these people don't know that their eye-strain is being
caused by the invisible strobe effect of PWM.[151] This problem is worse on many
LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.
Only one native resolution. Displaying any other resolution either requires a video
scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or running the display at native
resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping, causing the image either not to fill the screen
(letterboxed display), or to run off the lower or right edges of the screen.
Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are only able to
display 262144 (218) colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million (224) colors
and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and have slower
response time.
Input lag, because the LCD's A/D converter waits for each frame to be completely
been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many LCD monitors do post-
processing before displaying the image in an attempt to compensate for poor color
fidelity, which adds an additional lag. Further, a video scaler must be used when
displaying non-native resolutions, which adds yet more time lag. Scaling and post
processing are usually done in a single chip on modern monitors, but each function
that chip performs adds some delay. Some displays have a video gaming mode which
disables all or most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.[152]
Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a period of use. A
stuck pixel will glow with color even on an all-black screen, while a dead one will
always remain black.
Subject to burn-in effect, although the cause differs from CRT and the effect may
not be permanent, a static image can cause burn-in in a matter of hours in badly
designed displays.
In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad thermal
management, in which part of the screen has overheated and looks discolored
compared to the rest of the screen.
Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environments.
In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may cease to function without the use of
supplemental heating.
Loss of contrast in high temperature environments.
Chemicals used
Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid crystals. The
molecules used have to be anisotropic, and to exhibit mutual attraction.
Polarizable rod-shaped molecules (biphenyls, terphenyls, etc.) are common. A common
form is a pair of aromatic benzene rings, with a nonpolar moiety (pentyl, heptyl,
octyl, or alkyl oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other.
Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group, ethylene, CH=N,
CH=NO, N=N, N=NO, or ester group. In practice, eutectic mixtures of several
chemicals are used, to achieve wider temperature operating range (-10..+60 �C for
low-end and -20..+100 �C for high-performance displays). For example, the E7
mixture is composed of three biphenyls and one terphenyl: 39 wt.% of 4'-
pentyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 24..35 �C), 36 wt.% of 4'-
heptyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 30..43 �C), 16 wt.% of 4'-
octoxy[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 54..80 �C), and 9 wt.% of 4-
pentyl[1,1':4',1-terphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 131..240 �C).[153]
Environmental impact
See also: Electronic waste
The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) as an etching fluid
during the production of the thin-film components. NF3 is a potent greenhouse gas,
and its relatively long half-life may make it a potentially harmful contributor to
global warming. A report in Geophysical Research Letters suggested that its effects
were theoretically much greater than better-known sources of greenhouse gasses like
carbon dioxide. As NF3 was not in widespread use at the time, it was not made part
of the Kyoto Protocols and has been deemed "the missing greenhouse gas".[154]
Critics of the report point out that it assumes that all of the NF3 produced would
be released to the atmosphere. In reality, the vast majority of NF3 is broken down
during the cleaning processes; two earlier studies found that only 2 to 3% of the
gas escapes destruction after its use.[155] Furthermore, the report failed to
compare NF3's effects with what it replaced, perfluorocarbon, another powerful
greenhouse gas, of which anywhere from 30 to 70% escapes to the atmosphere in
typical use.[155]
See also
Transflective liquid-crystal display
Flat-panel display
FPD-Link
LCD classification
LCD projector
LCD television
List of liquid-crystal-display manufacturers
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liquid crystal displays.
LCD Monitor Teardown � engineerguyvideo on YouTube
History and Physical Properties of Liquid Crystals by Nobelprize.org
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(IUPAC Recommendations 2001)
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University
Liquid Crystal Physics tutorial from the Liquid Crystals Group, University of
Colorado
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How TFT-LCDs are made, by AUO
How LTPS (Low Temperature Poly Silicon) LCDs are made, by AUO
General information
Development of Liquid Crystal Displays: Interview with George Gray, Hull
University, 2004 � Video by the Vega Science Trust.
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book Crystals that Flow: Classic papers from the history of liquid crystals.
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liquid crystals, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-954940-5.
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and Subjective Analysis". X-bit labs. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008.
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LCD Phase and Clock Adjustment, Techmind offers a free test screen to get a better
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Interfacing Alphanumeric LCD to Microcontroller
Animations explaining operation of LCD panels
Liquid crystals are made mainly by Merck Group (DE), Chisso (JP), DIC Corporation
(JP), PriChem (CN) and Yancheng Smiling (CN).
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Liquid-crystal display

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.

An LCD screen used as a notification panel for travellers.

A Casio Alarm Chrono digital watch with LCD.

The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by

The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard

In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal

The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are:

18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch (106 cm) LCD TV

Mini-LED: Backlighting with Mini-LEDs can support over a thousand of Full-area

Connection to other circuits

Prototype of a passive-matrix STN-LCD with 540�270 pixels, Brown Boveri Research,

A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix

In-plane switching (IPS)

Super In-plane switching (S-IPS)

This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron-shape is used to widen the

Vertical alignment (VA)

Blue phase mode

"Zero-power" (bistable) displays

Further information: Comparison of CRT, LCD, Plasma, and OLED

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